MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Hwaiyu Geng,
CM
FGE, PE
Editor in Chief Project Manager, Hewlett-Packard CompanyPalo Alto, California
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Professional
vii
CONTENTS
Contributors xxi Preface xxiii
Acknowledgements xxv
Part 1
Product Development and Design
Chapter 1. E-Manufacturing Todd Park 1.3
1.1. Introduction / 1.3
1.2. What is E-Manufacturing? / 1.4
1.3. Where, When, and How Can Manufacturing Engineers Apply E-Manufacturing? / 1.4 1.4. What is the Future of E-Manufacturing? / 1.7
References / 1.7
Chapter 2. Design for Manufacture and Assembly Peter Dewhurst 2.1
2.1. Introduction / 2.1 2.2. Design for Assembly / 2.4 2.3. Assembly Quality / 2.13
2.4. Choice of Materials and Processes / 2.15 2.5. Detail Design for Manufacture / 2.17 2.6. Concluding Comments / 2.17
References / 2.18
Chapter 3. Value Engineering Joseph F. Otero 3.1
3.1 Overview / 3.1 3.2 Value Engineering / 3.1
3.3 Value Management and its Value Methodology / 3.5 3.4 Phases of Value Methodology / 3.6
3.5 Organizing to Manage Value / 3.10 3.6 Conclusions / 3.12
Bibliography / 3.13
Chapter 4. Quality Function Deployment and Design of Experiments
Lawrence S. Aft, Jay Boyle 4.1
4.1. Introduction—Quality Function Development / 4.1 4.2. Methodology / 4.2
4.3. QFD Summary / 4.6
4.4. Introduction—Design of Experiments (DOE) / 4.6 4.5. Statistical Methods Involved / 4.6
4.6. Objectives of Experimental Designs / 4.7 4.7. ANOVA-Based Experimental Designs / 4.8
References / 4.21 Useful websites / 4.21
Chapter 5. Rapid Prototyping, Tooling, and Manufacturing Todd Grimm 5.1
5.1. Introduction / 5.1 5.2. Technology Overview / 5.3
5.3. The Benefits of Rapid Prototyping / 5.5
5.4. Application of Rapid Prototyping, Tooling, and Manufacturing / 5.7 5.5. Economic Justification / 5.9
5.6. Implementation and Operation / 5.10
5.7. System Selection: Hardware and Software / 5.13 5.8. What the Future Holds / 5.14
5.9. Conclusion / 5.15 Further Reading / 5.16 Information Resources / 5.16
Chapter 6. Dimensioning and Tolerancing Vijay Srinivasan 6.1
6.1. Overview / 6.1 6.2. Introduction / 6.1
6.3. Dimensioning Intrinsic Characteristics / 6.2 6.4. Tolerancing Individual Characteristics / 6.5 6.5. Dimensioning Relational Characteristics / 6.8 6.6. Tolerancing Relational Characteristics / 6.11 6.7. Manufacturing Considerations / 6.14 6.8. Summary and Further Reading / 6.14
References / 6.14
Chapter 7. Basic Tools for Tolerance Analysis of Mechanical Assemblies
Ken Chase 7.1
7.1. Introduction / 7.1
7.2. Comparison of Stack-Up Models / 7.2 7.3. Using Statistics to Predict Rejects / 7.3 7.4. Percent Contribution / 7.4
7.5. Example 1—Cylindrical Fit / 7.4 7.6. How to Account for Mean Shifts / 7.6
7.7. Example 2—Axial Shaft and Bearing Stack / 7.7 7.8. Centering / 7.10
7.9. Adjusting the Variance / 7.10
7.10. Mixing Normal and Uniform Distributions / 7.10 7.11. Six Sigma Analysis / 7.11
7.12. Remarks / 7.12 References / 7.12 Further Reading / 7.12
Chapter 8. Design and Manufacturing Collaboration Irvan Christy 8.1
8.1. Introduction / 8.1
8.3. Why use Collaborative Engineering? / 8.3 8.4. How it Works / 8.4
8.5. Use Models / 8.9 8.6. Conclusion / 8.12
Part 2
Manufacturing Automation and Technologies
Chapter 9. CAD/CAM/CAE Ilya Mirman, Robert McGill 9.3
9.1. Introduction / 9.3 9.2. What is CAM? / 9.6 9.3. What is CAE? / 9.9
9.4. CAD’s Interaction With Other Tools / 9.11 9.5. The Value of CAD Data / 9.17
9.6. Planning, Purchasing, and Installation / 9.20 9.7. Successful Implementation / 9.23
9.8. Future CAD Trends / 9.27 9.9. Future CAM Trends / 9.28 9.10. Conclusion / 9.29
Information Resources / 9.29
Chapter 10. Manufacturing Simulation Charles Harrell 10.1
10.1. Introduction / 10.1 10.2. Simulation Concepts / 10.3 10.3. Simulation Applications / 10.6 10.4. Conducting a Simulation Study / 10.8 10.5. Economic Justification of Simulation / 10.9
10.6. Future and Sources of Information on Simulation / 10.11 10.7. Summary / 10.12
References / 10.12
Chapter 11. Industrial Automation Technologies
Andreas Somogyi 11.1
11.1. Introduction to Industrial Automation / 11.1 11.2. Hardware and Software for the Plant Floor / 11.3 11.3. From Sensors to the Boardroom / 11.14 11.4. How to Implement an Integrated System / 11.22 11.5. Operations, Maintenance, and Safety / 11.25 11.6. Conclusion / 11.31
Information Resources / 11.31
Chapter 12. Flexible Manufacturing Systems Paul Spink 12.1
12.1. Introduction / 12.1 12.2. System Components / 12.4
12.3. Benefits of a Flexible Manufacturing System / 12.14 12.4. Operational Considerations / 12.17
12.5. Trends / 12.20 12.6. Conclusion / 12.22
Chapter 13. Optimization and Design for System Reliability
Way Kuo, V. Rajendra Prasad, Chunghun Ha 13.1
13.1. Introduction / 13.1 13.2. Redundancy Allocation / 13.7 13.3. Reliability–Redundancy Allocation / 13.12 13.4. Cost Minimization / 13.13 13.5. Multiobjective Optimization / 13.14 13.6. Discussion / 13.16 Acknowledgments / 13.17 References / 13.17
Chapter 14. Adaptive Control Jerry G. Scherer 14.1
14.1. Introduction / 14.1
14.2. Principle and Technology / 14.1 14.3. Types of Control / 14.2 14.4. Application / 14.5 14.5. Setup / 14.8 14.6. Tuning / 14.11 14.7. Operation / 14.14 14.8. Financials / 14.18
14.9. Future and Conclusions / 14.20
Chapter 15. Operations Research in Manufacturing V. Jorge Leon 15.1
15.1. Introduction—What is Operations Research? / 15.1 15.2. Operations Research Techniques / 15.2
15.3. System Evaluation / 15.2
15.4. System Prescription and Optimization / 15.10 15.5. Decision Making / 15.13
15.6. Future Trends / 15.18 15.7. Concluding Remarks / 15.18
References / 15.18
Chapter 16. Tool Management Systems Goetz Marczinski 16.1
Abstract / 16.1 16.1. Introduction / 16.1
16.2. Definition of a Tool Management System (TMS) / 16.2 16.3. Tool Management Equipment / 16.4
16.4. Productivity Increases / 16.9 16.5. Planning and Implementation / 16.10 16.6. Operation and Organizational Issues / 16.14 16.7. Economy and Benefits / 16.15
