Facade Notes

Full text

(1)STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S. FAÇADE NOTES. PART I. EUROCODE PART II. BRITISH STANDARDS PART III. AMERICAN STANDARDS ANNEX. DESIGN AIDES 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA.

(2) DISCLAIMER This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is referenced to a source. If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on information in these notes.. LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2. nd. Place │1998. Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998 Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001 ______________________ Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist –. Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –. Structural Engineer - LINDNER-SCHMIDLIN, Switzerland │2008 – 2014 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN TSK, Switzerland │2006 – 2008 Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN LLC, Dubai │2005 – 2006 Façade Engineer - ARUP, Singapore │2004 – 2005 Structural Engineer - United Reliance Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore │2001 – 2004 Civil Engineering Instructor - Mapua Institute of Technology, Philippines │2001 – 2001 Design Engineer - Sumitomo Construction Co. Ltd., Philippines │1999 – 2001.

(3) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S. FAÇADE NOTES. PART I. EUROCODE 3RD EDITION │2014 LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA.

(4)

(5) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Table of Contents I-1. LOADS. 5. 1.1. Dead load (D). 5. 1.2. Imposed/live load, (L). 6. 1.3. Snow load (S). 12. 1.4. Wind load (W). 14. 1.5. Load combinations. 25. I-2. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS. 26. 2.1. Deflection limits. 26. 2.2. Structure tolerance. 27. I-3. DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING. 31. 3.1. Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile). 31. 3.2. Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications. 32. I-4. STEEL DESIGN. 33. 4.1. Properties of steel. 33. 4.2. Properties of stainless steel. 35. 4.3. Resistance of steel cross-sections. 36. 4.4. Sheets as diaphragms. 39. 4.5. Cold-formed members. 40. I-5. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. 41. 5.1. Properties of aluminium structures. 41. 5.2. Definitions. 42. 5.3. Protection at metal-to-metal contacts. 43. 5.4. Cross-sectional properties. 44. 5.5. Resistance of aluminium cross-sections. 47. 5.6. Cold formed members. 50. I-6. CONCRETE DESIGN. 51. 6.1. Properties of concrete. 51. 6.2. Concrete design. 52. 6.3. Anchorage design. 52. I-7. TIMBER DESIGN. 53. 7.1. Strength grade. 53. 7.2. Service class. 54. 7.3. Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL. 55. I-8. GLASS DESIGN. 59. 8.1. Properties. 59. 8.2. Glass sizes. 59. 8.3. Glass holes. 59. 8.4. Structural design of glass. 60. PART 1 EUROCODE. 3.

(6) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. 4. 8.5. Glass stress and deflection. 64. 8.6. Climatic effects. 67. 8.7. Structural silicone glazing (SSG). 69. 8.8. Safety glass TRAV Requirements. 71. 8.9. Glass fins. 73. I-9. STONE DESIGN. 75. 9.1. Properties. 75. I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING. 77. 10.1 Testing overview. 77. 10.2 Weather performance tests. 78. 10.3 Impact resistance tests. 82. 10.4 Glass safety tests. 84. 10.5 Fire classification. 85. I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS. 86. 11.1 Bolted connections. 86. 11.2 Pin connections. 93. 11.3 Tapping screws and rivets. 94. 11.4 Stud welds. 97. 11.5 Weld. 98. 11.6 Plate bracket resistance. 103. 11.7 Anchors in Concrete. 104. I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS. 105. 12.1 Thermal Performance. 105. 12.2 Acoustic Performance. 105. 12.3 Fire Performance. 105. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(7) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. I-1 LOADS 1.1. Dead load (D). Density of materials Group Material Metal. EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3 Density, γ [kg/m³]. Group. Material. Concrete. Normal weight. Aluminium. 2 700. Bronze. 8 450. Light weight. Copper. 9 100. Heavy weight. Iron, cast. 7 400. Iron, wrought. 7 750. Natural Stone. Density, γ [kg/m³] 2 450 900 – 2 000 > 2 000. Granite. 2 750 – 3 000. Basalt, diorite, gabbro. 2 750 – 3 150. Lead. 11 600. Tachylyte. Steel. 7 850. Sandstone, gray wacke. 2 100 – 2 750. Stainless Steel. 7 850. Dense limestone. 2 000 – 2 950. Zinc. 7 340. Slate. Glass. Glass (annealed). 2 500. Plastic. ETFE film. Insulation. FRC. Aggregates. Light weight. 2 650. 2 850 900 – 2 000. -. Normal weight. 2 000 – 3 050. PVC-U 250. 1 400. Heavy weight. > 3 050. Terra Cotta. 2 100. Sand. 1 400 – 1 950. Gravel & sand. 1 500 – 2 000. Rockwool (Loose). 25. Rockwool (Medium). 51. Rockwool (Dense). 70. GRC. PART 1 EUROCODE. 2 680. Wood. Timber. 350 – 1 100. Plywood. 500 – 700. Particle board. 700 – 1 200. Fibre board. 800 – 1 000. 5.

(8) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.2. Imposed/live load, (L). 1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs Load Description. EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 UK NA Table 6.2 Table NA.3 qk [kN/m²]. A Domestic and residential activities. Qk [kN]. qk. Qk. 1.5. 2.0. 2.0. 2.0. A4 Billiard, snooker rooms. 2.0. 2.7. A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units. 2.5. 2.0. 3.0. 2.0*. 4.0. 2.0. 2.5. 2.7. 3.0. 2.7. 2.0. 3.0. 2.5. 4.0. 3.0. 3.0. 4.0. 3.6. 3.0. 2.7. C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats. 3.0. 4.5. C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats. 3.0. 4.0. C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds. 4.0. 4.5. 5.0. 4.5. C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to crowds. 4.0. 4.0. C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600 mm. 3.0. 2.0. C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic. 5.0. 3.6. C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl. escape routes. 7.5. 4.5. 5.0. 3.6. 5.0. 7.0. 5.0. 3.6. 7.5. 4.5. 4.0. 3.6. A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas. A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club. 1.5 – 2.0. 2.5 – 4.0. 2.0 – 3.0. 2.0 – 3.0. A7 Balconies in hotels and motels B Offices. B1 General use above ground level. C1 Areas with tables. C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes and restaurants. B2 Ground level or below. C12 Reading rooms with no book storage. 2.0 – 3.0. 2.0 – 3.0. 1.5 – 4.5. 3.0 – 4.0. C13 Classrooms C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating Areas with C22 Places of worship fixed seats C3 Areas without obstacles for moving people. C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys. C4 Physical activities. C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages C42 Drill halls and drill rooms. C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars Susceptible and places of worship to large C52 Stages in public assembly areas crowds D D1 General retail shops Shopping/ D2 Department stores Retail areas Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge. 6. 3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0). 3.0 – 5.0. 4.0 – 7.0. 4.5 – 5.0. 3.5 – 7.0. 5.0 – 7.5. 3.5 – 4.5. 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0) 4.0 – 5.0. 3.5 – 7.0. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(9) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. 1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] Category. Sub-category examples. EN 1991-1-1:2010 EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.12. A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges Domestic and residential activities of roofs [see (vii)] (ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) B and C1 Offices areas. (iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including stairs. 0.36. 0.20 - 1.0 (0.5). (iv) Restaurants and cafes. D. E Storage and industrial areas. 0.74 0.8 – 1.0. 0.74. 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0 – 5.0. (xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate certifying authority). -. (xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) and (xiv). 0.74. (xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage buildings except designated escape routes. 0.8 – 2.0. (xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm wide F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs Garages and vehicle traffic areas (xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles. PART 1 EUROCODE. 0.74. 1.5. (viii) All retail areas. C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to Areas susceptible to sunken areas large crowds (x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping malls, assembly areas, studios Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to sunken areas. 0.74. 1.5. C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, Areas where people balustrade or parapet may congregate (vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps (vii) External balconies and edges of roofs Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to basement/sunken areas. UK NA Table NA.8. 0.36 0.22 1.5. See Annex B See Annex B. 7.

