MODERN ECONOMIC WARFARE
(LAW AND THE NAVAL PARTICIPANT)
Neill H. Alford, Jr. (Author)
The thoughts and opinions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily of the U.S.
SUBJECT INDEX
A
Agency for International Development (AID), 100 Agl'arian Reform Act of Cuba ( 1960), 110, 119 Aid and assistance programs,
as economic weapon, 240 domestic law limitations, 241
folkway expectation of aid-neofeudalism, 243-244 in response to Soviet Bloc actions, 101
manipulations of, 234, 238, 240 reciprocal control, 242
trade pattern exploitation, 244 Alien Property Custodian, 410 Alliance for Progress, 234
Ambit of arrest, effect on choice of economic weapon, 24-26, 220-221, 230 Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, Treaty of (1958), 196 Angary, right of, 194-195, 210
Anglo-French action }n Suez ( 1956). See Suez Armed action,
as protection for American persons and property, 170 interim stabilization function, 178-179, 184
B
Balance of power, effects on neutrality, 328 Balto, Tlze, case of, 393
Bases of power for participants and nonparticipants to Gonflict, 329 Battle Act, 92, 96-97
Behar, The, case of, 393
Behaviorism, as lawmaking perspective, 75-81 Belligerency, recognition of, 156, 157, 163-164, 206 Bermuda, The, case of, 385, 391
Bernisse, The, case of, 400
Biological warfare and the law, 266-269 developm~ntal restraints, 268
Geneva Gas Protocol ( 1925), 267 Hague Convention (No. IV) , 267 international legal restraints, 268
Biological attack, threat of, Cuban Quarantine analysis applied to, 284-291 Blockade,
aircraft, use of, 358 breach of,
consequences, 347, 402-403 knowledge requirement, 403 civil war examples, 340
"close" blockade distinguished, 27 4, 340-343 continuity of operations requirement, 352
force, size and composition of, 357
impartiality requirement in enforcement, 359--361 jure belli, 156
legal features of, 344-362 modern usage, 344
naval-administrative (NAVAD), 317, 361-362 neutral port access must remain open, 361 notification, 349
to nonparticipants, 347-351 pacific. See Pacific Blockade selective, 274
submarine, use of, 358 surface vessel, use of, 358
Bloc Trader, see Soviet Economic Bloc Bogota, Economic Agreement of, 196
Boycott of Cuban imports by United States, 133
Burke, Professor William T., comments on intervention, 171-172 Butler, General, law of contraband, 48-50, 56
Cargo,
character of, 408-415 condemnation of, 393, 402
c
Castro, Fidel, economic strategy employed by, 109--110
Character of ship, use of in determining "enemy" ships, 405-408
Chilean Revolution of 1891, port closures, United States response to, 165--166 Claims by nonparticipant in conflict to intervene or withdraw, 333-335 Coercion,
as criterion for measuring intervention, 172-173 initiating, 290
permissiblejimpermissible categories, 289--290 self defense contentions, 290
Community characterizations and reactions to economic warfare, 66, 71-73 Consulative Group, 97-98
authorization certificates, 98-99
Coordinating Committee (COCOM), 98
Import Certificate-Delivery Verification System, 98
Consul Corjitzon, The, case of, 395
Continuous voyage doctrine, see Ultimate Destination Contraband,
absolute;conditional distinction, 364-370 carriage, consequences of, 402-403
Declaration of London principles, 364-368 food, 377-380
lists, 374, 381-382 expansion of, 374-377 na vicerting, 370-37 4 pacific, 27 4
potential use of goods as basi.s, 365 seizure, 367
Contracts, use of in determining ownership of goods, C.I.F. contracts, 411
Corfu Channel, case of, 60, 144-145, 149
Criminal acts in international law, community characterization of, 73 Cuba,
charges against United States of economic aggression, 126 expropriations of American property, 121, 125, 129
seizure of United States oil property, 125
Soviet Union Mikoyan Trade Agreement ( 1960), 124-125 Sugar Market,
dependency on United States at time of revolution, 109 status of (1959-1960), 112
Sugar Quota, See also Sugar Act of 1948 effect on market price, 130
elimination of, 133
reduction of, effect on United States production, 130-133 United States boycott of imports, 134
United States economic action against, 134 United States embargo on exports to, 128 United States policy towards (1960), 128 Cuban Qua ran tine ( 1962) , analysis of, 269-291
Clearcert system, 282-283
"intervention" as consideration in planning, 272 legality of, 270-271, 277-278