16.8. Future Trends and Conclusion / 16.15 References / 16.17
Chapter 17. Group Technology Fundamentals and Manufacturing Applications
Ali K. Kamrani 17.1
17.1. Introduction / 17.1
17.2. Implementation Techniques / 17.3
17.3. Applications of Group Technology in Manufacturing / 17.11 17.4. Conclusion / 17.13
Part 3
Heat Treating, Hot Working, and Metalforming
Chapter 18. Heat Treatment Daniel H. Herring 18.3
18.1. Principles of Heat Treatment / 18.3 18.2. Ferrous Heat Treatment / 18.24 18.3. Nonferrous Heat Treatment / 18.41 18.4. Heat Treating Equipment / 18.49
References / 18.58 Further Reading / 18.58
Chapter 19. Metalcasting Processes Ian M. Kay 19.1
19.1. Introduction / 19.1
19.2. Metalcasting Processes / 19.2 19.3. Casting Economics / 19.14
19.4. Environmental and Safety Control / 19.15 Bibliography / 19.16
Chapter 20. Powder Metallurgy Chaman Lall 20.1
20.1. Introduction / 20.1
20.2. Powder Metallurgy Processes / 20.3 20.3. Part Design Considerations / 20.7 20.4. Materials and Properties / 20.8
20.5. Comparison to Competing Metalworking Technologies / 20.10 20.6. Conclusion / 20.11
References / 20.12
Information Resources / 20.12
Chapter 21. Welding, Fabrication, and Arc Cutting Duane K. Miller 21.1
21.1. Introduction / 21.1
21.2. Fundamental Principles of Fusion / 21.2 21.3. Process Selection / 21.3
21.4. Resistance Welding / 21.13 21.5. Solid-State Welding / 21.14 21.6. Oxyfuel Gas Welding / 21.15 21.7. Thermal Cutting / 21.15
21.8. High Energy Density Welding and Cutting Processes / 21.17 21.9. Welding Procedures / 21.18
21.10. Basic Metallurgy for the Manufacturing Engineer / 21.21 21.11. Design of Welded Connections / 21.25
21.12. Thermal Considerations / 21.29 21.13. Quality / 21.31 21.14. Testing / 21.38 21.15. Welding Costs / 21.41 21.16. Safety / 21.43 Reference / 21.47
Chapter 22. Rolling Process Howard Greis 22.1
22.1. Rolling Process Background / 22.1
22.2. General Characteristics of the Rolling Process / 22.3 22.3. Rolling System Geometrics and Characteristics / 22.14
22.4. Rolling Equipment / 22.18 22.5. Operational Uses of Rolling / 22.29 22.6. Rollable Forms / 22.32
22.7. Rolling Materials / 22.39
22.8. Rolling Blank Requirements and Related Effects / 22.45 22.9. Die and Tool Wear / 22.49
22.10. Process Control and Gaging / 22.52
22.11. Process Economic and Quality Benefits / 22.55 22.12. Future Directions / 22.59
Chapter 23. Pressworking Dennis Berry 23.1
23.1. Introduction / 23.1
23.2. Common Pressworking Processes / 23.2 23.3. Tooling Fundamentals / 23.4
23.4. Press Fundamentals / 23.9
23.5. Common Materials for Pressworking / 23.14 23.6. Safety Considerations for Pressworking / 23.16 23.7. Technology Trends and Developments / 23.17
Chapter 24. Straightening Fundamentals Ronald Schildge 24.1
24.1. Introduction / 24.1 24.2. Causes of Distortion / 24.1
24.3. Justifications for Using a Straightening Operation / 24.2 24.4. The Straightening Process / 24.2
24.5. Additional Features Available in the Straightening Process / 24.4 24.6. Selecting the Proper Equipment / 24.5
Information Resources / 24.6
Chapter 25. Brazing Steve Marek 25.1
25.1. Introduction / 25.1 25.2. Why Braze / 25.2 25.3. Base Materials / 25.2 25.4. Filler Metals / 25.2 25.5. Fundamentals of Brazing / 25.3 25.6. Brazing Discontinuities / 25.11 25.7. Inspection Methods / 25.11 References / 25.12 Further Reading / 25.12
Chapter 26. Tube Bending Eric Stange 26.1
26.1. Principles of Tube Bending / 26.1 26.2. Types of Mandrels / 26.6
26.3. Tube Bending Using Ball Mandrels and Wiper Dies / 26.6 26.4. Example Case Study / 26.8
Part 4
Metalworking, Moldmaking, and Machine Design
Chapter 27. Metal Cutting and Turning Theory Gary Baldwin 27.3
27.1. Mechanics of Metal Cutting / 27.3 27.2. Cutting Tool Geometry / 27.10 27.3. Cutting Tool Materials / 27.20 27.4. Failure Analysis / 27.31 27.5. Operating Conditions / 27.37
Chapter 28. Hole Making Thomas O. Floyd 28.1
28.1. Drilling / 28.1 28.2. Boring / 28.14 28.3. Machining Fundamentals / 28.15 28.4. Toolholder Deflection / 28.18 28.5. Vibration / 28.21 28.6. Chip Control / 28.22 28.7. Clamping / 28.23
28.8. Guidelines for Selecting Boring Bars / 28.23 28.9. Guidelines for Inserts / 28.23
28.10. Reamers / 28.23
Chapter 29. Tapping Mark Johnson 29.1
29.1. Introduction / 29.1
29.2. Machines Used for Tapping and Tap Holders / 29.1 29.3. Tap Nomenclature / 29.4
29.4. Influence of Material and Hole Condition / 29.5 29.5. Effects of Hole Size / 29.5
29.6. Work Piece Fixturing / 29.7 29.7. Tap Lubrication / 29.9
29.8. Determining Correct Tapping Speeds / 29.10
Chapter 30. Broaching Arthur F. Lubiarz 30.1
30.1. History of Broaching / 30.1 30.2. Broaching Process / 30.4 30.3. Application / 30.5 30.4. Troubleshoot / 30.7
30.5. High-Strength Steel (HSS) Coatings / 30.8
Chapter 31. Grinding Mark J. Jackson 31.1
31.1. Introduction / 31.1
31.2. High-Efficiency Grinding Using Conventional Abrasive Wheels / 31.2 31.3. High-Efficiency Grinding Using CBN Grinding Wheels / 31.9
Chapter 32. Metal Sawing David D. McCorry 32.1
32.1. Introduction / 32.1 32.2. The Hack Saw / 32.1 32.3. The Band Saw / 32.2 32.4. The Circular Saw / 32.3
32.5. Ferrous and Nonferrous Materials / 32.4 32.6. Choosing the Correct Sawing Method / 32.4 32.7. Kerf Loss / 32.5
32.8. Economy / 32.5 32.9. Troubleshooting / 32.5 32.10. Future Trends / 32.6
Further Reading / 32.6
Chapter 33. Fluids for Metal Removal Processes Ann M. Ball 33.1
33.1. Fluids for Metal Removal Processes / 33.1 33.2. Application of Metal Removal Fluids / 33.4
33.3. Control and Management of Metal Removal Fluids / 33.5 33.4. Metal Removal Fluid Control Methods / 33.6
References / 33.7
Information Resources / 33.8
Chapter 34. Laser Materials Processing Wenwu Zhang, Y. Lawrence Yao 34.1
34.1. Overview / 34.1
34.2. Understanding of Laser Energy / 34.1 34.3. Laser Safety / 34.7
34.4. Laser Material Processing Systems / 34.8 34.5. Laser Machining Processes / 34.11