(10) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM Roof live load. Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated load Qk acting independently. EN 1991-1-1:2010. Imposed loads on roofs H Roofs not accessible except for normal maintenance and repair. I Roofs accessible by occupants. EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.10 2. qk,[kN/m ]. Qk,[kN]. 0 – 1.0 (0.4). 0.9 – 1.5 (1.0). UK NA Table NA.7 2. Slope, α. qk,[kN/m ]. α ≤ 30˚. 0.6. 30˚ < α < 60˚. 0.6[(60-α)/30]. α > 60˚. 0. Qk,[kN]. 0.90. Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D. • Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1 2. Working personnel, staff and visitors, with hand tools or other small site equipment shall be min. 1.0 kN/m . • Roof other than those with roof sheeting – EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.4.2 (4) Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area based on a 50 mm sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface, should be designed so that the concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load spreading arrangements.. 8. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(11) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. BMU Loading • Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999 1 – Trolley unit 2 – Monorail track 3 – Traversing trolley 4 – Single point suspended platform 5 – Carriage 6 – Fixed davit 7 – Counterweight suspension beam 8 – Suspended platform 9 – Parapet clamp 10 – Suspended chair EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3. Wind loads Description Normal operation (25mph). Wind speed. Wind pressure. 11.2 m/s. 0.08 kN/m. Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) Restrained (H > 40 m). Impact energy**. 0.29 kN. 280 N·m or J. 0.46 kN. 690 N·m or J. 1.00 kN. 1400 N·m or J. 2 2. 14 m/s. 0.125 kN/m. 20 m/s. 2. 0.25 kN/m. Wind load for 3m long BMU*. Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind 2 an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area 2 1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor. ** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade. • Minimum restraint force EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them. For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the restraint system shall be 1 kN. • Restraint system EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not exceed 20 m. 1 – Anchor point 2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point 3 – Suspension wire ropes EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1. Allowable stresses Condition. Load case. Allowable Allowable yield stress, breaking stress, σE/νE σR/νR. 1. In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind.. Fy/1.5. 2. Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, tripping of overload detection device). Fy /1.33. 3. Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary device, out-of-service wind). PART 1 EUROCODE. Fy. Fu /4.0 Fu /2.2 Fu /1.5. 9.

(12) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height. EN 795:1997 Cl. 5. Anchor Devices Class. Diagram. Class A1 - Vertical, horizontal and inclined surface anchor devices. Static load. Dynamic test. 10 kN [4.3.1.1]. 1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point. Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices. 10 kN [4.3.1.2]. 1 – Structural anchors 2 – Anchor point. Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices. 100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall at a height of 2500 ± 50 mm.. 10 kN [4.3.2]. 1 – Anchor point. Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line. 6 kN [5.3.4.1]. 1 – Structure 2 – Extremity structural anchor 3 – Intermediate structural anchor 4 – Anchor line 5 – Mobile anchor point. Class D - Horizontal rigid anchor lines 1 – Anchor rail 2 – Mobile anchor point. 100 kg mass at a maximum of 300 mm horizontal eccentricity from the anchor point to freely fall Dynamic performance test: at a height to provide sufficient fall energy to develop at least 6 kN.. One person: 10 kN Multiple person: 10 kN + 1 kN for each additional person. [4.3.4]. Class E - Dead weight anchors 1 – Anchor point. 10. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(13) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. Temporary Edge Protection EN 13374:2004. Temporary edge protection Class. Inclination. Verification Static loads:. A. < 10°. B. 10° - 30°. C. 30° - 60°. Pendulum test: ≤ 200mm: 1100 J > 200mm: 500 J. - Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under horizontal loads FT1 & FT2 for boards and FH1 for posts - No material failure under vertical load FD (γF = 1.0) - No material failure under horizontal loads FH1 & FH2 (γF = 1.5). All components are capable of resisting 30 kg upward force. Rolling Test: - 75 kg roller - Impact points (worst location): midspan and post. Sample of temporary edge protections. Class A Static load. Class B & C. Class C. Pendulum Test. Rolling Test. PART 1 EUROCODE. 11.

(14) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.3. Snow load (S) Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5. EN 1991-1-3:2003. Snow load on monopitch roof Action. Values. Notes. Clause. Data. Z A Characteristic snow load, Sk: Region. Zone Site altitude, [m]. Fig. C.1 through C1.13. UK [NA.2.8]. Sk. 0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525. Characteristic snow load on ground, 2 [kN/m ]. Table C.1. 2 Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 )   . Roof Shape coefficient. Canopy Shape coefficient. Central East. 2 ( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 )   . Central West. 0.164 Z − 0.082 + A 966. α Case (i): Undrifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ1 = 0.8 b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:  60 − α  µ1 = 0.8    30  c) α > 60˚ µ1 = 0 Case (ii): Drifted load a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚:  α  µ2 = 0.8 + 0.8    30  b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: µ2 = 1.6 c) α > 60˚ µ2 = --. Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2 (a) Flat or monopitch roof – undrifted & drifted load Table 5.2. b1 b2 h b1 ≤ 5m or { b1 > 5m; h ≤ 1m}: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 5.0}. Width of canopy projection Width of abutting taller building Differential height. (b) Duopitch Roof – undrifted (case i) and drifted load (cases ii & iii) Fig. 5.3 Table 5.2. 5.3.6. Fig. B3 B4 (d) B4 (c). b1 > 5m: ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 8.0} b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:. Fig. B2 B3 (3).  60 − α  µ3 = min { 2h S k , 2bmax l s , 8.0}    30 . Snow load. 12. Case (i) Undrifted snow load s = Ce · µ1 · sk Case (ii) Drifted snow load s = Ce · µ2 · sk case (iii) Exceptional snow drift s = µ3 · sk. Table B1. 2. Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] Exposure coefficient, Ce: Topography Ce Windswept 0.8 Normal 1.0 Sheltered 1.2. 5.2 (3)P Table 5.1. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(15) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map. PART 1 EUROCODE. LOADS. Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003. 13.

(16) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.4. Wind load (W). 1.4.1 Relevant dimensions For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.. 1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4 Direction cdir 1.0. EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2 0° 0.78. 30° 0.73. 60° 0.73. 90° 0.74. UK NA [Table NA.1] 120° 150° 180° 210° 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93. 240° 1.00. 270° 0.99. 300° 0.91. 330° 0.82. 1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason These factors provide the 0.02 probability of exceedence for the period given. Seasonal factor, cseason EN 1991-1-4 Months January February March April May June July August 1.0 September October November December January February March. 1 month 0.98 0.83 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.71 0.82 0.82 0.88 0.94 0.98 0.83 0.82. 2 months. EN 1991-1-4:2005 clause 4.2 UK NA [Table NA.2] 4 months 6 months. 0.98 0.86. 0.98 0.87. 0.83. 0.83. 0.75. 0.76. 0.71 0.67. 0.84. 0.73 0.83. 0.71. 0.86. 0.82. 0.90. 0.85 0.89. 0.96 1.00. 0.95. 1.00. 1.00. 1.00. 1.00. 0.98 0.86. 1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob The basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure determined using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years). EN 1991-1-4:2005 Cl. 4.2 UK NA [NA.2.8]. Probability factor EN 1991-1-4 Probability of exceeding a given R-return period wind speed in L years Probability factor. -. c prob =. 1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  = 1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − 1 50 ) . Return periods for climatic actions Duration Target return period Probability of exceeding in any one year, p of execution L ≤ 3 days 2 years 0.40 ≤ 1 month 3.5 years 0.25 ≤ 3 months 5 years 0.18 ≤ 1 year 10 years 0.10 > 1 year 50 years 0.02 14. p = 1 − (1 − 1 R). Probability factor cprob 0.7982 0.8376 0.8622 0.9025 1.0. R L. 1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  1.3343. EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1 Wind load Rec. basic value vb’ = cprob · vb 0.64·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.70·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.74·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s 0.81·qp qp -. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(17) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. 1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure Wind load calculation for EU Action Values Data Factors. EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause. Notes. Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P mean), [m/s] cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-] vb,0. ρ = 1.25 kg/m3. Air density. Basic velocity pressure. vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 qb = ½ρ·vb2. Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 2 Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]. Peak velocity pressure. z ce(z) qp(z) = ce(z)·qb. Height considered above terrain, [m] [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] 2 Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] Land category: Land Category 0 Sea or coastal area I Flat country without obstacles II Farmland with boundary hedges III Suburban or industrial areas IV Densely built-up urban areas. Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z). PART 1 EUROCODE. 4.5 (1) 7.2.2 Fig. 4.2 4.5 (1). EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2. 15.