naval interference, acceptance of, 276 negotiation processes, 279
pacific contraband, 274
Secretary General of United Nations, role of, 281 Soviet Union confrontation, 279
State Department, position of, 285 United States justification, 277-278
Custom, effect on economic warfare at sea, 320
D
Decision maker, locating policy level of, 69 Declaration of London (1909), See London
De facto blockade by insurgents, recognition of, 163 Defense Production Act Stockpile, see Stockpiling Detention ~nd delay of vessels, tactical use of, 399, 401 Dominican Republic, sugar quota of, 131-132
Draft Proclamation, elements to be considered, 291-296 Coordination, 292-293
defensive and offensive policies, 300
effective end sought, identification and means, 298 guidance, 293-296
persuasion, 295-296
self defense and collective self defense claims applied to, 301-304 status quo, preservation of, 314
Dumping of commodities into market, 252 limitations on, 254
E
Economic isolation, disappearance of, 33 Economic Sortie,
advantages summarized, 42-43
as interruption to insurgent supply line, 216 as primary policy device, 33-34, 42-43 as secondary policy device, 43-47 compared with military strategy, 19
determining decision makers and values of enemy, 220 disclosure of plans to adversary, 127
entrapment element, 19-20 intelligence barrier, 219 power elite as target, 20-22
psychical disequilibrium, creation of, 220 selection of wealth weapon, 220
Economic Warfare Acts, legality of, 65 Economic Warfare at sea, 320-340
custom, influence on, 320
interaction between participants and nonparticipants, 326 international conventions, effect of, 320
multilateral economic transactions, effect of, 320 neutrality influenced by, 324
use as secondary policy device, 320 Economic warfare, common techniques of,
cartel manipulations, 15 counterfeiting, 14 gold withdrawal, 14 tariffs, 15
trade barriers, 15
Economic warfare, distinguished from military warfare, 11
Economic warfare, Free World defensive policies as basis of, 91-92 Economic warfare, present United States posture, 102-103
Economic warfare professionals, lack of, 114-115 Economic warfare, traditional descriptions, 12-14 Economy of force, 22
El-Salvador-United States Agreement, see Executive Agreement Enemy-Friend character, test for, 409-415
civil domicile, 410
commercial domicile, 410
Enemy-neutral character, determination of, 405 Espionage as intervention, 147-148
Evidence necessary for seizure of goods, 393-398 Exclusive Agreement, United States-Cuba (1947), 118
Executive Agreement, United States-El Salvador, defense articles, 235-236 Export Control Act of 1949, 92-95, 113, 257
Export Policy, Advisory Committee on, 94-95 Expropriations,
alien property, 192
by de jure government, 191, 203, 207 civilian population, supplying of, 204 emergency requisitions, 193
international legal standard, 193 labor and services, 199
property rights of state citizens, 207
seizure of vessels, 195
types and methods of, generally, 192 volition, effect of, 209
Falk, The, case of, 400 Food as contraband, 377-380
World War I and II, 378-379
F
Foreign aid, barriers to Presidential increases, 236
Foreign aid programs, see aid and assistance programs Foreign Assistance Act ( 1961), 187, 234, 236-238, 241
Foreign Economic Assistance, President's Task Force on, 101
Foreign warships, departure during insurgency, 140 Foreign warship-s, port entry control, 140
Free goods list, 365-367
Frontera, Mexico, port closure, 160-162
G
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 116--119, 196, 254-256, 313
Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick of Armies in the Field, 201
Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (1949), 198, 380
Geneva Gas Protocol, 267
Gertrude, The, case of, 386
H
Hague Convention (no. IV), 197-198, 202, 267 Hague Convention (no. V), 200
Hague Convention (no. VIII), 365 Hague Convention (no. IX), 201
H akan, The, case of, 403 Hart, Sir Liddell, 19
Hart, Stephen, The, case of, 386, 394
Hitler, Adolph, defensive economic warfare by and Hfeed back" effect, 25-26
I
Identification of participants and nonparticipants in conflict situations, 329 Independence doctrine in insurgency, 147
Institutional changes, as economic warfare requirement, 30 Insurgents, treatment of as prisoners of war vice traitors, 205 Intelligence barrier, economic warfare planning affected by, 219-220 Intelligence source during reconnaissance, 139