34.6. Review of Other Laser Material Processing Applications / 34.19 34.7. Concluding Remarks / 34.21
References / 34.22
Chapter 35. Laser Welding Leonard Migliore 35.1
35.1. Mechanism / 35.1
35.2. Implementation of Laser Welding / 35.2 35.3. Laser Weld Geometries / 35.4
35.4. Characteristics of Metals for Laser Beam Welding / 35.5 35.5. Laser Welding Examples / 35.6
35.6. Laser Welding Parameters / 35.6 35.7. Process Monitoring / 35.7
Chapter 36. Diode Laser for Plastic Welding Jerry Zybko 36.1
36.1. Introduction / 36.1
36.2. CO2, Nd: YAG, and Diode Lasers / 36.1 36.3. Laser Welding Plastic Materials / 36.2 36.4. Methods of Bringing Laser to the Part / 36.5 36.5. Diode Laser Safety / 36.8
36.6. Alternative Methods of Plastic Assembly / 36.8 36.7. Conclusion / 36.9
Chapter 37. Electrical Discharge Machining Gisbert Ledvon 37.1
37.1. Introduction / 37.1 37.2. The Principle of EDM / 37.1
37.3. Types of Die-Sinking EDM Machine / 37.3 37.4. Types of Wire EDM Machine / 37.3 37.5. Use of Die-Sinking EDM / 37.7 37.6. Conclusion / 37.11
Further Reading / 37.12 Useful Websites / 37.12
Chapter 38. Abrasive Jet Machining John H. Olsen 38.1
38.1. Introduction / 38.1 38.2. The Cutting Process / 38.3 38.3. Equipment / 38.5 38.4. Safety / 38.8
References / 38.8
Information Resource / 38.8
Chapter 39. Tooling Materials for Plastics Molding Applications
James Kaszynski 39.1
39.1. Introduction / 39.1
39.2. Surface Finish of Molded Component and Mold Steel “Polishability” / 39.2 39.3. Complexity of Design / 39.4
39.4. Wear Resistance of the Mold Cavity/Core / 39.4 39.5. Size of the Mold / 39.5
39.6. Corrosion-Resistant Mold Materials / 39.6 39.7. Thermally Conductive Mold Materials / 39.7 39.8. Aluminum Mold Materials / 39.8
39.9. Copper-Base Alloys for Mold Applications / 39.10 39.10. Standard Mold Steel Production Methods / 39.11
39.11. Powder Metallurgical Process for Mold Steel Production / 39.12 39.12. Summary / 39.14
Chapter 40. Injection Molds for Thermoplastics Fred G. Steil 40.1
40.1. Introduction / 40.1
40.2. Injection Mold Component Definitions / 40.1 40.3. Part Design / 40.3
40.4. Production Rate / 40.3
40.5. Selection of Molding Machine / 40.4 40.6. Types of Molds / 40.4
40.7. Cavity Layouts / 40.6 40.8. Gating / 40.7 40.9. Mold Cooling / 40.8 40.10. Hot Runner Systems / 40.9 40.11. Mold Manufacturing / 40.9
Further Reading / 40.11
Chapter 41. Machine Tool Design on Flexible Machining Centers
Mal Sudhakar 41.1
41.1. Introduction / 41.1 41.2. Classification / 41.1
41.3. Vertical Machining Centers / 41.2 41.4. High-Speed Machining Centers / 41.5 41.5. Future Trends / 41.9
Chapter 42. Lubrication Devices and Systems Peter M. Sweeney 42.1
42.1. Introduction / 42.1
42.2. Concluding Comments / 42.7 Information Resources / 42.7
Chapter 43. Chip Processing and Filtration Kenneth F. Smith 43.1
43.1. Introduction / 43.1
43.2. Challenges of Chip and Coolant Handling / 43.1 43.3. Central and Individual Separation Systems / 43.2 43.4. Central System and Transport Methods / 43.2 43.5. Coolant Filtration for a Central System / 43.5 43.6. Stand-Alone Chip Coolant System / 43.6 43.7. Stand-Alone Transport and Filtration System / 43.7 43.8. Chip Processing / 43.8
43.9. The Future / 43.12
Chapter 44. Direct Numerical Control Keith Frantz 44.1
44.1. Introduction / 44.1 44.2. What is DNC? / 44.1 44.3. Investing in DNC / 44.1
44.4. Improving Your DNC System / 44.2 44.5. DNC Communications / 44.7 44.6. Conclusion / 44.9
Information Resources / 44.10
Part 5
Robotics, Machine Vision, and Surface Preparation
Chapter 45. Fundamentals and Trends in Robotic Automation Charles E. Boyer 45.3
45.1. Introduction / 45.3
45.2. Designs: Cartesian, SCARA, Cylindrical, Polar, Revolute, Articulated / 45.3 45.3. Equipment Types: Hydraulic, Electric, Controller Evolution, Software / 45.6 45.4. Applications / 45.7
45.5. Operation Concerns / 45.12 45.6. Justifications / 45.14
45.7. Conclusions and the Future / 45.16 Further Reading / 45.16
Chapter 46. Machine Vision Nello Zuech 46.1
46.1. Introduction / 46.1
46.2. Machine Vision Technology / 46.4
46.3. Rules of Thumb for Evaluating Machine Vision Applications / 46.8 46.4. Applications / 46.10
46.5. Developing a Machine Vision Project / 46.11 Further Reading / 46.13
Chapter 47. Automated Assembly Systems Steve Benedict 47.1
47.1. Introduction / 47.1
47.2. Elements of Modern Automation Systems / 47.2
47.3. Reasons to Consider Automation: Economy and Benefits / 47.3 47.4. What to Expect From a Reputable Automation Company / 47.9 47.5. Future Trends and Conclusion / 47.12
Information Resources / 47.12
Chapter 48. Finishing Metal Surfaces Leslie W. Flott 48.1
48.1. Introduction / 48.1
48.2. Designing for Finishing / 48.1 48.3. Design for Plating / 48.2 48.4. Chemical Finishes / 48.7 48.5. Electrochemical Processes / 48.11 48.6. Anodizing / 48.11 48.7. Electroplating Process / 48.15 48.8. Nickel Plating / 48.16 48.9. Zinc Plating / 48.18 Bibliography / 48.21
Chapter 49. Coating Processes Rodger Talbert 49.1
49.1. Introduction / 49.1 49.2. Coating Classification / 49.1
49.3. Finishing System Processes and Definitions / 49.2 49.4. Finishing System Design Considerations / 49.4 49.5. Coating Methods / 49.5
49.6. Paint Application / 49.14
49.7. Powder Coating Application / 49.20 49.8. Future Trends in Coatings / 49.23
Chapter 50. Adhesive Bonding and Sealing David J. Dunn 50.1
50.1. Introduction / 50.1 50.2. Adhesives / 50.1 50.3. Types of Adhesives / 50.2
50.4. Typical Applications for Adhesives / 50.4 50.5. Sealants / 50.7
50.6. Types of Sealants / 50.8
50.7. Typical Applications for Sealants / 50.9
50.8. Applying and Curing of Adhesives and Sealants / 50.11 50.9. Health and Safety Issues / 50.12
50.10. Future Trends / 50.13 References / 50.13
PART 6
Manufacturing Processes Design
Chapter 51. Lean Manufacturing Takashi Asano 51.3
51.1. Introdcution / 51.3
51.2. Concept of Lean Manufacturing / 51.3 51.3. Lean Production as a Corporate Culture / 51.5