(18) LOADS. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]. 16. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(19) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES Wind load calculation for UK Action Values Data. LOADS. Notes. UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause. Basic wind velocity (10 min. mean), [m/s]. Fig. NA.1.  10  calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅    z  vb,0 = vb,map · calt cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4]. Altitude factor for z ≥ 10 m., [-] Fundamental value of basic wind velocity, [m/s] Directional factor, [-] Seasonal factor, [-] Probability factor, [-]. NA.2.5. vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0. Basic wind velocity, [m/s]. 4.2 (2)P. qb = 0.613 · vb2. Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m. vb,map. [see Figure 1.4-3] 0.2. Factors Basic velocity pressure. Displacement h have = 15 m height x - for Town values of hdis: terrain (IV). 2. (if no available data). hdis (lesser of) x ≤ 2have. 3. 4.2 (2)P. 4.5(1)P. Building height, [m] Average height of neighbouring structures, [m] Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m] Effective height, [m]. A.5 (1). Exposure factor, [-]. Fig. NA.7. 0.8have; 0.6h. 2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h 0 x ≥ 6have. Orography is not significant. ce(z). [see Figure 1.4-4]. a) Country terrain (I & II) qp = ce(z) · qb b) Town terrain (III & IV) ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5] qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb. co(z) = vm/vmf Orography is significant z ≤ 50 m. 2. Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]. NA.2.17. Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-]. Fig. NA.8. Orography factor, [-]. A.3. 2.  co( z ) + 0.6  q p =   ce( z ) ⋅ qb 1.6   z > 50 m cr(z) a) Country terrain (I & II) vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb b) Town terrain (III & IV) cr,T vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb. Iv(z)flat I v(z) =. (. I v ( z ) flat co( z ). q p = 1 + 3I v( z ). PART 1 EUROCODE. ). 2. ⋅ 0.613 ⋅ v m 2. 2. Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]. NA.2.17. Roughness factor, [-]. Fig. NA.3. Mean wind velocity, [m/s]. NA.2.11. Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4 Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-]. Fig. NA.5. Turbulence intensity factor, [-]. NA.2.16 3. Peak velocity pressure for ρ = 1.226 kg/m , 2 [kN/m ]. NA.2.17. 17.

(20) LOADS. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. 1.4.6 Factors and coefficients Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]. 18. UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(21) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7. Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T. UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8. 2. 5. 5. 20. 30. 50 70. Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z). PART 1 EUROCODE. 19.

(22) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements. The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of vertical acc. to UK NA.2.27. Characteristic wind load for walls of rectangular plan buildings Action. Values. Data. Notes. e = min{b; 2h} gap values of Cpe: Side wall Zone A. Clause. Building height, crosswind breadth, inwind depth, [m] Slenderness ratio, [-]. h, b, d h/d. External pressure coefficient. UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.2. Isolated. Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5 Gap to adjacent building, [m] External pressure coeff. for isolated & funnelling, [-] Table 7.1 NA.2.27 Funnelling. ≤ 1m² > 1m² b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b -1.4 -1.2 - 1.6. B. -1.1. -0.8. - 0.9. C. -0.5. -0.5. - 0.9. Table 7.1. Windward wall D. h/d ≤ 0.25 +1.0 +0.7. h/d > 0.25 +1.0 +0.8. Leeward wall E Internal pressure coeff. Net wind Pressure. h/d ≤ 0.25 - 0.30. 1 ≥ h/d > 0.25 - 0.5. h/d >1 - 0.7. cpi(+) = +0.2 cpi(–) = –0.3 Zones A, B, C & E: w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)] Zone D: w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]. Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed opening, [-] 2. 7.2.9 5.2. Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 2. Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]. 1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.10. Walls with more than one skin Action. Values. Data. µ = (area of opening)/(area of skin). Case 1:. Permeable outside skin, µo ≥ 0.001: w+ = qp (2/3·Cpe+); w– = qp (1/3†·Cpe–) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi). Case 2:. Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe) Impermeable more rigid inside skin, µi > µo w = qp (Cpe – Cpi). Case 3:. Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Permeable inside skin, µi ≥ 0.001: w = qp (1/3·Cpi). Case 4:. Impermeable more rigid outside skin, µo > µi: w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: w=0. Note: 20. †. Notes. Clause. Permeability of a skin. 7.2.10. Applicable when extremities of the layer between skins are closed. 7.2.10. Case 1. Case 2. Case 3. Case 4. 2/3 according to CWCT 2.2.5.1.. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(23) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS. 1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London Wind Load in London Building height LONDON [m] Low-rise bldg. 10 Intermediate 25 Medium-rise 50 High-rise 100 Skyscraper 200. Pressure [kN/m²] 0,89 1,15 1,31 1,43 1,57. Isolated [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,16 -0,77 -1,50 -1,00 -1,71 -1,14 -1,87 -1,25 -2,05 -1,37. Funnelling [kN/m²] Local Suction -1,39 -0,85 -1,81 -1,10 -2,05 -1,25 -2,24 -1,37 -2,46 -1,51. 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120. Building Height [m]. 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10. -2.5. -2.0. -1.5. -1.0. -0.5. 0.0. 0.5. 1.0. 1.5. Wind Load [kN/m²]. PART 1 EUROCODE. 21.

(24) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.4.10. Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4. Wind load on free-standing walls Action Data Pressure coefficients. Values h, L φ. Net pressure coefficients. 22. 7.4.2 Fig. 7.20. ). Corner fins: cp,net = 2.0 Series of fins: x ψs cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4}. Net pressure coefficient [-] Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] Shelter factor, [-] Net pressure coefficient [-]. [BRE NJCook cl. 20.8.3] 7.4.2 Fig. 7.20. w = cp,net · qp. EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3. Values h b zg values of cf: zg ≥ h/4 zg < h/4. Net pressure. Fig. 7.19. ). Wind load on signboards Data. Fig. 7.19 7.4 (1) Table 7.9. (. Action. Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]. φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8 Without return corners* Cp3 Cp5 Cp10 L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10 2.3 2.9 3.4 A 1.4 1.8 2.1 B 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.7 C 1.2 D With return corners ≥ h 2.1 A 1.8 B 1.2 1.4 C 1.2 D * Intermediate values of Cp L c p5 − c p 3 3 < L/h < 5 c p5 −  5 −  h 2  L  c p10 − c p5  5 < L/h < 10 c p10 −  10 −  h 5  φ < 0.8: Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11. Net pressures. Clause. values of Cp: Zone. (. Fin features. Notes. Notes. Clause. Height of signboard, [m] Width of signboard, [m] Separation height of signboard from ground, [m]. Fig. 7.21 7.4 (1) Fig 7.21. cf = 1.8 b/h ≤ 1 cf = 1.8 Treat at parapet b/h > 1 acc. to 7.4.1. w = cf · q p. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(25) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.4.11. LOADS. Wind load on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8. Design wind loads on long elements Action Data Force coefficient. Values b, d, L φ values of cf,0: Structural (sharp edge). Notes. Clause. Width, depth and length of element, [m] Solidity ratio, [-]. Fig. 7.23. Force coefficients, [-]. 7.6 Fig. 7.23 7.7. cf,0 = 2.0. Circular. cf,0 = 1.0. Rectangular. See Fig. 7.23. Square. cf,0 = 2.1. Fig. 7.28. Reduction factor for square sections with radius: Reduced force coefficient, [-] ψr Fig. 7.24. End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged reduction factorsections: a) L < 15 m λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of) Free-end circular sections & Ends connected to structure: a) L < 15 m λ = L/b or 70(lesser of) b) L ≥ 50 m λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of) values of cf,0: Structural, λ = min polygon & {2L/b;70} Free-end lattice Abutted ends. Circular. cf,0 = 1.0. Any section. See Fig. 7.23. Effective slenderness ratio, [-]. Table 7.16. Fig. 7.36. End-effect factor, [-]. ψλ Net pressure. w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp. PART 1 EUROCODE. Net wind pressure. 23.

(26) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. LOADS 1.4.12. Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall. δC. δC max, wparapet. C. a. min, wparapet B. min, wcw. L. max, wcw. A. Case-1: max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs Case-2: min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs. 24. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(27) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 1.5. LOADS. Load combinations. 1.5.1 Faming member design The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic serviceability evaluations. EN 1990:2005 6.5.3. Vertical facades Serviceability. Ultimate limit state. Description. Occupancy. CO100: D. CO200: 1.35D. Dead incl. member self-weight. all. CO101: D + W p. CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p. Dead + wind pressure. all. CO102: D + W s + 0.7L. CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L. Dead + wind suction + imposed. all. CO103: D + L + *0.6W s. CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s. Dead + imposed + wind suction. all. Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1 EN 1990:2005 6.5.3. Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing Serviceability. Ultimate limit state. Description. Occupancy. CO100: D. CO200: 1.35D. Dead incl. member self-weight. all. CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S D + W p + 0.7SA. Dead + wind downforce + snow Dead + wind downforce + snow drift. all. CO102: D + S + *0.6W p. CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p D + SA + 0.7W p. Dead + snow + wind downforce Dead + snow drift + wind downforce. all. CO103: D + W s. CO203: D + 1.5W s. Dead + wind uplift. all. CO104: D + L. CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L. Dead + imposed. H. Note: *0.5W p for UK NA:2005 Table NA.A1.1 **0.7S for H >1000m a.s.l; 0.5S for H ≤ 1000m a.s.l.. 1.5.2 Glass design TRAV:2003 4.2. Vertical facades Serviceability. Description. Single glass CO301: D + W + 0.5L. Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load. CO302: D + L + 0.5W. Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load. Multiple glazing CO311: D + W + 0.5L. Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load. CO312: D + L + 0.5W. Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load. CO313: D + W p + Hw. Dead + wind pressure + winter climate. CO314: D + W s + Hw. Dead + wind suction + winter climate. CO315: D + L + Hw. Dead + imposed + winter climate. CO316: D + W p + Hs. Dead + wind pressure + summer climate. CO317: D + W s + Hs. Dead + wind suction + summer climate. PART 1 EUROCODE. 25.

