Digital Libraries: Challenges, Opportunities & Implications *
M. Koteswara Rao
Abstract
With growing emphasis on technology, libraries have undergone major structural change in terms of their collection, organization and services. The traditional concept of a library is becoming obsolete with the emergence of new ‘digital’ means of storing and disseminating information over the Internet. Compared to the physical organization of documents, there is more emphasis on technology – computer hardware, software, storage formats, network connectivity, etc. Digital libraries do have many advantages over printed material, but require skilled manpower and hardware for creating, organizing and delivering the information to the users on their desktops. Creation of a digital library involves selection of material, scanning the documents, and web-hosting or providing access to the information on the Intranet/Internet. Creation of digital libraries is similar to traditional collection-building activity, but the medium of information and method of acquisition & storage are different. Copyright, licensing and other legal issues become very crucial while creating digital libraries. The new digital initiatives can have far reaching consequences on traditional libraries, which may have to adopt new strategies for collection-building, physical organization, delivery of information and manpower deployment.
Keywords: Digital libraries, Digitization, Electronic sources, Digital Initiatives, E-publishing
1. Introduction
Historically, libraries have witnessed more technological change in the past decade than during the entire history since Gutenberg’s printing press. Developments in computer hardware, software and the Internet have revolutionized libraries into “knowledge centers”. More so, the profession itself has undergone a major ‘shift’ where the traditional library designations are being replaced by web-masters, e-resource managers, knowledge managers and the like. While some libraries are moving ahead by transforming their print collection into digital collection, some are developing their own digital collection while trying to preserve their traditional identity (hybrid), yet others are merely waiting to see what happens before proceeding further.
“Over the years many libraries have acquired a large collection of electronic resources. This increase has been very high during the past eight years because of the Internet. Being more accessible, the electronic resources have a special place in a library’s collection, complementing the traditional material. The university libraries, in particular, have led the way to the development of the so-called ‘virtual libraries’. Most current libraries are based on a working model conceptualized in the 19th century and are simply not structured to handle the current volume of books, journals, multimedia and other electronic resources“ (Dillon, 1999).
The new information technology is being used for a variety of functions. From the familiar web OPAC to online journal delivery system, people are accustomed to obtain information from their desktops. It is amazing to note that many of these technologies were not developed for libraries sake, but somehow these products are extensively used in all kinds of libraries. For instance, Xerox in 1950, Fax in 1983, CD-ROM in 1985 and the Internet in 1993, are some of the greatest inventions, which transformed the libraries. The impact of these technologies on libraries is so much that the people’s perception of a library has changed altogether. Much of this is attributed to the technological developments in the fields of computer and communication technologies. However, It is heartening to know that even nine years after the first ‘Library without walls’ developed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1994, the term “digital library” remains an abstract and amorphous thing to many library professionals in India.
The present paper traces the history of electronic resources and explains various concepts of digital libraries in terms of traditional library system. It describes various technical aspects of creating and managing digital libraries; and discusses the relevant legal and social issues and problems. Finally, it attempts to visualize the implications of ‘digital revolution’ on the traditional library system and the need for restructuring the library activities like acquisitions, information services, manpower deployment and physical infrastructure.
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2. Defining Digital Libraries
Digital libraries are defined in many ways, encompassing both analog material made available digitally and newly created digital content. Already there is misconception about digital libraries in the minds of some people, particularly traditional library professionals. Because of lack of understanding of the fundamental concepts, different things mean to different people. Some still feel that on-line catalogues or bibliographies are ‘digital’ resources. It should be noted that these electronic resources are only ‘pointers’ to documents and do not constitute the ‘content’ or full-text of documents. With so much of ongoing research in the area of digital libraries, problems of terminology, standards, and quality are bound to crop up.
Under these circumstances, we need to have a clear idea of the concepts, technologies, standards, formats, protocols, policies and legal/ethical issues, before venturing into digital libraries. “The future of digital library history will be determined not by the technology involved, but by the ideology. If the prevailing definition of a digital library is an organized searchable collection in digital format, then the future of digital libraries will reflect a move toward integrated service functions and collection development and management similar to the traditional library organization”. Some of the definitions given by the computer ‘gurus’ are given below.