51.4. Methodology and Tools / 51.5
51.5. Procedure for Implementation of Lean Production / 51.21
51.6. Future / 51.23
Chapter 52. Work Cell Design H. Lee Hales, Bruce J. Andersen,
William E. Fillmore 52.1
52.1. Overview / 52.1
52.2. Background / 52.1
52.3. Types of Manufacturing Cells / 52.3
52.4. How to Plan A Manufacturing Cell / 52.4
52.5. More Complex Cells / 52.16
52.6. Checklist for Cell Planning and Design / 52.19
52.7. Conclusions and Future Trends / 52.23
References / 52.24
Chapter 53. Work Measurement Lawrence S. Aft 53.1
53.1. Introduction / 53.1
53.2. Time Standards / 53.2
53.3. Time Study / 53.4
53.4. Predetermined Time Systems / 53.7
53.5. Work Sampling / 53.12
53.7. Performing Studies / 53.17
53.8. Current Computer Applications / 53.17
Further Reading / 53.18
Information Resources / 53.19
Chapter 54. Engineering Economics Gerald A. Fleischer 54.1
54.1. Fundamental Principles / 54.1
54.2. Equivalence and the Mathematics of Compound Interests / 54.2
54.3. Methods for Selecting among Alternatives / 54.9
54.4. After-Tax Economy Studies / 54.14
54.5. Incorporating Price Level Changes Into the Analysis / 54.20
54.6. Treating Risk and Uncertainty in the Analysis / 54.23
54.7. Compound Interest Tables (10 Percent) 54.25
Further Reading / 54.25
Chapter 55. MRP and ERP F. Robert Jacobs, Kevin J. Gaudette 55.1
55.1. Material Requirements Planning / 55.1
55.2. Capacity Requirements Planning / 55.14
55.3. Manufacturing Resource Planning / 55.14
55.4. Distribution Requirements Planning / 55.14
55.5. Distribution Resource Planning / 55.14
55.6. Enterprise Resource Planning / 55.15
55.7. Enterprise Performance Measures / 55.19
Websites / 55.25
Reference / 55.26
Further Reading / 55.26
Chapter 56. Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing Sophronia Ward,
Sheila R. Poling 56.1
56.1. Overview / 56.1
56.2. Concept and Philosophy of Six Sigma / 56.1 56.3. The History of Six Sigma / 56.2
56.4. The Strategic Concept for Successful Six Sigma / 56.3 56.5. Roles and Accountabilities in a Six Sigma Organization / 56.5 56.6. The Tactical Approach for Six Sigma / 56.6
56.7. Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing / 56.9 56.8. Obstacles in Six Sigma Implementation / 56.10 56.9. Opportunities With Successful Six Sigma / 56.10
References / 56.11 Further Reading / 56.11
Chapter 57. Statistical Process Control Roderick A. Munro 57.1
57.1. Introduction / 57.1
57.2. SPC Principle and Technologies / 57.1 57.3. Applications / 57.2
57.4. Planning and Implementation / 57.2 57.5. Conclusion / 57.16
References / 57.16 Further Reading / 57.16
Chapter 58. Ergonomics David Curry 58.1
58.1. Introduction / 58.1
58.2. The Working Environment / 58.2 58.3. Workstation Design / 58.10 58.4. Work Design / 58.14
58.5. Cumulative Trauma Disorders / 58.27 58.6. Workplace Safety / 58.32
References / 58.37 Further Reading / 58.40
Chapter 59. Total Productive Maintenance Atsushi Terada 59.1
59.1. Introduction / 59.1
59.2. Transition of Equipment Management Technology / 59.2 59.3. Outline of TPM / 59.3
59.4. Eight Pillars of TPM / 59.4 59.5. O.E.E. and Losses / 59.5 59.6. Activity of Each Pillar / 59.8 59.7. Result of TPM Activity / 59.13
References / 59.14
Information Resources / 59.14
Chapter 60. Project Management in Manufacturing Kevin D. Creehan 60.1
60.1. Introduction / 60.1
60.2. Project Management Institute / 60.3 60.3. Fundamentals of Project Management / 60.3
60.4. Organizational Design / 60.10 60.5. Stakeholder Management / 60.14 60.6. Project Operations / 60.15
60.7. Product Development Project Management / 60.19 References / 60.20
Further Reading / 60.21 Information Resource / 60.22
Chapter 61. Pollution Prevention and the Environmental Protection System
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff 61.1
61.1. Introduction / 61.1
61.2. Hierarchy of Pollution Management Approaches / 61.2 61.3. Four Tiers of Pollution Costs / 61.3
61.4. Importance of P2 to Your Business / 61.7 61.5. P2 in the Context of an Ems / 61.8 61.6. Integrating EMS and P2 / 61.10 61.7. Closing Remarks / 61.13
References / 61.14 Further Reading / 61.14 Information Resource / 61.14
xxi
CONTRIBUTORS
Lawrence S. Aft, PE Aft Systems, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia (CHAPS4, 53)
Bruce J. Andersen, CPIM Richard Muther and Associates, Inc., Marietta, Georgia, (CHAP52) Takashi Asano Japan Management Consultants, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, (CHAP51)
Gary D. Baldwin Kennametal University, Latrobe, Pennsylvania (CHAP27)
Ann M. Ball Milacron, Inc., CIMCOOL Global Industrial Fluids, Cincinnati, Ohio (CHAP33) Steve Benedict Com Tal Machine & Engineering, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota (CHAP47) Dennis Berry SKD Automotive Group, Troy, Michigan, (CHAP23)
Charles E. Boyer ABB Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado (CHAP45) Jay Boyle Murietta, Georgia (CHAP4)
Kenneth W. Chase Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah (CHAP7)
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff Princeton Energy Resources International, LLC, Rockville, Maryland (CHAP61) Irvan Christy CoCreate Software, Fort Collins, Colorado (CHAP8)
Kevin D. Creehan, PhD Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia (CHAP60) David Curry, PhD, CHFP Packer Engineering, Napperville, Illinois (CHAP58)
Peter Dewhurst University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (CHAP2) David J. Dunn F.L.D. Enterprises, Aurora, Ohio (CHAP50)
William E. Fillmore, PE Richard Muther and Associates, Inc., Marietta, Georgia (CHAP52) Gerald A. Fleischer University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California (CHAP54) Leslie W. Flott Summitt Process Consultant, Inc., Wabash, Indiana (CHAP48)
Thomas O. Floyd Carboloy, Inc., Warren, Michigan (CHAP28) Keith Frantz Cimnet, Inc., Robesonia, Pennsylvania (CHAP44)