(28) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS. I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 2.1. Deflection limits EN 1990:2002 cl. 3.4, states that serviceability requirements are agreed for each individual project.. 2.1.1 Primary Structure. EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004. Steel and Concrete design Component. Deflection. Steel Vertical EN 1993-1-1 deflection. Horizontal deflection. Concrete Vertical EN 1992-1-1 deflection. EN. UK NA. Carrying brittle finish. -. L/360. Other beams. -. L/200. Cantilevers. -. L/180. Tops of columns in single-storey buildings except portal frames. -. H/300. In each storey of a building with more than one storey. -. Hi/300. Beam, slab or cantilever under quasi-permanent loads. span/250. -. Deflection after construction to prevent damage to adjacent parts of the structure under quasi-permanent loads. span/500. -. Description. EN 1995-1-1:2004. Timber design EN 1995-1-1 Table 7.2 Instantaneous, winst. Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber. UK NA:2008 Table NA.5 Final, wfin = winst + wcreep. Net final, wnet,fin = winst + wcreep - wcamber No plaster*. With plaster*. Simple beam. L/300 to L/500. L/250 to L/350. L/150 to L/300. L/150. L/250. Cantilever. L/150 to L/250. L/125 to L/175. L/75 to L/150. L/75. L/125. Note: * Roof or floor members with or without a plastered or plasterboard ceiling.. 2.1.2 Facade EN 13830:2003. Curtain wall Component. Limit. Frontal deflection under wind load. L/200 or 15mm. 4.1; EN 13116:’01, 4.3.1. Horizontal framing under vertical loads. L/500 or 3mm. 4.2. 26. Clause. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(29) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 2.2. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS. Structure tolerance. 2.2.1 Concrete Structures ‘Permitted deviation’ is the permitted algebraic differences between the limits of size and the corresponding reference size (unless ± is stated). See EN 13670:2009 cl. 3.13, also ISO 1803:1997 cl. 3.8. The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. A recommended value when applying the box principle is ± 20 mm. EN 13670:2009. Tolerances Structure. Type. Base Plan section supports Foundations. Vertical section. Columns and Verticality by storey walls. Description. Permitted Deviation [mm]. Clause. Position in plan of a base support relative to the secondary lines. ∆ = ± 25. G.10.3.a. Position in vertical direction of a base support relative to the secondary level. ∆ = ± 20. G.10.3.b. Inclination of a column or wall at any level. h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}. h in mm. Offset between floors. Deviation between centrelines at floor level. Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or floors wall between adjacent storey levels. PART 1 EUROCODE. ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30. 10.4.b. ∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30. 10.4.c. h in mm. 27.

(30) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS Inclination. Beams and slabs. 28. Location of any column, wall or floor edge, at any storey level from any vertical plane through its intended design centre at base level. . ∑ hi.  ; 50   200 n . ∆ = min . 10.4.d. H in metres. Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a column relative to the secondary lines. ∆ = ± 25. G.10.4.a. Position on plan of a wall. Position in plane of a wall relative to the secondary line. ∆ = ± 25. G.10.4.b. Distance apart. Free space between adjacent columns or walls. ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60. G.10.4.c. Location of beam to column connection. Measured relative to the column. ∆ = ± max {b 30;20}. 10.5.a. Bearing. Position of bearing axis support. ∆ = ± max {l 20;15}. 10.5.b. Straightness of beam. Horizontal straightness of beams. ∆ = ± max {l 600;20}. G.10.5.a. Distance apart. Between adjacent beams, measured at corresponding points. ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 40. G.10.5.b. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(31) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Sections. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS. Inclination of beam or slab. Difference in level across a beam or slab at corresponding points in any direction. ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ). G.10.5.c. Level of adjacent beams. Measured at corresponding points. ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ). G.10.5.d. Level per storey. Level of adjacent floors at supports. ∆ = ± 20. G.10.5.e. Level. Level of floors measured relative to the intended design level at the reference level. Cross-section dimension of elements. Tolerance Class 1. H ≤ 20m : ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.f H > 20m : ∆ = ± 0.5(H+20) ≤ 50. H in metres. l ≤ 150. 400<l < 2500: ∆ = 15+ l ≥ 2500. Tolerance Class 2 See cl. 10.1(2)Notes. l ≤ 150. Tolerance Class 1. ( l − 400 ) 140. : ∆ = ± 30 : ∆ = ±5. 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 2+l 50 400<l < 2500: ∆ = 10+. Location of reinforcement. 10.6.a. : ∆ = ± 10. 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 7+l 50. ( l − 400 ). l ≥ 2500. : ∆ = ± 30. h ≤ 150. : ∆ = +10. 105. 10.6.b. 150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50 400<h < 2500: ∆ = +15+. Tolerance Class 2. h ≥ 2500. : ∆ = +25. h ≤ 150. : ∆ = +5. ( l − 400 ) 210. 150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50 400<h < 2500: ∆ = +10+ h ≥ 2500. ( l − 400 ) 210. : ∆ = +20. Lap joints. Length of reinforcement. ∆ = − 0.06 ⋅ l. Squareness of element. Orthogonality of a crosssection. ∆ = ± max {a 25;10} ≤ ±20. G.10.6.a. Moulded or smoothed surface. l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 9. G.10.7.a. Surface Flatness straightness. PART 1 EUROCODE. 10.6.c. llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 4 29.

(32) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS Not moulded surface. l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 15 llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 6. Skewness. Skewness of cross-section. ∆ = ± a 25 ≤ 30. G.10.7.b. ∆ = ±b 25 ≤ 30. Edge straightness. Floor slab or element. G.10.7.c. l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = ± 8 l > 1000 : ∆ = ± min {8·l;20}. Holes and inserts. Holes and conduit inserts. G.10.8.a. Deviation from secondary line. ∆x , ∆y = ± 25. Blockout and recesses. Deviation from secondary line. ∆x , ∆y , ∆1 , ∆2 = ± 25. G.10.8.b. Anchor bolts and similar inserts. Placing of bolts and centre of a bolt group. ∆1 = ± 10. G.10.8.c. Internal distance between bolts in a group. ∆2 = ± 3. Protrusion and inclination. ∆3 = +25/ − 5. ∆D = ± 10. ∆s = max {l3 200; 5}. Anchoring plates and similar Deviation in plane inserts. Deviation in depth. 30. ∆x , ∆y = ± 20. G.10.8.d. ∆z = ± 10. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(33) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING. I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 3.1. Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile) EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.2. Statistical evaluation of test result Action Data. Values. Notes. D7.2 Measured values [kN] Number of measured values [-] Design value of the conversion factor [-] Partial safety factor of the material [-]. x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n ηd γm. Normal distribution. mx =. Mean value [kN]. 1 ∑ xi n i 2 ∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 ). sx = ± s Vx = x mx. D7.2. Standard deviation [kN] Coefficient of variation [-]. X k = m x ( 1 − knV x ). Log-normal distribution. Clause. Characteristic value [kN]. 1 ∑ ln ( xi ) n i Vx is known from previous knowledge: my =. (. ). s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x. Logarithmic mean value [kN] Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]. Vx is unknown from previous knowledge: sy = ± Xk = e. 5% Fractile. Design value. 2. ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 ) ( m y − kn s y ). values of kn: n Vx known* Vx unknown* 1 2.31 2 2.01 3 1.89 3.37 4 1.83 2.63 5 1.80 2.33 6 1.77 2.18 8 1.74 2.00 10 1.72 1.92 20 1.68 1.76 30 1.67 1.73 ∞ 1.64 1.64 Xd =. ηd Χ γm k. Characteristic value [kN] Values of kn for the 5% characteristic Table D1 value based on the normal distribution of x’s.. Design value [kN]. Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’ needs to be determined by engineering judgement.. PART 1 EUROCODE. 31.