“Digital library is a library that maintains all, or a substantial part, of its collection in computer-processible form as an alternative, supplement, or complement to the conventional printed and microfilm materials that currently dominate library collections” (William Saffady)
“A digital library is a machine readable representation of materials which might be found in a university library together with organizing information intended to help users find specific information. A digital library service is an assemblage of digital computing, storage, and communicating machinery together with the software needed to reprise, emulate, and extend the services provided by conventional libraries based on paper and other material means of collecting, storing, cataloging, finding, and disseminating information.” (Edward A. Fox)
“Digital libraries are organizations that provide the resources, including the specialized staff, to select, structure, offer intellectual access to, distribute, preserve the integrity of, and ensure the persistence over time of collections of digital works so that they are readily and economically available for use by a defined community or set of communities” (Don Waters).
"Digital libraries are organized collections of digital information. They combine the structuring and gathering of information, which libraries and archives have always done, with the digital representation that computers have made possible.” (Lesk)
“A collection of digital objects, including text, video, and audio, along with methods for access and retrieval, and for selection, organization and maintenance of the collection.” (Ian Witten et al.)
“Digital library is a generic name for federated structures that provide humans both intellectual and physical access to the huge and growing world-wide networks of information encoded in multimedia formats" (Dan Atkins).
"Digital library which looks and feels like a paper-based library but where items have been stored in digital form and stored for access in a networked environment which can be used by users in remote locations" (Stella Keenan).
2.1 Evolution of Digital Libraries
Digital libraries have a long history, going back to over 75 years. In 1928, IBM produced a punched card that became the predominant means of inputting information into computers for several decades. The idea of processing information in a machine-readable format had become very important. Eugene Power of University Microfilms Inc began using microfilm technology in the 1930s. The idea of making documents available in compact form provided libraries with a means to store vast quantities of information in a limited space. With the increase in the use of computers, alternate means of storing information became possible.
terms such as "electronic library", "virtual library", "library without walls", "bionic library" etc. have come into existence.
The first remotely accessible database came online in the late 1960s. These early databases mainly dealt with legal, scientific, and government information and were intended to increase the exchange of cutting-edge scientific information in America’s race for technological dominance. Mediated online searching appeared in the 1970s, with the first commercial on-line service named ‘DIALOG’ in 1972. Even during this time, online information was restricted to text-based documents only.
F.W. Lancaster in 1978 in his futuristic book “Towards Paperless Information Systems” envisaged that revolutions in electronics would pave the way for a ‘paper-less society’. Although, in 1999 the author himself had accepted that it is a distant dream or a difficult goal to achieve. Computer and communication technologies coupled with the Internet have made it possible to realize this dream today in the form of digital libraries.
In 1980, the first portable computer and end-user software were introduced. CD-ROM and locally loaded databases appeared in the mid-1980s. At this stage, it was possible to store and retrieve images also. Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, in 1990 wrote a paper proposing a global, cross-platform, distributed, interactive, hypertext information interchange system. At the same time, he proposed Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a language that describes the structure of documents, which can be used in such a global information system.
In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) introduced the ‘Mosaic’ browser to libraries. In the United Kingdom, the Library of Congress announced plans to create a National Digital Library, and the National Science Foundation (NSF) along with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) announced plans to support the Digital Libraries Initiative, a research effort involving several universities collaborating in studying digital libraries.
Later, many other projects were developed including the University of California at Berkeley Digital Library Project; the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Digital Library Research Project; and the University of Michigan Digital Library Project.
2.2. Advantages of digital libraries
Electronic resources offer ever-increasing abilities to store, both print and non-print material such as sound, images and video. They provide faster access, and libraries do not have to deal with the problems of misplaced, missing, or mutilated books. Electronic resources are able to meet the users’ increasing demands and expectations for quicker and easier access to information, where physical space is of little concern.
Digital libraries make use of latest information technologies to store vast amounts of information in electronic form. Digital library equipment requires a fraction of the amount of space given to the storage of print collections. Furthermore, the physical location of digital libraries is not an issue because digital library collections will be accessible through information technologies making it possible for library staff and end users to access digital libraries from their offices, homes, or anywhere else at their convenience.
Another driving force behind digital libraries is the cost of scholarly information. The volume of scholarly information is increasing faster than the ability of researchers to manage it, publishers to print it, libraries to collect it, and scholars to read it. This flood of scholarly materials, particularly in journal format, has placed great burdens on library budgets. Increases in library budgets have not been sufficient to maintain serials collections, leading to massive serial title cancellations in most academic libraries.