Interaction between conflict participants and nonparticipants, effect on neu-trality; 326-333
Inter-American Juridical Committee, 153
422
International Commission of Jurists, 150 In tern a tioanl Development Act ( 1961), 100 International lists, 98
International Sugar Agreement, 108 International Sugar Council, 108
International Tin Agreement ( 1960), 219, 244-245, 253 International Wheat Agreement (1962), 219, 257-258 Intervention,
armed reconnaissance as, 143 background, 145-149
coercive impact test, 172-173
definition of, and confusion as to meaning, 146-149, 171 espionage as, 147-148
international security organizations, influence of, 176 potentially impermissible interferences, zone of, 174 United Nations Charter, 149
Western Hemisphere meaning, 186 World Court influence on, 174
Involvement, degree of by nonparticipants to conflict, 331
J
Joint economic warfare, complications involved, 35-38
Joint economic warfare, use of regional international organizations, 35 jus angariae, 194-195
K
Kellogg-Briand Pact, The (1928), 336-337 Kim, The, case of, 375, 391, 394, 396
L
Landing Force, duty to protect nationals, 188 League, Covenant of the, 335-336
Lebanon, United States action in, 179, 181-184
Lee, General Robert E., economic pressures affecting surrender, 23-24 Legal institutions, definition of, 37
Liska, George, 242
London, Declaration of (1909), 320, 323-324, 335, 347, 349, 351, 364, 380, 389, 407 absolute;conditional contraband distinction, 364-370
contraband principles of, 36*-368
contraband principles applied in World War I and II, 368-370 London Naval Treaty ( 1930) , 322
Louisiana, The, case of, 390
M
Mahan, Alfred T., Admiral, 78
Mallison, William Thomas Jr., theories of self defense and collective self defense applied to Cuban Quarantine, 284, 285, 297
Maritime Enemy Property Control, 404-415 Character of the ship, 405-408
:Marshall, George C., General of the Army, mission to China ( 1946) , 222-230 McDougal, Myres S. and Feliciano, Florentino P., concepts of permissible and
impermissible coercion, 285, 289, 290, 298, 305, 307, 312, 328, 339 Medical and hospital supplies as contraband, 380
JJ im, The, case of, 400
}firamachi, The, case of, 412
Monolithic State Trader, characteristics of, 85. See also Soviet Economic Bloc
Mutual Defense Assistance Control Act of 1951, see Battle Act
NA V AD blockade, see Blockade Naval Officer,
as economic warfare agent, adjudicative function, 64
administrative instructions, 63-65 creation of policy, 60-61
N
laws as policy considerations, 61-62, 64 legality of actions, importance of, 65-67, 69 legislative function, 50-59, 60, 64
persuasion problems, 68
Naval reconnaissance, surface vessel usage, advantages of, 139-140, 148 Navicerting forms during World War II, 371
Navicert system, 370-37 4 semicompulsory, 372 voluntary, 372
Neofeudalism, as emerging psychology, 34-35
Neofundamentalism, as lawmaking perspective, 75, 78-81 Neutrality,
balance of power effect, 328
claims of participation and nonparticipation, 333-340 economic warfare at sea, 324-340
interaction patterns between participants and nonparticipants, 326-328 limited withdrawal, 325
nuclear weapons influence, 328
status quo assertion by nonparticipants, 325 United States policy, 325-326
withdrawal from United States or Soviet Union protection, 327
N oordam, The, case of, 392-393
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 405-406
0
Objectives in conflict, inclusive and exclusive, 331 Organization of American States,
Charter, 151-154
Article 15, 111, 115, 151, 255 Article 16, 111, 115, 151, 255 Article 17, 152-154, 158 Article 18, 152-154, 158 Article 19, 152-154, 158
Organization of American States, Inter-American Peace Committee, United States Memorandum to (1960), 126
Pacific blockade, 272-279
Pacific, The, case of, 392-397
p
Paleofundamentalism, as lawmaking perspective, 75-78
Pan-American Maritime Neutrality Convention (1928), 322, 335 Paris, Declaration of (1856), 320, 322, 335, 351, 405
Paris, Pact of (1928), See Kellogg-Briand Pact
Patrai, The, case of, 401
Permissible nonparticipation, claims of, 334-335 Peruvian Coup d'Etat, 230-233
Peterhofj, The, case of, 385-388 Population, manipulation of, 45 Port closure,
belligerent rights, 157
by de jture government, 158-160 by insurgents, 160, 162