(34) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 3.2. Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.3. Statistical evaluation of test result Action Data. Normal distribution. Values x1, x2 .., xi .., xn n ηd. mx =. 1 ∑ xi n i. sx = ± Vx =. 2 ∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 ). sx mx. Clause. Measured values [kN] Number of measured values [-] Design value of the conversion factor which should cover all uncertainties not covered by the tests [-]. D7.3. Mean value [kN]. D7.3. Standard deviation [kN] Coefficient of variation [-]. X d = ηd m x ( 1 − kd ,nV x ). Log-normal distribution. Notes. Design value [kN]. 1 ∑ ln ( xi ) n i Vx is known from previous knowledge: my =. (. ). s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x. Logarithmic mean value [kN] Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]. Vx is unknown from previous knowledge: sy = ±. 2. ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 ). X d = ηd e. ( m y − kd ,n s y ). 0.1% lower value values of kd,n: n Vx known* Vx unknown* 1 4.36 2 3.77 3 3.56 4 3.44 11.4 5 3.37 7.85 6 3.33 6.36 8 3.27 5.07 10 3.23 4.51 20 3.16 3.64 30 3.13 3.44 ∞ 3.04 3.04. Design value [kN] Values of kd,n for a probability of observing a lower value of about 0.1% based on normal distribution of x’s.. Table D2. Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’ needs to be determined by engineering judgement.. 32. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(35) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. I-4 STEEL DESIGN 4.1. Properties of steel EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl. 3.2.6. Material constants of structural steel Form. Density, γ [kN/m³]. Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³]. Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]. Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+)ν] 2 [N/mm ]. Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]. 77.0. 7 850. 210 000. 81 000. 0.30. All. Characteristic values of structural steel (3mm ≤ t ≤ 40mm) Form Process Grade Yield strength, 2 fy [N/mm ] Sections, plates, bars and rods. t ≤ 40. S235JR/J0/J2. 235. 225. 360. 0.80. S275JR/J0/J2. 275. 265. 430. 0.85. S355JR/J0/J2/K2. 355. 345. 510. 0.90. Normalized/ S275N/NL Normalized S355N/NL rolled weldable fine grain S420N/NL. 275. 265. 370. 355. 345. 470. 420. 400. 520. S460N/NL. 460. 440. 540. ThermoS275M/ML mechanical S355M/ML rolled weldable fine grain S420M/ML. 275. 265. 370. 355. 345. 470. 420. 400. 520. S460M/ML. 460. 440. 540. S235J0W/J2W. 235. 225. 360. S355J0W/J2W S355J0WP/J2WP. 355. 345. 470. Improved atmospheric corrosion resistance. Quenched and S460Q/QL/QL1 tempered S500Q/QL/QL1. 460. 550. 500. 590. S550Q/QL/QL1. 550. 640. S620Q/QL/QL1. 620. 700. S690Q/QL/QL1. 690. 770. S890Q/QL/QL1. 890. 940. S960Q/QL/QL1. 960. 980. Hollow sections Hot finished. Cold formed. PART 1 EUROCODE. -6. 12·10. EN 1993-1-1:2005, Table 3.1 Min. tensile Fillet weld Reference strength, correlation 2 ft [N/mm ] factor, βw [-]. 3 ≤ t ≤ 16 Non-alloy. Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C]. [EN 10025-2]. [EN 10025-3]. [EN 10025-4]. [EN 10025-5]. [EN 10025-6]. S 235 H. 235. 235. 360. 0.80. S 275 H. 275. 275. 430. 0.85. S 355 H. 355. 355. 510. 0.90. S 460 NH. 460. 460. 560. 1.00. S 235 H. 235. 235. 360. 0.80. S 275 H. 275. 275. 430. 0.85. S 355 H. 355. 355. 510. 0.90. S 460 NH. 460. 460. 550. 1.00. [EN 10210-1]. [EN 10219-1]. 33.

(36) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES EN 1993-1-3:2006, Table 3.1. Characteristic values of steel sheets (t ≤ 3mm ) Form. Process. Sheets for Constuction. Sheets for Cold forming. Yield strength, fy 2 [N/mm ]. Min. tensile strength, 2 ft [N/mm ]. Pre-galvanized S220GD. 220. 300. S250GD. 250. 330. S280GD. 280. 360. S320GD. 320. 390. S350GD. 350. 420. Hot rolled. S235JR. 210. 320. [EN 10025-2:2004]. Hot rolled weldable. S275N/NL. 220. 330. [EN 10025-3:2004] [EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10327]. Pre-galvanized DX51D Low carbon DX52D/53D/55D mild steel. -. 270. 140. 270. DX54D/56D/57D. 120. 260. Pre-galvanized HX160YD High strength HX180YD/BD. 160. 300. 180. 330/290. HX220YD/BD. 220. 340/320. HX260YD/BD/LAD. 260. 380/360/350. HX300YD/BD/LAD. 300. 390/400/380. HX340BD/LAD. 340. 440/410. HX380LAD. 380. 440. HX420LAD. 420. 470. Pre-galvanized HCT450X Cold rolled HCT500X. 260. 450. 300. 500. HCT600X. 340. 600. Pre-galvanized HDT450F Hot rolled HDT560F. 320. 450. 460. 560. HDT580X. 330. 580. DC01/03/04/05. 140. 270. DC06. 120. 270. DD11. 170. 440. DD12. 170. 420. DD13. 170. 400. DD14. 170. 380. Cold-rolled. Hot-rolled. 34. Grade. Remarks. [EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10326]. [EN 10346:2009 superseded EN 10292]. [EN 10346:2009]. [EN 10346:2009]. [EN 10130:1999]. [EN 10111:1998]. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(37) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 4.2. Properties of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Cl. 2.1.3. Material constants of stainless steel Microstructure. Density, γ [kN/m³]. Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³]. Young’s modulus, E 2 [N/mm ]. Austenitic 1.4539, 1.4529 & 1.4547 Austenitic Others. Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+ν)] 2 [N/mm ]. Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]. Thermal coefficient, α [/˚C]. 77 000. 0.30. 16·10. 195 000 77.0. 7 850. 200 000. Ferritic. -6. 220 000 EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.1. Characteristic values of stainless steel Grade. AISI. Cold rolled sheet, Hot rolled sheet, strip & plates strip & plates t ≤ 6 mm t ≤ 12 mm (≤ 75mm) fy fu fy 2 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]. 1.4301. 304. fu 2 [N/mm ]. Bars, rods & sections t ≤ 250 mm fy fu 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]. Secant Modulus Coeff., n [Rolling direction] Long.. Bend radius. Trans. [EN 1090-2]. 230. 540. 210. 520. 190. 500. 6. 8. 2t. 1.4306, 1.4307 304L. 220. 520. 200. 520 (500). 175. 450. 6. 8. 2t. 1.4401. 240. 530. 220. 530 (520). 200. 500. 7. 9. 2t. 1.4404, 1.4435 316L. 240. 530. 220. 530 (520). 200. 500. 7. 9. 2t. 1.4462. 480. 660. 460. 660 (640). 450. 650. 5. 5. 2.5t. 316. Duplex. Note: Fillet weld correction factor, βw = 1.0 for Stainless steel. EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table B.1; EN 10088-2:2005 Table 17. Work hardened condition (process route 2H) Microstructure. Symbol. 0.2% proof strength level, 2 Rp0.2 [N/mm ]. Tensile strength level, 2 Rm [N/mm ]. Austenitic steels. +C700. -. 700 – 850. +C850. -. 850 – 1000. +C1000. -. 1000 – 1150. +CP350. 350 – 500. -. +CP500. 500 – 700. -. +CP700. 700 – 900. -. 4.2.1 Secant modulus of stainless steel. E s,ser =. (E s,1 +E s,2 ) 2. E. E s,i = 1+0.002. E σ i,Ed,ser.  σi,Ed,ser   fy.   . n. where: Es,1 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ1 in the tension flange. Es,2 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ2 in the compression flange.. PART 1 EUROCODE. 35.