Preservationists are also interested in building digital collections to provide more ready access to their materials and to cut down the number of incidences where research materials have to be physically handled. As we build new digital libraries we add functionality, i.e capabilities that have never been present in traditional libraries. At the same time, we must remember that we are losing important properties of the traditional library. There is also a feeling that it is easier to safeguard digital collections from loss, damage, or catastrophe.
3. Creating Digital Libraries
There are 5 stages in building digital libraries. These are 1) Selection of documents and Scanning, 2) Storage & management, 3) Search & Access, 4) Distribution, and 5) Rights management. In digital library parlance, duplicating the printed publications into digital format is called ‘retrospective conversion’, while creating new digital information is called ‘e-publishing’.
Before we venture into digital libraries, we must remember that a lot of information is already available in digital form over the Internet. Once the necessary permissions to tap this information is obtained, it can be used as remote (off-site) information, or may be downloaded to local hardware (on-site). Many think that every printed book in the library can be digitized, unaware of the copyright law that does not permit books to be converted just like that into digital format. We tend to forget the copyright statement on the back of the title page of every book - “No part of this book may be produced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher”. Further, some publishers, particularly Learned Societies & Associations offer their publications in digital form. Sometimes, selection of material becomes the most crucial part of digital library rather than creation. In other words, documents (in all forms) published by the concerned university or its library may be digitized to start with, and later acquire other sources.
The documents in a digital library are called ‘items’ or ‘objects’, which contain data or the ‘content’ that is stored in the form of ‘repositories’. The description of the stored data/information is known as ‘metadata’ or ‘properties’ of that data. Almost every type of information can be represented in digital form including text, pictures, music, computer programs, databases, models, video and a combination of any of the above. Every digital ‘object’ needs to be identified by a name, a time stamp and the owner, so as to establish the legal ownership.
In the past, a major problem with digital library implementation was the need to deal with a variety of computer hardware owned by different users. Today, the web has defined the standard interface, which everyone must support. Some models of digital library involve scanning of printed material into images, particularly for retrospective conversion; others involve ASCII-based text. In principle, much of the image-scanned material can be converted through Optical Character Recognition (OCR), but there are still other materials, which are provided as images and which may be hard to search. With the advent of new technologies and standards, the various conversion problems that we face today may disappear in future.
3.1 Digital library standards
Since information comes in different forms such as plain text, images/pictures, sound recordings and video films, we need to select the most appropriate file format to create and store. Unlike traditional libraries, which use simple standards of classification, cataloguing and Indexing such as UDC, DC, LC, AACR2 and ISBD; standards for creating digital libraries are more technical and complex. Hence, it becomes essential to adopt various international standards for the creation, storage and delivery of digital information.
There are various file formats to store each type of data. For example Postscript & PDF for page description; TIFF, JPEG, GIF, PNG and PCD for images; HTML, XML & SGML for structured documents; AU, MP3, WAV, RAM & MIDI for audio, etc, The Digital Library Federation (DLF) recommends standard naming conventions for the digital objects. Dublin Core Metadata is one such method that describes a resource or contains data about data. Various National and International agencies are involved in developing standards for representing electronic documents, such as Digital Library Federation, W3 Consortium, etc.
Dublin Core Metadata Element Set is a standardized, descriptive metadata method to locate networked resources. Metadata formats such as Dublin Core, MARC, IAFA, TEI, and GILS, describe an object in a standardized format that by using the Warwick framework interchange can be brought together and appended to the online document.
Metadata elements can be contained in a record separate from the document (The metadata is linked to the document via HTML or other web coding formats) or embedded directly into the document. To summarize, Dublin Core is a flexible, simplified metadata method that is extensible, interoperable and can be converted into other metadata formats.
The second step in creating a digital library is the actual scanning (or converting the text/image into digital format) of printed documents, which is most laborious and time-consuming. The scanning is usually done on a good, high-speed, high-resolution scanner. Nowadays, special scanners are available in the market, which can scan both sides of the page in a book. Further, the commercial digital library software available in the market can perform all the jobs right from scanning to hosting the content on the web. It is worth preparing a ‘work-flow’ to enter all the relevant information describing the document for the purpose of Indexing.