United States policy, 157-158
Port control, foreign warship proble1ns, 141 Power elite, term explained, 37
Prize Cases, The, 156
Proclamation in Economic Warfare, 264-266, 29i-296 Protracted harassment, 16, 36
Psychical disequilibrium, 16, 20, 22, 220 Punta Del Este Conference (1962), 133
R
Rationing systems, 396-398
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1947), 118 Reconnaissance, obtaining advance consent for, 14 Red China, as Cuban Sugar market, 127
Requisition,
after seizure, 210, 399 conditions for, 203, 399 in emergency, 193-194 on high seas, 210
Rio Pact (1947), 288, 338, 363
s
Secretary General of United Nations, role in Cuban Quarantine, 281 Security Council of United Nations,
debate of Cuban charges against United States (1960), 126 determinations of legality in conflict, 70
setting zone of "potentially impermissible" interference, 174-176 Seizure of contraband, see Contraband
Self defense claims of participation or nonparticipation in conflict, 333
Sidi Ifni, The, case of, 403
Sino-United States Surplus Property Agreement (1946), 224-230 Soviet Economic Bloc,
conquest by economic accretion, 89 defensive capabilities, 87
economic warfare techniques, 88-92
government structure of trade control, 86-88 Ministry of Foreign Trade, 86-87
offensive capabilities, 88 state committees, 87
use of military and technical assistance, 90 Soviet Union,
destruction of Cuban Sugar markets, 12 sugar purchases from Cuba, 124
Spanish Civil War, port closures during, 158, 166-167
Spri.ngbok, The, case of, 385-388, 393-395, 403 Stockpiling, 246-256
Defense Production Act Stockpile, 246-247 dumping from a stockpile, 252-256
National stockpile, 246, 250 Pipeline/CCC stockpile, 250
Strategic Critical Materials Stockpile Act (1946), 246, 250 Supplementary Stockpile, 250
withdrawals from stockpiles, 24 7-248 Strategy in economic warfare,
community characterizations, 71-75
dealing with law and lawmaking perspectives, 75-81 disclosure of plans to adversary, 27-30
economy of force, 22
General Butler's use of law, 48 historical use of law, 47, 56
international considerations, 40-42 legal institutions as targets, 26-27 overcoming intelligence barrier, 219-220 persuading decision makers, 39, 68, 75 power elite as targets, 20
resistance to change, 31-33 time element, 27-30
utilization of legal institutions, 37
Suez, Anglo-French action in (1956), 34, 179-181 Sugar Act of 1948, 103-106, see also Cuba
Cuban market privileges, 103-105 Cuban quota,
elimination of, 133-134 reallocation of, 122, 132 reduction of, 110, 123-125 vacating effect, 122 extension of, 123, 133
Sustentive range, criterion in selecting economic warfare technique, 24-26
T
Tariffs and Trade, General Agreement on, 116-119, 196 Trade Agreements Extension Act (1951), 120
Trade, exploitation of, 246, see also Stockpiling
Trading with the Enemy Act ( 1917) , 93-96, 113, 119, 257
u
Ultimate destination-continuous voyage doctrine, 363, 383-404, background,384-388
burden of proof, 389-391
evidence as to enemy destination, 393-398 "intention" as to enemy destination, 391-393 modern application, 388-389
United l{ingdom, seizure of goods, 399 United Nations, see also Security Council
chief purpose, 175
world community structure, 327 United Nations Charter
Article 1, 116, 175, 306
Article 2, 149, 176, 255-256, 286, 304, 306--313, 337-338, 362 Article 25, 337
Article 35, 306 Article 41, 35 Article 42, 345 Article 43, 337 Article 51,
interpretation of, 304-313 member-nonmember relations,
anticipatory self defense, 307 armed attacks, 115, 307
inherent self defense right, 307 permissible coercion, 310 preemptive strike right, 307 Article 52, 286, 288
USS Scorpion, entry into Venezuela, 142-143
v
Verzcruz blockade (1912), United States response to, 159 Voorhees, Captain, intervention actions in Uruguay, 149
w
Warrant system, 373Wealth distribution, effect on economic isolation, 33 Wealth overload as economic weapon, 27
Wealth weapon, selection of, 220-221
sustentive range-ambit of arrest as criteria in selection, 221-233
Western Hemisphere policies to protect property during civil disturbance, 185 Whitehall, Treaty of, 364-365
Wilderness, Battle of (1864), 27-29 Wilkes, Captain and The Trent, 50-59
Wilmington, North Carolina, Federal blockade of, 340-343 World Court, opinions of, 174
World Health Organization, 268, 313-314