(38) STEEL DESIGN 4.3. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Resistance of steel cross-sections. 4.3.1 Partial safety factors Partial material safety factors for ultimate limit states Steel. Part. [EN 1993-1-1]. Stainless steel. UK NA.2.15. [EN 1993-1-4]. Resistance of cross-section whatever class. γM0. 1.0. 1.0. 1.1. Resistance of members to instability. γM1. 1.0. 1.0. 1.1. Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture. γM2. 1.25. 1.1. 1.25. 4.3.2 General cross-sections EN 1993-1-1:2005. Design resistance of steel structures Mode Shear. Values V Ed ≤ 1.0 Vc ,Rd. {. Vc,Rd = min V pl,Rd ; Vc,Rd. }. Plastic shear resistance A V pl,Rd = v f y γ M0 3 Elastic shear resistance(horizontal shear) I·t 1 Vc,Rd = f γ Q 3 y M0 Torsional shear ( It c ) f γ ≥ T TRd = y M0 Ed 3 ( I t c ) ≈ b 2 t 2 ( 3b + 1.8t ) Bending. {. }. Lateral-torsional buckling: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M b ,Rd M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd. RHS // to h. Av = A ⋅ h ( b+h ). RHS ⊥ to h. Av = A ⋅ b ( b+h ). CHS. Av = 2A π. Flat bar. Av = 0.8A. Round bar. Av = 0.6A. General yielding along the member [kN·m] Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]. 6.2.5(4) 6.2.5(2). Section modulus, W: W = W pl Class 1 & 2. 6.3.2.1(1). Class 3. W = Wel. Class 4. W = Weff. 6.3.2.1(3). Design buckling resistance moment [kN·m]. where:. π EI z GI t. Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]. L = W y f y M cr. Slenderness [-] 2. φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT  1 χ LT = ≤ 1.0 φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2. 36. 6.2.6. Design tension resistance [kN·m]. M u,Rd = Wel,net f u γ M2. λ LT. Design shear resistance [kN] Shear area, Av: Av = hw t w I, H, C, T. 6.2.5(1). M c,Rd =W f y γ M0. M cr =. Clause. Torsional resistance [kN·m] Approx. non-linear torsional constant [mm³] (refer to design aide formulas for exact value). Pure bending: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M c ,Rd M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd. Notes. 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.2. Initial sway inperfection [-] Reduction factor for buckling [-] Imperfection factor, αLT:. 6.3.2.2. Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2. a. α LT = 0.21. Rolled I, h/b > 2. b. α LT = 0.34. Welded I, h/b ≤ 2. c. α LT = 0.49. Welded I, h/b > 2 Other sections. d. α LT = 0.76. 6.3.2.1. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(39) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. EN 1993-1-1:2005. Design resistance of steel structures Mode Tension. Values. Notes. Clause 2. Gross section area [mm ] 2 Net section area [mm ]. A Anet Basis: N Ed ≤ 1.0 N t ,Rd. 6.2.3. Where:. {. N t,Rd = min N pl ,Rd ; N u ,Rd. Compression. }. Design tension resistance [kN]. N pl,Rd = A f y γ M0. Design plastic resistance of gross section [kN]. N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2. Local failure at a section with holes [kN]. Local squashing N Ed ≤ 1.0 N c ,Rd. 6.2.4. Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections: N c,Rd = A f y γ M0 Class 4 cross sections: N c,Rd = Aeff f y γ M0. Design compression resistance [kN]. Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding [kN]. 6.3.1.1. Flexural buckling, λ > 0.2 : N Ed ≤ 1.0 N b ,Rd N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1. a) Critical flexural buckling: π EI y π EI z ; N cr,z = N cr,y = 2 2 ( kz L) ky L. (. N cr. 1. φ + φ2 −λ 2. ≤ 1.0. Effective length factor, k: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0. PART 1 EUROCODE.  yo is the distance from the shear centre to the  centroid of the gross cross section along the y-y . axis (zero for doubly symmetric sections). A⋅ fy. φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 . χ =. 6.3.1.2. ). a) Critical torsional buckling:  π EI w 1 N cr,T = 2  GIt + 2 2  i y + i z + yo  Lcr 2. λ =. Elastic critical force [kN]. Slenderness [-]. 6.3.1.2. Initial sway inperfection [-]. 6.3.1.2. Reduction factor for buckling [-] Imperfection factor, α: RHS, CHS (HF). Table 6.2 a. α = 0.21. Rolled I, h/b > 1.2 L. b. α = 0.34. RHS, CHS (CF) Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2 Welded I Solid, C, T. c. α = 0.49. Welded I, h/b > 2 Other sections. d. α = 0.76. 37.

(40) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. 4.3.3 Buckling resistance of steel cross-sections EN 1993-1-1:2005. Lateral-torsional buckling. Clause T. h d. h. y. t. Wy. Section modulus: Section. ≤ 10ε. W pl , y. Class 1 & 2. ≤ 20ε. W pl , y = bh 2 4. ≤ 14ε. Wel , y. Class 3. ≤ 42ε. Wel , y = bh 2 6. web d/t. flange b/2T. Class 1 & 2. ≤ 83ε. Class 3. ≤ 124ε. Class 3. values of γLT,0:. Welded. χ LT =. χ LT =. γLT,0 = 0.2. Lc = 1638.9 I z I t W y f y. β = 1.0. Tables 6.3 & 6.4. Lc = 1639.1 ⋅b f y. λ LT = 0.00494 f y L / b. 6.3.2.2. φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 2 . Lc = 6556.4 I z I t W y f y. β = 0.75. Table 5.2. Wy. Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Lc = 1092.8 ⋅b f y Class 1 & 2 λ LT = 0.00605 f y L / b. φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − λ LT ,0 ) + βλ LT 2  γLT,0 = 0.4. h/b. 6.3.2.2. Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Wy fy L λ LT = 0.00494 Iz It. Rolled. 6.3.2.1. M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1. M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1. Section modulus: Section. y. 1. φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2. ≤ 1.0. where:. 1. φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2. 6.3.1.3. ε = 235 f y. ≤ 1.0. EN 1993-1-1:2005. Compression buckling. Clause. z. t. h c. d. y. t. N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1. Buckling about y-y: π EI y N cr,y = 2 ky L. (. ). Buckling about z-z: π EI z N cr,z = 2 ( kz L). λ =. A⋅ fy N cr. t. h. d. y. y. N b,Rd = χ b h f y γ M1. Buckling about y-y: kyL λ = 0.004265 fy h Buckling about z-z: k L λ = 0.004265 z fy b φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 . χ =. 1. φ + φ2 −λ 2. y. 6.3.1.1. N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1. λ = 0.009849. kyL d. 6.3.1.2. fy. φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 . χ =. 1. φ + φ2 −λ 2. ≤ 1.0. ≤ 1.0. φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2  values of α: Hot finished α = 0.21 Cold formed α = 0.49 1 χ = ≤ 1.0 φ + φ2 −λ 2 38. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(41) STEEL DESIGN. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 4.4. Sheets as diaphragms EN 1993-1-5:2006 Cl. 5. Shear buckling resistance of sheets Action Data. Values hw a tw E fyw η = 1.2. Shear buckling Criteria for slender web: hw ε > 72 tw η kτ = 5.34 2.  tw   kτ  hw . τ cr = 190 000  λ w = 0.76 χw =. Clause. Height of sheet parallel to direction of shear [mm] Width of sheet [mm] Sheet thickness [mm] 2 Modulus of elasticity [N/mm ] Yield strength of sheet [-] For steel grades up to S460. 5.1 (2). Slender web. 5.1 (2). Shear buckling coefficient [-] A.3 (1) For plates without transverse and longitudinal stiffeners 5.3 (3) & 2 Critical shear stress, [N/mm ] A.1 (2). f yw. τ cr. 0.83. λw. Vbw ,Rd = χ w. Notes. hw t w f yw 3 1.1. Slenderness parameter [-]. 5.3 (3). Shear buckling factor. Table 5.1. Design shear buckling resistance [N]. 5.2 (1). c. hw V. V. H a. c =. PART 1 EUROCODE. 2a ( 1+v ) 1000Et w hw. Shear stiffness [mm/kN]. BS5950 Table 9. 39.