Kevin Gaudette, Maj, USAF Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana (CHAP55) Howard A. Greis Kinefac Corporation, Worcester, Massachussetts (CHAP22) Todd Grimm T.A. Grimm & Associates, Edgewood, Kentucky (CHAP5) Chunghun Ha Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas (CHAP13) H. Lee Hales Richard Muther and Associates, Inc., Marietta, Georgia (CHAP52) Charles Harrell Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah (CHAP10)
Daniel H. Herring The Herring Group, Inc., Elmhurst, Illinois (CHAP18)
Mark J. Jackson Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee (CHAP31) F. Robert Jacobs Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana (CHAP55)
Mark Johnson Tapmatic Corporation, Post Falls, Idaho (CHAP29)
Ali Khosravi Kamrani, PhD University of Houston, Houston, Texas (CHAP17)
Albert V. Karvelis, PhD, PE Packer Engineering, Naperville, Illinois (CHAP58) James Kaszynski Boehler Uddeholm, Rolling Meadows, Illinois (CHAP39)
Ian M. Kay Cast Metals, Inc., American Foundry Society, Inc., Des Plaines, Illinois (CHAPS16, 19) Way Kuo, PhD University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee (CHAP13)
Chaman Lall, PhD Metal Powder Products Company, Westfield, Indiana (CHAP20) Gisbert Ledvon Lincolnshire, Illinois (CHAP37)
V. Jorge Leon Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas (CHAP15) Arthur F. Lubiarz NACHI America, Inc., Macomb, Michigan (CHAP30)
Goetz Marczinski, Dr. Ing. CIMSOURCE Software Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan (CHAP16) Steve Marek Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., Cudahy, Wisconsin (CHAP25)
David D. McCorry Kaltenbach, Inc., Columbus, Indiana (CHAP32) Leonard Migliore Coherent, Inc., Santa Monica, California (CHAP35) Duane K. Miller, PhD Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio (CHAP21) Ilya Mirman SolidWorks Corporation, Concord, Massachussetts (CHAP9) Roderick A. Munro RAM Q Universe, Inc., Reno, Nevada (CHAP57) John H. Olsen, PhD OMAX Corporation, Kent, Washington (CHAP38) Joseph F. Otero, CVS Pratt & Whitney, Springfield, Massachussetts (CHAP3) Todd Park Athenahealth, Waltham, Massachussetts (CHAP1)
Sheila R. Poling Pinnacle Partners, Inc., Oak Ridge, Tennessee (CHAP56) V. Rajendra Prasad Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas (CHAP13) Jerry G. Scherer GE Fanuc Product Development, Charlottesville, Virginia (CHAP14) Ronald Schildge Eitel Presses, Inc., Orwigsburg, Pennsylvania (CHAP24)
Kenneth F. Smith Mayfran International, Cleveland, Ohio (CHAP43) Andreas Somogyi Rockwell Automation, Mayfield Heights, Ohio (CHAP11) Paul Spink, BSHE, CMTSE Mori Seiki, USA, Inc., Irving, Texas (CHAP12)
Vijay Srinivasan, PhD IBM Corporation/Columbia University, New York, New York (CHAP6) Eric Stange Tools for Bending, Denver, Colorado (CHAP26)
Fred G. Steil D-M-E Company, Madison Heights, Michigan (CHAP40)
Mal Sudhakar Mikron Bostomatic Corporation, Holliston, Massachussetts (CHAP41) Peter M. Sweeney Bijur Lubricating Corporation, Morrisville, North Carolina (CHAP42) Rodger Talbert R. Talbert Consulting, Inc., Grand Rapids, Michigan (CHAP49)
Atsushi Terada JMA Consultants America, Inc., Arlington Heights, Illinois (CHAP59) Sophronia Ward, PhD Pinnacle Partners, Inc., Oak Ridge, Tennessee (CHAP56) Y. Lawrence Yao Columbia University, New York, New York (CHAP34)
Wenwu Zhang General Electric Global Research Center, Schenectady, New York (CHAP34) Nello Zuech Vision Systems International, Inc., Yardley, Pennsylvania (CHAP46)
xxiii
PREFACE
Whether as an engineer, manager, researcher, professor, or student, we are all facing increasing challenges in a cross-functional manufacturing environment. For each problem, we must identify the givens, the unknowns, feasible solutions, and how to validate each of these. How can we best apply technical knowledge to assemble a proposal, to lead a project, or to support the team?
Our challenges may include designing manufacturing processes for new products, improving manufacturing yield, implementing automated manufacturing and production facilities, and estab-lishing quality and safety programs. A good understanding of how manufacturing engineering works, as well as how it relates to other departments, will enable one to plan, design, and implement pro-jects more effectively.
The goal of the Manufacturing Engineering Handbook is to provide readers with the essential tools needed for working in manufacturing engineering for problem solving, for establishing manu-facturing processes, and for improving existing production lines in an enterprise. This Handbook embraces both conventional and emerging manufacturing tools and processes used in the automo-tive, aerospace, and defense industries and their supply chain industries.
The Handbook is organized into six major parts. These six parts comprise 61 chapters. In general, each chapter includes three components principles, operational considerations, and references. The principles are the fundamentals of a technology and its application. Operational considerations pro-vide useful tips for planning, implementing, and controlling manufacturing processes. The refer-ences are a list of relevant books, technical papers, and websites for additional reading.
Part 1 of the Handbook gives background information on e-manufacturing. Tools for product development and design are introduced. Part 2 covers conventional and emerging manufacturing automation and technologies that are useful for planning and designing a manufacturing process. Part 3 offers fundamentals on heat-treating, hot-working, and metal-forming. Part 4 discusses major metalworking processes, briefly reviews moldmaking, and describes machine design fundamentals. Part 5 covers essential assembling operations including robotics, machine vision, automated assem-bly, and surface preparation. Part 6 reviews useful tools, processes, and considerations when plan-ning, desigplan-ning, and implementing a new or existing manufacturing process.