In a traditional library, users generally visit the library to read the books & journals or borrow them through circulation, and return them after use. They have to be registered library members to avail the facility. In other words, users have to be physically present in a traditional library (building). In contrast, digital libraries can be accessed by anyone, from anywhere and at anytime of the day. The organizational structure of the digital library thus looks more centralized in some areas and more distributed in others.
Information in digital form is normally hosted locally (Intranet) or globally (Internet), depending upon the need. In most cases it is hosted on a web server so that users can access the content over the Internet. Since digital library is web-based, it should support all the existing web browsers like Internet Explorer, Netscape, Opera, etc. Along with the problems of security, digital libraries are also vulnerable to many ‘technical hardships’ like hardware failures and ‘crashes’. Careful planning in locating the computer servers, mirroring the data and a good disaster recovery plan can avoid such catastrophes.
It is believed that access to any digital library on the Internet is expected to create great demand on the storage space and network bandwidth. Hence, it is recommended that these digital databases be hosted on powerful, high-end computers (image servers) with plenty of memory and hard disk capacities in excess of 1 Terabytes, and connected to a high-speed optical fiber network. If necessary, separate computers may be used to store different digital objects and then interlinked, so that the load on the main web server is minimal.
As said earlier, digital libraries do not confine to any geographical location. They are accessible over the Internet from anywhere and by anyone on all the 365 days of the year. However, all digital libraries may not be ‘free for all’, or some information is available only for a ‘fee’. Depending upon the need, these restrictions can be set into the system by their producers. If access to some information is going to be only on payment, the necessary licensing, security and accounting procedures have to be built-in to the system. E-commerce software such as ‘Verisign’, are available for this purpose.
3.2 Digital Library Software
There are quite a few digital library software packages available in the market. One has to select the right kind of package depending on their specific need. There are a few library automation software packages, which have a separate ‘digital library’ module. A list of some digital library software is available at: www.nelinet.net/necol/ressoftware.htm. To have a ‘feel’ of what a digital library is, one download and try out any of the two free (Open Source-GNU) software packages given below:
Greenstone: Greenstone is a suite of software for building and distributing digital library collections. It provides a new way of organizing information and publishing it on the Internet or on CD-ROM. Greenstone is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info NGO. It is open-source, multilingual software, issued under the terms of the GNU General Public License. (http://www.greenstone.org)
DSpace: DSpace is a groundbreaking digital library system to capture, store, index, preserve, and redistribute the intellectual output of a university’s research faculty in digital formats. Developed jointly by MIT Libraries and Hewlett-Packard (HP), DSpace is now freely available to research institutions world wide as an open source system that can be customized and extended. (http://www.dspace.org)
4. Archiving & Preservation issues
repair and restore them using old methods. There is no guarantee that the life of these documents can be extended forever.
Millions of such valuable documents stored in libraries all over the world, continue to decay and crumble over time. There is a need to save these resources in a cost-effective manner and preserve them for future generations. Libraries face challenges to preserve not only the paper-based records of humankind, but also to save vital information in a variety of formats for future generations. A wealth of information is now available in digital form, and vital data on magnetic tapes is degrading daily, key electronic information about the early days of the Internet and the Web has already been lost.
A lot of debate is generated on digital libraries on issue like access, storage, copyright and preservation. Many major libraries and archives have established formal preservation programs for traditional materials, which include regular allocation of resources for preservation, preventive measures to arrest deterioration of materials, remedial measures to restore the usability of selected materials, into overall program planning.
There are a few methods in practice to preserve digital information. One method is to take full backups, maintain off-site duplicates and ‘mirroring’. Another way is to adopt data migration strategy where the data is moved (migrated) to another ‘improved’ media. Sometimes data created using old software (or earlier version) cannot be read because of ‘software obsolescence’. In such cases we need to preserve the old software and/or recreate the original data if necessary. In addition to all the above, access to the digital information should be fully ‘secured’ to avoid loss of data due to vandalism or ‘hacking’.