(42) STEEL DESIGN 4.5. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. Cold-formed members EN 1993-1-5:2006. Panel edge stiffeners Action Data. Values. Notes 235 fy. ε = λp =. Single edge fold. Yield constant [-] b t. Slenderness [-] 4.4. 28.4 ⋅ ε kσ. b = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t ) kσ = 4.0. ρ=. λ p − 0.22 λp. beff = ρ. 2. ≤ 1.0. Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]. 28.4t − 354.9 t 2 b. S275. 26.2t − 303.2 t 2 b. S280GD. 26t − 297.8 t 2 b. S320GD. 24.3t − 260.6 t 2 b. Table 4.2. kσ = 0.5. λ p − 0.188 2. ≤ 1.0. ceff = ρ ⋅ c. Double edge fold. Approx. ceff 20.1t − 75.8 t 2 c. S275. 18.6t − 64.8 t 2 c. S280GD. 18.4t − 63.6 t 2 c. S320GD. 17.2t − 55.7 t 2 c. d = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) kσ = 0.43. λ p − 0.188 λp. 2. d eff = ρ ⋅ d. 40. Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-] Effective return depth [mm]. Grade S235. ρ=. Table 4.1. Approx. beff. c = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ). λp. Table 4.1 4.4. Reduction factor for plate buckling [-] Effective width [mm]. b 2. Grade S235. ρ=. Clause. ≤ 1.0. 4.4 Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-]. 4.4. Effective lip [mm]. Table 4.2. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(43) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.1. Properties of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 3.2.5. Material constants of aluminium Form. Density, γ [kN/m³]. Unit weight, ρ [kg/m³]. Modulus of elasticity, E 2 [N/mm ]. Modulus of rigidity, G = E/[2(1+)ν] 2 [N/mm ]. Poisson’s ratio, ν [-]. 26.6. 2 700. 70 000. 27 700. 0.30. All. Coef. of linear thermal exp., α [/˚C] -6. 23·10. EN 485-2:2007. Aluminium sheet, strip and plate Form. Alloy. Temper. Site formed sheets. 1050A [Al 99.5]. Preformed Sheets or Plates. 3003 [AlMn1Cu]. ρu,haz. 1. 1. 65. H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 75. 105. O/H111. ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 35. 95. H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 115. 145. 5005/5005A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 [AlMg1] H22/H32 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 35. 100. 1. 80. 125. H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 110. O/H111. ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. H24/H34 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 5083 [Al Mg4,5 Mn0,7]. Bend radius*. ρo,haz. 20. 180°. 90°. 0│0.5t│t t│-│-. t│1.5t│2.5t. 0│t│-. 0│t│1.5t. 2t│-│-. t│2t│2.5t. 1. 0.5t│t│-. 0│t│1.5t. 0.55. 0.80. 1.5t│-│-. t│t│2t. 145. 0.37. 0.69. 2.5t│-│-. t│2t│2.5t. 80. 190. 1. 1. t│t│-. t│t│2t. 160. 240. 0.63. 0.79. 2.5t│-│-. 2t│2.5t│3t. ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 255. 300. 0.48. 0.60. -. 3.5t│4.5t│6t. O/H111. ≤6│≤25. 125. 190. 1. 1. -. 1.5t│-. H22/H32. ≤6│≤25. 215. 305. 0.72. 0.90. -. 2.5t│-. H24/H34. ≤6│≤25. 250. 400. 0.62. 0.81. -. 3.5t│-. 6082 T6/T651 [AlSi1MgMn] Plates. HAZ-factor. ≤3│≤6│≤12.5. 5754 [AlMg3]. O/H111. Rp0.2 Rm 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]. Thickness t [mm]. 1. 1. Note: * For information only. Characteristic values of aluminium Form Grade Chemical Temper symbol Extrusion 6060. [AlMgSi]. T5. t ≤ 5│≤ 25. 120│100. T6. t ≤ 15. 140. T66. t ≤ 3│≤ 25. 160│150. t ≤ 20. 240. T5. t ≤ 3│≤ 25. 130│110. T6. t ≤ 25. 160. t ≤ 5│≤ 10. 225│215. 10 < t ≤ 25. 200. 6061. [AlMg1SiCu] T6. 6063. [AlMg0,7Si]. 6005A [AlSiMg]. Thickness 0.2% proof Tensile strength, fo strength, fu t 2 2 [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]. T6 Open section. Hollow section t ≤ 5│≤ 10. Cast. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.2 HAZ- HAZ-factor, Buckling ρu,haz factor, class ρo,haz. 160│140 0.42│0.50 0.50│0.57 170. 0.43. 0.59. 215│195 0.41│0.43 0.51│0.56 260. 0.48. 0.67. 175│160 0.46│0.55 0.57│0.63 195. 0.41. 0.56. 270│260 0.51│0.53 0.61│0.63 250. 0.58. 0.66. B A A A B A A A. 215│200. 255│250 0.53│0.58 0.65│0.66. A. 290│310 0.50│0.48 0.64│0.60. A. 6082. [AlSi1MgMn] T6. t ≤ 5│≤ 15. 250│260. 7020. [AlZn4,5Mg1] T6. t ≤ 15│≤ 40. 290│275. 350. 0.71│0.75. 0.80. A. 42100 [AlSi7Mg0.3] T6. -. 147. 203. -. -. A. 42200 [AlSi7Mg0.6] T6. -. 168. 224. -. -. A. PART 1 EUROCODE. 41.

(44) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners Form Grade Chemical symbol Tempering (Designation to EN28839) Solid rivets. 5019 5754 6082. Bolts. 5.2. AlMg5 AlMg3 AlSi1MgMn. Diameter, d [mm]. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4 0.2% proof strength Tensile strength fo fu 2 2 [N/mm ] [N/mm ]. H111. ≤ 20. 110. 250. H14,H34. ≤ 18. 210. 300. H111. ≤ 20. 80. 180. H14/H34. ≤ 18. 180. 240. T4. ≤ 20. 110. 205. T6. ≤ 20. 240. 300. 5754. AlMg3 (AL1). -. ≤ 10│≤ 20. 230│180. 270│250. 5019. AlMg5 (AL2). -. ≤ 14│≤ 36. 205│205. 310│280. 6082. AlSi1MgMn (AL3). -. ≤ 6│≤ 36. 250│260. 320│310. Definitions. 5.2.1 H Tempers Work hardening is used extensively to produce strain-hardened tempers of the non-heat-treatable alloys. HXY H – Strain hardened by cold working X = 1 for strain hardened only. = 2 for strain hardened and partially annealed. The products are strain hardened more than is required to achieve the desired properties and then are reduced in strength by partial annealing. = 3 for strain hardened and stabilized. In the strain-hardened condition, these alloys tend to age soften at room temperature. Therefore, they are usually heated at a low temperature to complete the age-softening process and to provide stable mechanical properties and improved working characteristics. Y = 2 for quarter-hard cold work condition. = 4 for half-hard cold work condition. = 6 for three-quarter cold work condition. = 8 for full-hard cold work condition. = 9 for extra-hard cold work condition.. 5.2.2 T Tempers The complete heat-treatment consists of a solution heat-treatment, a quenching process and subsequent ageing, where the actual hardening occurs. It must be said that, unlike steel, aluminium alloys are definitely not hard after quenching. To get the highest strength values it is important to keep the material for sufficient time at the correct solution heat temperature and to follow the correct quenching procedure. Depending on the alloy this may be carried out using water or moving air. Quenching with water produces distortion and residual stresses. Alloys quenchable with air have some technical and economical advantages, but the most of the high strength alloys need to be water quenched. If the solution heat-treatment or the quenching process is not properly executed this will result in lower values with respect to mechanical strength and elongation (ductility). Symbol Description T4 = Solution heat-treated and then naturally aged T5 = Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged T6 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged T61, T64 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions in order to improve formability (T64 between T61 and T6) T66 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged –mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special control of the process 6000 series alloys T7 = Solution heat-treated and artificially over-aged 42. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(45) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.3. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. Protection at metal-to-metal contacts Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to take precautions against crevice and galvanic effects. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table D.2. Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners Metal to be joined to aluminium (M). Bolt/rivet material (B/R). Dry, unpolluted (M). Aluminium Aluminium. Painted steel Zinc-coated steel. Stainless steel. Stainless steel. Industrial urban. Rural. (B/R). Mild (M). 0 0. 0. (B/R). 0. Zinc-coated steel. 0. (2). Aluminium. 0. 0. Stainless steel. 0. 0. (M). 0 0. 0. 0. (B/R). 0/X. 0. 0 0/X a. 0. (2). (2). Aluminium. 0. 0. 0. Zinc-coated steel. 0 0. 0. 0 (2). 0/X a. 0 (2). (B/R) 1. X a. 1 1 (2). (1) (2). 0. 0. (M). 0. Zinc-coated steel. Stainless steel. Severe. Moderate. X a z. X a z. 1 1 1 (2) 1 1 1 (2). Treatments applied to the contact areas of structural members Procedure 0 A treatment is usually unnecessary for causes of corrosion Procedure 0/X Treatment depends on structural conditions. Small contact areas and areas which dry quickly may be assembled without sealing (see procedure X) Procedure X Both contact surfaces should be assembled so that no crevices exist where water can penetrate. Both contact surfaces, including bolt and rivet holes should, before assembly, be cleaned, pre-treated and receive one priming coat, see prEN 1090-3, or sealing compound, extending beyond the contact area. The surfaces should be brought together while priming coat is still wet. Where assembling pre-painted or protected components sealing of the contact surfaces might be unnecessary, dependant on the composition of the paint or protection system employed, the expected life and the environment. Treatment applied to bolts and rivets Procedure 0 No additional treatment is usually necessary. Procedure 1 Inert washers or jointing compound should be applied between the bolt heads, nuts, washers and connected materials to seal the joint and to prevent moisture entering the interface between components and fixings. Care should be employed to ensure that load transfer through the joint is not adversely affected by the washers or jointing compounds. Procedure 2 Where the joint is not painted or coated for other reasons, the heads of bolts, nuts and rivets should be protected with at least one priming coat (see prEN 1090-3;), care being taken to seal all crevices. Note: Similar coating on aluminium and zinc-coated steel parts around the stainless steel bolts is required only for immersed structures. Further treatments Procedure a If not painted for other reasons it may be necessary to protect the adjacent metallic parts of the contact area by a suitable paint coating in cases where dirt may be entrapped or where moisture retained. Procedure z Additional protection of zinc-coated structural parts as a whole may be necessary. PART 1 EUROCODE. 43.