The Handbook covers topics ranging from product development, manufacturing automation, and tech-nologies, to manufacturing process systems. Manufacturing industry engineers, managers, researchers, teachers, students, and others will find this to be a useful and enlightening resource because it covers the breadth and depth of manufacturing engineering. The Manufacturing Engineering Handbook is the most comprehensive single-source guide ever published in its field.
HWAIYUGENG, CMFGE, P.E.
xxv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Manufacturing Engineering Handbook is a collective representation of an international community of scientists and professionals. Over 60 authors have contributed to this book. Many others from both industry and academia offered their suggestions and advice while I prepared and orga-nized the book. I would like to thank the contributors who took time from their busy schedules and personal lives to share their wisdom and valuable experiences. Special thanks and appreciation go to the following individuals, companies, societies, and institutes for their contributions and/or for grant-ing permission for the use of copyrighted materials: Jane Gaboury, Institute of Industrial Engineers; Lew Gedansky, Project Management Institute; Ian Kay, Cast Metals Institute; Larry aft, Aft Systems; Vijay Srinivasan, IBM; Duane Miller, Lincoln Electric; Howard Greis, Kinefac Corporation; Fred Steil, D-M-E Company; Takashi Asano, Lean Manufacturing; David Curry, Packer Engineering; Gary Baldwin, Kennametal University; Lawrence Yao, Columbia University; Way Kuo, University of Tennessee; Gerald Fleischer, University of Southern California; Ken Chase, Brigham Young University; and Ken McComb, McGraw-Hill Company. I would also like to thank the production staff at ITC and McGraw-Hill, whose “can do” spirit and teamwork were instrumental in producing this book. My special thanks to my wife, Limei, and to my daughters, Amy and Julie, for their sup-port and encouragement while I was preparing this book.
HWAIYUGENG, CMFGE, P.E.
MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
AND DESIGN
P
A
R
T
1
CHAPTER 1
E-MANUFACTURING
Todd Park
Athenahealth, Inc. Waltham, Massachusetts1.1
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade, so much ink has been spilled (not to mention blood and treasure) on the concepts of e-business and e-manufacturing that it has been extraordinarily difficult to separate hope from hype. If the early pronouncements from e-seers were to be believed, the Internet was destined to become a force of nature that, within only a few years, would transform manufacturers and manu-facturing processes beyond all recognition. Everyone—customers, suppliers, management, line employees, machines, etc.—would be on-line, and fully integrated. It would be a grand alignment— one that would convert a customer’s every e-whim into perfectly realized product, with all customer communication and transactions handled via the web, products designed collaboratively with cus-tomers on-line, all the right inputs delivered in exactly the right quantities at exactly the right mil-lisecond (cued, of course, over the web), machines in production across the planet conversing with each other in a web-enabled symphony of synchronization, and total process transparency of all shop floors to the top floor, making managers omniscient gods of a brave new manufacturing universe.
These initial predictions now seem overly rosy at best, yet it is far too easy (and unfair) to dismiss e-business and e-manufacturing as fads in the same category as buying pet food and barbeque grills over the Internet. Gartner Group has estimated that as of 2001, only 1 percent of U.S. manufacturers had what could be considered full-scale e-manufacturing implementations. By 2006, U.S. Dept. of Commerce has estimated that almost half of the U.S. workforce will be employed by industries that are either major producers or intensive users of information technology products and services. The most successful e-companies, it turns out, have not been companies with “.com” emblazoned after their name, but, rather, traditional powerhouses like Intel and General Electric, who have led the way on everything from sell-ing goods and services over the web to Internet-enabled core manufactursell-ing processes. Perhaps most startlingly, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has projected that the rise of e-manufacturing could potentially equal or even exceed the impact of steam and electricity on industrial productivity. The Bureau recently concluded that the application of computers and early uses of the Internet in the sup-ply chain had been responsible for a 3-percent point increase in annual U.S. manufacturing productiv-ity growth, to 5 percent, during the 1973–1999 timeframe. The Bureau then projected that the rise of e-manufacturing could build upon those gains by boosting productivity growth by another two per-centage points to an astounding 7 percent per year.1In fact, many analysts have pointed to e-manufac-turing as the next true paradigm shift in manuface-manufac-turing processes—albeit one that will take a long time to fulfill, but one that will ultimately be so pervasive that the term “e-manufacturing” will eventually become synonymous with manufacturing itself.
The purpose of this chapter is not to teach you everything there is to know about e-business and e-manufacturing. The field is moving too rapidly for any published compendium of current technologies
1.3
and techniques to be valid for any relevant length of time. Rather, this chapter aims to introduce you to the core notions of e-business, the core principles of e-manufacturing, and to give you a simple operational and strategic framework which you can utilize to evaluate and pursue the appli-cation of “e” to the manufacturing process.
1.2
WHAT IS E-MANUFACTURING?
As is common with new phenomena, there is currently a good deal of semantic confusion around the words “e-business” and “e-manufacturing.” Let us therefore start with some simple working defini-tions. “E-business” is defined most cogently and accurately as the application of the Internet to busi-ness. Somewhat confusingly, “e-business” is sometimes characterized as synonymous with “e-commerce,” which is more narrowly defined as the buying and selling of things on the Internet. In my view, “e-commerce” is just one subset of “e-business”—and one, though it dominated e-business-related headlines during the go-go nineties, will ultimately be one of the less important applications of the Internet to business. Far more important than whether one can buy things on the Internet is the question of whether the Internet, like electricity and other fundamental technologies, can actually change (a) the fundamental customer value produced by business and (b) the efficiency via which that value can be produced.
This is where “e-manufacturing” comes in. E-manufacturing can be most cogently and general-ly described as the application of the Internet to manufacturing. Let us first say what it is not, for the sake of analytical clarity: e-manufacturing as a discipline is not the same thing as production automa-tion or the so-called “digital factory.” The applicaautoma-tion of computing technology to the factory floor is its own phenomenon, and can be pursued wholly independently of any use of the Internet. That being said, while e-manufacturing is not the same thing as production automation, it is perfectly complementary to the idea of production automation—an additional strategy and approach that can turbocharge the value produced by the application of technology to the factory. Business 2.0 has memorably defined e-manufacturing as “the marriage of the digital factory and the Internet.”1What, then, are the dynamics of this marriage, and where specifically does it add value?
1.3
WHERE, WHEN, AND HOW CAN MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERS APPLY E-MANUFACTURING?
There are literally hundreds of different frameworks that have been created and promulgated to describe e-manufacturing and how and where it can be usefully applied. If one were to seek a com-mon thread of collectively exhaustive truth that runs through all of these frameworks, it would be the following: everyone agrees that e-manufacturing can impact both (a) the fundamental customer value produced by the manufacturing process and (b) the core efficiency of that process itself (Fig. 1.1).