Because of the importance of preserving digital information, there are various National and International organizations and Task forces, which are working relentlessly on developing techniques and tools to do this. The National Library Australia maintains a comprehensive website named PADI (Preserving Access to Digital Media) with excellent resources on digital libraries and their preservation. Visit: http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/index.html
Since information comes in different forms such as plain text, images/pictures, sound recordings and video films, we need to select the most appropriate file format to create and store them. There are various file formats for each type of data. For example Postscript & PDF for page description; TIFF, JPEG, GIF, PNG and PCD for images; HTML, XML & SGML for structured documents; AU, MP3, WAV, RAM & MIDI for audio, etc, The Digital Library Federation (DLF) recommends standard naming conventions for the digital objects.
5. Copyright and IPR Issues in Digital Libraries
Basic copyright law for printed works is almost 300 years old. It is unlikely that we need some adjustments to be made to the copyright model to make digital libraries and hypertext publishing environments as commercially viable industries. Because of the ease of reproduction (copying) of digital works, the protection of the intellectual rights of the creators of the original information becomes more important. It is apparent that the issues of copyright and intellectual property rights are still in the formative stage with regard to electronic access. At present, it would be wise for the digital library to view solutions in the same light that they view the issues in a traditional library setting.
Among the important issues to libraries are digital fair use, registration, digital preservation, moral rights, data base protection, and liability for plagiarism, libel, and incorrect information. Various rules such as “fair use'' have meant that for traditional printed books most use in research libraries is permitted without additional charge beyond the original purchase. This situation is likely to get much more confusing, partly because digital information may not have the permissions associated with paper, partly because multi-media information already has different rules from printed paper, and partly because there are many revisions in the law under consideration.
The purchase of digital information often involves a license rather than a traditional purchase, even though it looks like a purchase to the library. Licenses may limit the number of people allowed to access the material, and they may require accounting of how many accesses are made, or even payments proportional to either the number of users or the time taken.
complex copyright difficulties, and little of it is actually old enough to be in the public domain (Pamela Samuelson, 1995).
The most difficult issue to date has been the definition of the library’s user community. Many libraries serve their user community consisting of corporate bodies, alumni and even members of the general public. Publishers are particularly anxious that remote use be limited to students, staff and faculty of an academic institution. Traditionally, libraries have not been responsible for the content of the books issued to their patrons. In a digital world, it is not clear whether this will change. There are at least three issues: plagiarism, libel and tort liability. The plagiarism risk is that a change in the law may make people other than the original publisher responsible for copyright violations.
Publishers are asking for this as a way of dealing with the amount of material that may be placed in digital form by individuals with minimal financial resources, who are not worth suing. They hope to place a responsibility on intermediaries to at least block plagiarized material, even if not to pay damages. The libel risk is the possibility that distributors of information will be sued as well as originators. Tort liability is the risk that someone who gets “bad information” from a publication will try to sue the library as well as the author or publisher.
As of today, there are not many National or International copyright laws pertaining to the use of digital documents. However, the recent American “Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)” of 1998, extends copyright protection to electronic materials and upholds the Fair Use Clause and the First Sale Doctrine. The recent “Information Technology Act –2000” will be a guiding step to us in India. Once, more and more people start using the digital material for fair (or unfair) use, any lapses or ‘leaks’ in the system would come to the surface and the law will take its course.
6. Implications on Traditional Libraries:
In future, libraries may not have any physical buildings with shelves, reading rooms and chairs. Instead, a physical complement of routers, and a personnel complement of people knowing where to find things, could make a virtual library a reality. Hence, digital library needs less attention paid to its physical space and considerably more to its technology i. e hard disk drives, computers, network routers, bandwidth, tape storage units etc. The implications of digital technology are that physical acquisition; storage and circulation become less important, while training, searching, software, networking and licensing become more important.
When information is delivered beyond the library building, the number of people physically present in the library will no longer be a measure of the library's performance. Don King (2002) suggests that searching takes perhaps 1/5 of the time engineers spend with information, with 4/5 of the time spent on reading. Thus, the improved bibliographic search capabilities of computer catalogs have often increased the time users spend in libraries, since they find more things to read. However we now see people reading more and more material on their desktop. As this spreads, the need for libraries to provide places to read would decline.
Human resources are likely to be more important as the range of skills needed in libraries increase. Photocopiers and borrower cards are likely to become less important, along with circulation, because more and more people will use the library ‘remotely’. Preservation will have a whole new set of problems, but will it will still be there. Computing infrastructure will similarly face new problems but larger and complex ones.