(46) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.4. Cross-sectional properties. 5.4.1 Section Classification EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4, 6.1.5. Classification of cross-sections Action Data. Internal. Values b, t c yc yo fo. ε =. 250 / f o. (β ε ). = η ε ⋅b t. Notes. Clause. Width and thickness of critical part [mm] Length of reinforcement leg (if any) [mm] Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge [mm] Dist. to n.a. of other edge [mm] Tensile yield strength of alloy [N/mm2]. Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.2. Yield point constant [-] Effective slenderness ratio [-]. Table 6.2 6.1.4.3 Fig. 6.2. Unreinforced: a) uniform compression η = 1.0 b) stress gradient, yo/yc ≥ –1.0 η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc ) c) stress gradient, yo/yc < –1.0 η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc )  Singly-reinforced:. Fig. 6.4. 1. η=. 1 + 2.5 ( c t − 1 ). 2. Doubly-reinforced: 1 η= 2 1 + 4.5 ( c t − 1 ). ≥ 0.5. (b t ). yo /yc ≥ 0.33. (b t ). Classification of cross-section part: Class Local buckling factor 1 β ≤ 11ε ρc = 1.0 2 11 < β ≤ 16ε 3 16 < β ≤ 22ε 32 220 ρc = – 4 β > 22 β ε ( ) ( β ε )2. (yo /yc)σ. Table 6.3 (a) singly-reinforced. (b) doubly-reinforced Fig. 6.2. Reinforced: ce = 3 t c t ⋅ c. Fig. 6.4. 1 1 + 0.1 ( ce t − 1 ). 2. (a) Uniform thickness (b) Non-uniform thickness Reinforced outstand. Classification of cross-section part: Class Local buckling factor β ≤ 3 ε 1 ρc = 1.0 2 3 < β ≤ 4.5ε 3 4.5 < β ≤ 6ε 10 24 ρc = – 4β > 6 ( β ε ) ( β ε )2 t eff = ρ c ⋅ t 44. 6.1.4.4 Table 6.2. Outstand Unreinforced: a) yc is free-end/toe η = 1.0 b) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc ≥ –1.0 η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc ) c) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc < –1.0 η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) . η =. Table 3.2. 6.1.4.4 Table 6.2 Table 6.3. Effective thickness [mm]. 6.1.5. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(47) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. 5.4.2 Local buckling The table below is a guide for minimum thickness for a class 3 cross-section part and prevent local buckling. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4 Internal. Non-welded aluminium profile Class 3 minimum thickness Outstand peak comp. @ toe peak comp. @ root. ε O0 · · · O1 η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 6060. 6063. O2 0,7. O3 0,6. O5 0,4. I0 1,0. I1 0,8. I2 0,7. I3 0,6. I5 0,4. T5 (t ≤ 5) B. 1,44. b/7,2. b/9. b/10,3. b/12. b/18. b/26. b/32,5. b/37,1. b/43,3. b/65. T6 (t ≤ 15) A. 1,34. b/8. b/10. b/11,5. b/13,4. b/20. b/29,4. b/36,7. b/42. b/49. b/73,5. T66 (t > 3) A. 1,29. b/7,7. b/9,7. b/11,1. b/12,9. b/19,4. b/28,4. b/35,5. b/40,6. b/47,3. b/71. T5 (t > 3) B. 1,51. b/7,5. b/9,4. b/10,8. b/12,6. b/18,8. b/27,1. b/33,9. b/38,8. b/45,2. b/67,8. T6 (t ≤ 25) A. 1,25. b/7,5. b/9,4. b/10,7. b/12,5. b/18,8. b/27,5. b/34,4. b/39,3. b/45,8. b/68,8. Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part. PART 1 EUROCODE. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4. 45.

(48) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN 5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles. EN 14024:2004 Annex C. Effective properties of thermally broken profiles Action Data. Values. Notes 4. Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ] Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm] 4 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ] Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm] Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²] Length of member [mm]. A1, I1 a1,i A2, I2 a2,o E L c=. Centroid distances. Clause. ∆F ∆δ ⋅ L. z =  A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o )  a1 = z − a1,i. ( A1 + A2 ). Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm]. 5.4.3. Location of centroid [mm]. Annex C. a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o. Moments of intertia. ν =. A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Is. C =. I ef. Effect of elastic connection [-]. Partial solution constant [-]. π 2 +λ2 1 −ν = Is 1 −ν ⋅ C. We,2 =. 4. Effective moment of inertia [mm ] 1. C ( a1 + a1,i ) Is. +. ( 1 − C ) a1,i. C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o ). +. 3. Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]. I1 + I 2. 1 Is. 46. 4. λ2. We,1 =. Annex C. Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]. c ⋅ a 2 L2 E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν ). λ=. Section modulus. 4. Rigid moment of inertia [mm ]. I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2. 3. Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]. ( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o I1 + I 2. PART 1 EUROCODE.

(49) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES 5.5. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. Resistance of aluminium cross-sections. 5.5.1 Partial safety factors EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1. Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states Part. Example. EN 1999. UK NA. Resistance of member to instability. Bending and overall yielding. γM1 = 1.1. γM1 = 1.1. Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture. Local capacity in net tension. γM2 = 1.25. γM2 = 1.25. EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.. 5.5.2 General cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007. Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Shear. Values. Notes. Av, Ae Utilization grade: VEd ≤ 1.0 VRd. Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] E γ U= k F Rk γ M. General, hw/tw < 39ε: VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 values of Av: Av = 0.8· Ae Solid bar Av = 0.6· Ae Round tubes. Design shear resistance for sections containing shear webs [kN]. Torsional shear TRd = ( I t c ) Bending. Clause 2. 6.2.7 Design torsional shear resistance [kN]. 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 ≥ TEd. 3. Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5 Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for 3 holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]. Wel Wnet Pure bending: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M Rd. {. M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd. }. Design tension resistance [kN·m]. M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1. General yielding along the member [kN·m]. M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2. Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]. values of α: α = W pl Wel Class 1 & 2 Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0 Lateral-torsional buckling: M Ed ≤ 1.0 M b ,Rd. Shape factor [-] Table 6.4 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding. M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd. where: M cr = π EI z GI t L. Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m] Slenderness [-]. λ LT = α Wel , y f o M cr 2. φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − λ0 ,LT ) + λ LT  Initial sway inperfection [-]. χ LT =. 1. φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 values of αLT & λ0,LT:. ≤ 1.0. Class 1 & 2. α LT = 0.1 λ0 ,LT = 0.6. Class 3 & 4. α LT = 0.2 λ0 ,LT = 0.4. PART 1 EUROCODE. 6.2.6 (A.1). Reduction factor for buckling [-]. 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1 I.1 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.1. Imperfection factor [-] Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]. 6.3.2.1. 47.

(50) STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES. ALUMINIUM DESIGN. EN 1999-1-1:2007. Design resistance of aluminium structures Mode Tension. Values. Notes. Clause 2. Gross section area [mm ] 2 Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]. Ag Anet Aeff Basis: N Ed ≤ 1.0 N t ,Rd. 6.2.3. Where:. {. N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd. Compression. }. Design tension resistance [kN]. N o,Rd = Ag f o γ M1. General yielding along the member [kN]. N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2. Local failure at a section with holes [kN]. N u,Rd = Aeff f u γ M2. Local failure at a section with holes [kN] 2. Net section area [mm ] Effective area based on the reduced thickness of 2 ρu,haz [mm ]. Anet Aeff Local squashing N Ed ≤ 1.0 N c ,Rd. {. N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd. }. N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1. Local failure at a section with holes [kN]. Flexural buckling, λ > λo : N Ed ≤ 1.0 N b ,Rd. 6.3.1.1 Design buckling resistance of compression member without welding [kN]. N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1. a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections: π EI y π EI z ; N cr,z = N cr,y = 2 2 ( kz L) ky L. λ =. Elastic critical force [kN]. ). N cr. φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − λo ) + λ 2  1. I.3 Slenderness [-]. Aeff f o. χ =. Design tension resistance [kN] General yielding along the member [kN]. N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2. (. Initial sway inperfection [-] Reduction factor for buckling [-]. ≤ 1.0. values of α & λ0: α = 0.2 Class A. α = 0.32. λo = 0.0. 6.3.1.2. Table 6.8. Imperfection factor [-]. λo = 0.1. 6.3.1.2. 6.3.1.2. φ + φ2 − λ 2 values of k: 0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0. Class B. 6.2.4. Table 6.6. Limit of the horizontal plateau [-] See section 5.1 for buckling class. Torsional-flexural buckling, λ T > λo : See I.3& I.4. 48. PART 1 EUROCODE.

No results found