1.3.1 Impacting Customer Value
The business of manufacturing has always been a guessing game. What do customers want? So therefore, what should we produce? One of the most profound implications of the Internet for man-ufacturing is its potential ability to deliver upon an objective that has been a Holy Grail of sorts for manufacturers since the beginning of manufacturing: build exactly what the customer wants, exact-ly when the customer wants it. This concept has been clothed in many different terms: “collabora-tive product commerce,” “collabora“collabora-tive product development,” “mass customization,” “adap“collabora-tive manufacturing,” “c-manufacturing,” “made-to-order manufacturing,” etc. All of these refer to the same basic concept: utilizing the Internet, a customer (or salesperson or distributor representing the customer) electronically communicates his or her preferences, up to and including jointly designing the end product with the manufacturer. This specification is then delivered to the factory floor, where the customer’s vision is made into reality.
The simplest and earliest examples of this “made-to-order” approach have been in the technology industry, where companies like Dell have pioneered approaches such as allowing customers on their websites to customize PCs they are ordering. These applications have been facilitated by the relative simplicity of the end product, with a fairly limited number of parameters against which customers express preferences, and where product components can be manufactured to an intermediate step, with the manufacturing process being completed when the customer actually communicates a cus-tomized product order.
However, the “made-to-order” approach is now being applied to far more complicated product businesses. Perhaps the most famous example is Cutler-Hammer, a major manufacturer of panel boards, motor control centers, and other complex assemblies. Cutler-Hammer has built and deployed a proprietary system called Bid Manager, which allows customers from literally thousands of miles away to easily configure custom designs of items as complicated as a motor control center—down to the specific placement of switches, circuit breakers, etc.—with the assistance of a powerful rules engine and alerts that ensure correct design. The design, once completed and transmitted by a cus-tomer, is then processed by Bid Manager, which then, often within minutes of the transmittal of the order, instructs machines and people on Cutler-Hammer factory floors to build the product the cus-tomer wants. Cutler-Hammer has reported that it processes over 60,000 orders per year via Bid Manager, and that this comprehensive e-manufacturing application has increased Cutler-Hammer’s market share for configured products by 15 percent, sales of larger assemblies by 20 percent, pro-ductivity by 35 percent, and had a dramatic impact on profitability and quality.1
While Bid Manager is an example of a proprietary software package, there are a rapidly expand-ing number of generally available software tools and approaches available to help make customer integration into manufacturing a reality, and utilizable by an ever-broadening range of manufactur-ers. New technologies such as XML enable seamless integration of customer-facing, web-based e-commerce, and product configuration applications with the software that powers “digital factories.” The end result is to step closer and closer to the ideal of a “customer-driven” business where what the customer wants is exactly what the customer gets, with unprecedented flexibility and speed.
1.3.2 Impacting Process Efficiency
The other side of e-manufacturing is the improvement of not only the level of precision of fulfill-ment of customer wishes, but also the level of efficiency of manufacturing processes. For a histori-cal viewpoint, it is useful to view e-manufacturing as the latest in a series of production process paradigm shifts. From the era of Henry Ford through the mid-1970s, manufacturers focused on the execution of mass production, and the principles of scale economies and cost efficiencies. From the late 1970s through the 1980s, in the face of rising competition from high quality Japanese manufac-turers, this focus, at least among U.S. manufacmanufac-turers, was succeeded by a new one: total quality man-agement (TQM) and its principles of quality measurement and improvement. As American manufacturers leveled the quality playing field, the late 1980s and 1990s saw a new focus: the notion of lean manufacturing—again, with the way led by the Japanese.2
Lean manufacturing and related concepts such as agile manufacturing and constraint manage-ment aim to transform mass production into a more flexible and efficient set of processes. The fun-damental notion of lean and agile manufacturing is to produce only what is required with minimal finished goods inventory. Constraint management focuses on optimization of flow of materials through bottlenecks. All of these approaches are dependent upon the ability to forecast future demand and produce to that particular forecast.3
E-manufacturing enables a step change improvement with respect to lean manufacturing by enabling a production operation that truly builds to what customers declare they want and when they want it. While e-manufacturing certainly does not eliminate the need for forecasting, it does signif-icantly narrow the gap between customer demand levels and production levels by bringing the rela-tionship between the two into realtime: the customer asks for something, and the factory produces it. (The current industry standard for “real-time make to order” is 24 h.) The development of such a “pull” system3is enabled by
1. The implementation of the “digital factory”—i.e., the use of integrated information systems such as Manufacturing Execution Software (MES) to coordinate production scheduling, quality, SCADA/HMI systems for data collection and machine and operator interface control, mainte-nance, and warehouse/inventory management.4
2. The connection of the “digital factory” not only to e-commerce and product design applications that face the customer, as described earlier, but to (1) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) sys-tems that need information from the factory to understand how to manage the flow of resources within the enterprise to feed that factory and (2) to the external supply chain via Internet-based communications tools that allow suppliers to understand what is required from them and where and when to deliver it. These external supply chain connectivity applications may also contain an auction or procurement exchange component, via which a manufacturer may electronically array suppliers in competition with one another in order to get the best real-time deal.
The implementation of e-manufacturing infrastructure, if executed properly, can generate benefits of 25 to 60 percent in inventory reduction, 30 to 45 percent in cycle time reduction, 17 to 55 percent in WIP reduction, and 35 to 55 percent in paperwork reduction.4While each implementation situa-tion has its own specific dynamics, this is certainly the order of magnitude of targeted statistics for which one should strive.
1.3.3 Where It All Comes Together: Information Synthesis and Transparency
While impacting customer value and process efficiency are the two primary axes of e-manufacturing programs, the strategic level where e-manufacturing may ultimately have the most impact is in the realm of information synthesis and understanding. If one properly structures one’s e-manufacturing infrastructure, with an emphasis not only on automation and connectivity but also on reportability— i.e., the systematic capture and organization in realtime of key workflow and operational data— then a critical additional benefit can be realized from putting one’s customers, factory, and supply
chain on an interconnected electronic foundation: the fact that information from across this infra-structure can be retrieved and synthesized electronically—and allow, for the first time, managers to have visibility across the extended manufacturing enterprise. Reports from research houses such as Forrester have repeatedly asserted that poor visibility into the shop floor, into the mind of the cus-tomer, and into the state of the supply chain are the biggest problems facing manufacturing manage-ment.5E-manufacturing’s most important consequence may be the lifting of the fog of war that currently clouds even advanced manufacturing operations that don’t have the benefit of comprehen-sive, real-time information measurement and synthesis. One cannot manage what one cannot mea-sure and see, and e-manufacturing—again, if implemented with reportability as well as connectivity in mind—can help enormously with the ability to see across the manufacturing value chain.
1.4
WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF E-MANUFACTURING?
A realistic projection of the future of e-manufacturing would simultaneously take into account the very real power of the innovations embodied in the e-manufacturing paradigm, while also noting the fundamental difficulties of changing any manufacturing culture. While the good news is that approaches and technologies have finally arrived that can help make e-manufacturing a reality, and that companies across multiple industries have made enormous gains through e-manufacturing, it is nevertheless the case that an e-manufacturing implementation remains an exercise in organizational change as much as technological change—and organizational change is never easy. However, there is much to be gained from careful analysis of one’s manufacturing enterprise, and applying the frameworks of e-manufacturing to see where value can be produced. It is a concept that may have as much impact on manufacturing value as the notions of mass production, TQM, and lean manufac-turing have had, and it is certainly beneficial for every manufacmanufac-turing engineer to be knowledgeable about its fundamental principles and goals.