Libraries today are seeing increased traffic and circulation as a result of online catalogs, which puts burden on buildings and staff. Libraries may have to train their users in searching & retrieving information from numerous databases. In general, the level of computer literacy has increased greatly, and people can be found with the necessary skills, but not at the salaries traditionally paid for library assistants. As libraries become part of a vaguely defined ‘information industry' they will find themselves competing for staff with telecommunications companies, broadcasters, and publishers, plus new industries such as Website development & maintenance. Hence, they will have to pay higher salaries at a time when library budgets continue to decline.
There are a few organizations, which are involved in developing standards and assist libraries in creating digital libraries. The Digital Library Federation (DLF) is a consortium of libraries and related agencies that are pioneering in the use of electronic-information technologies to extend their collections and services. Through its members, the DLF provides leadership for libraries broadly by a) Identifying standards and "best practices" for digital collections and network access; b) Coordinating leading-edge research-and-development in libraries' use of electronic-information technology; c) Helping start projects and services that libraries need but cannot develop individually. Visit: http://www.diglib.org/standards.htm
7. Conclusion
A digital library serves the same purpose, functions and goals as a traditional library. The ‘digital’ part of the term indicates merely that the material is stored digitally and accessed over the Internet. Librarians and administrators of digital libraries should remember that their job is to serve as ‘intermediaries’ of knowledge who can form a bridge between the authors and users of the ‘information society’.
Although, the traditional library functions of selection, processing, storage, and dissemination of information may still be valid in a digital world, the selection will be increasingly on-demand, the storage may be off-site, and the supply may be in electronic format over the world-wide-web. These new techniques are more complex to the user, and require extra training, assistance, and help. A change in the attitude of the university administrators towards their libraries can only help promote the digital library initiatives. Libraries need to be evaluated on their success in answering reference questions, user training, and not on the basis of the size of the collection.
According to Janis Bandelin (2000), “The future of the library will consist of books, bytes and buildings. Whether information comes in the form of print on paper, microfiche, streaming video, or digital text, the library will continue to collect mankind's intellectual, scientific and artistic achievements, and the record of humanity's triumphs and failures. Nevertheless, one can still find the old familiar card catalog in many government libraries, long after it has disappeared from academic and public libraries, a discovery that evokes mixed feelings, for librarians, of nostalgia and shock”.
Although, the goal of libraries will remain the same, the medium and the manner in which information is delivered to the users, will change in future. The focus will be on decentralized resources in digital form and on-line delivery of information to the users’ desktop. If digital libraries have to survive, they need to consider the economic, legal and social aspects of information, its creators and users. Librarians, who have great deal of experience in managing book collections, are understandably concerned with imposing the same kind of order or discipline on digital collections.
8. References
1. “Books, Bytes, and Buildings: The Future of the Library” - An address given by Janis M. Bandelin, University Library Director at Furman University's 174th Convocation on September 13, 2000.
2. Arms, William Y. Key concepts in the Architecture of the Digital Library. D-Lib Magazine; July 1995, Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/July95/07arms.html
3. Dillon, D. (1999). “Making the wild wind invisible: Information technology in a brave new world”. In S. H. Lee (Ed.), Collection development in a digital environment. New York: The Haworth Press.
4. Greenstein, D. (2000). Digital libraries and their challenges. Library Trends, Vol. 49(2); pp.290-03.
5. Jaime Carbonell. Digital Librarians: Beyond the Digital Book Stack, IEEE Expert Vol. 11 (June 1996): p. 11-13.
6. King, D. W. and Montgomery, C.H. (2002). After migration to an electronic journal collection: Impact on faculty and doctoral students. D-Lib Magazine, Vol. 8; p. 212.
7. Kuny, Terry and Cleveland, Gary. “Digital Libraries: Myths and Challenges”. Paper delivered at the 62nd IFLA General Conference - August 25-31, 1996. www.ifla.org/IV/ifla62/62-kuny.pdf
9. Peter Lyman. "What Is a Digital Library? Technology, Intellectual Property, and the Public Interest," Daedalus Vol. 125 (Fall 1996): p. 1-33p.
10. Thornton, G. A. (2000). Impact of electronic resources on collection development, the roles of librarians, and library consortia. Library Trends; Vol. 48(4), pp. 842-856.