REFERENCES
1. Bylinsky, Gene. “The E-Factory Catches On,” Business 2.0, July 2001.
2. O’Brien, Kevin. “Value-Chain Report: Next-Generation Manufacturing,” Industry Week, September 10, 2001. 3. Tompkins, James. “E-Manufacturing: Made to Order,” IQ Magazine, July/August 2001.
4. Software Toolbox, Inc. and Unifi Technology Group. “Building the Infrastructure for e-Manufacturing.” 2000. 5. Manufacturing Deconstructed, Forrester Research, July 2000.
2.1
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE
AND ASSEMBLY
Peter Dewhurst
University of Rhode Island Kingston, Rhode Island
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the process of analyzing product designs in order to identify design changes which will improve assembly and manufacturing efficiency. The process consists of three main steps: design for assembly (DFA), selection of materials and processes, and design for individual part ufacture (DFM). The process of applying these three analysis steps is referred to as design for man-ufacture and assembly (DFMA). Case studies are presented in the chapter to show that DFMA can produce dramatic cost reductions coupled with substantial quality improvements.
2.1.1 Changes in the Product Development Process
A complete change has taken place in the process of product development over the past decade. The seeds of this change were planted in the early 1980s with two separate developments which were to come together over a period of several years. The first of these seeds was a redefinition of the expected outcome of the activity of design for manufacture. The redefinition arose in major part from a National Science Foundation funded research program at the University of Massachusetts (UMASS).1This work formed the basis for a Design for Manufacture Research Center at the University of Rhode Island (URI) which has been in existence since 1985. Research at URI over the past decades2,3,4,5has changed the process, which has become known as DFMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly), from tables and lookup charts to interactive computer software used throughout the world.6The process of DFMA is now well established in industrial product development.7,8,9,10
The second change started in the early 1980s with the recognition by a few U.S. corporations that product design was simply too important to be entrusted to design engineers working in isolation. This led to the establishment of new procedures for product development in which product performance and the required manufacturing procedures for the product are considered together from the earliest concept stages of a new design. This process was gradually adopted in the development of consumer products where the title of simultaneous engineering or concurrent engineering was usually given to it. The main ingredient of simultaneous or concurrent engineering is the establishment of cross-func-tional product development teams which encompass the knowledge and expertise necessary to ensure that all the requirements of a new product are addressed. These requirements are usually defined to be that the product should meet customer performance requirements and should be efficient to manufacture
in order to meet both cost and quality goals. The core product development team then comprises per-sonnel from marketing, design engineering, and industrial and manufacturing engineering. By the end of the 1980s simultaneous engineering had become synonymous with design for manufacture and assembly and had become widely adopted across U.S. Industry.11
Simultaneous engineering is now the accepted method of product development. It has been stat-ed that manufacturers of discrete goods who do not practice simultaneous engineering will be un-likely to survive in today’s competitive global markets. This widespread adoption of simultaneous engineering has increased the need, in product development, for formal methods of design for man-ufacture so that manufacturing efficiency measures can be obtained early in the design process. In this way the manufacturing representatives of the team become empowered in the decision making process and design choices are not based solely on performance comparisons which can be readily quantified with CAE tools. Also, when looking critically at the product development procedure, with a view to changing to simultaneous engineering, many corporations had come to the realization that the bulk of the cost of a new product is locked in place from the earliest concept stage of design. Thus, if manufacturing cost is not assessed in these early stages then it is often too late during detailed design execution to have any major effect on final product cost.
2.1.2 The Traditional Practice of Design for Manufacture
The term, design for manufacture (DFM), is often applied to a process of using rules or guidelines to assist in the design of individual parts for efficient processing. In this form, DFM has been prac-ticed for decades and the rule sets have often been made available to designers through company spe-cific design manuals. An excellent recent example of this approach to DFM provides a compilation of rules for a large number of processes, provided by experts for each of the process methods.12Such rule sets are usually accompanied by information on material stock form availability, on the prob-lems of achieving given tolerance and surface finish values, and information on the application of different coatings and surface treatments. Such information is clearly invaluable to designer teams who can make very costly decisions about the design of individual parts if these are made without regard to the capabilities and limitations of the required manufacturing processes. However, if DFM rules are used as the main principles to guide a new design in the direction of manufacturing effi-ciency then the result will usually be very unsatisfactory. The reason is that in order to achieve indi-vidual part manufacturing efficiency, the direction will invariably be one of indiindi-vidual part simplicity. This might take the form of sheet metal parts for which all of the bends can be produced simultaneously in a simple bending tool, or die castings which can be produced without the need for any mechanisms in the die, or powder metal parts which have the minimum number of different levels, and so on. Figure 2.1 is an illustration taken from a DFM Industrial Handbook,13in which the manufacture and spot welding of two simple sheet metal parts is recommended instead of the more complex single cross-shaped part. Such advice is invariably bad. The end result of this guidance toward individual part simplicity will often be a product with an unnecessarily large number of indi-vidual functional parts, with a corresponding large number of interfaces between parts, and a large number of associated items for spacing, supporting, connecting, and securing. At the assembly level, as opposed to the manufactured part level, the resulting product will often be very far from optimal with respect to total cost or reliability.
2.1.3 The New Approach to Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA)
The alternative approach to part-focused DFM is to concentrate initially on the structure of the prod-uct and try to reach team consensus on the design strprod-ucture which is likely to minimize cost when total parts manufacturing costs, assembly cost, and other cost sources are considered. The other cost sources may include cost of rework of faulty products, and costs associated with manufacturing sup-port such as purchasing, documentation, and inventory. In addition, the likely costs of warranty service
and support may be included if procedures are in place to quantify these costs at the early design stage. In this chapter we will focus our discussion on manufacturing and assembly cost reduction using the process of DFMA. We will also address the likely product quality benefits which arise from the application of the DFMA process.
Design for manufacture and assembly uses design for assembly (DFA) as the primary vehicle for decision making as to the structural form of the proposed product. The DFMA method can be rep-resented by the flow chart shown in Fig. 2.2. The three upper blocks in Fig. 2.2 represent the main iteration loop in the process of identifying the optimal product structure. This iteration process stops when the team reaches some consensus as to the best product structure coupled with the wisest choices of processes and associated materials to be used for the manufactured parts. In this iteration process DFA is the starting point and can be viewed as the driving activity. The process ends when the DFA analysis results are seen to represent a robust structure for the product which it is believed can be assembled efficiently. In Fig. 2.2 the activity of DFA is also referred to as Product Simplification. This is because DFA naturally guides the design team in the direction of part count reduction. DFA challenges the product development team to reduce the time and cost required to assemble the product. Clearly, a powerful way to achieve this result is to reduce the number of parts which must be put together in the assembly process. This often leads to a review of the capabilities
FIGURE 2.1 Single part and two part spot weld design.
