A
History
of
COSTUME
by
Rachel
II.Kemper
COSTUME
by
Rachel
H.
Kemper
Fashion
is identity. It tells us at a glance thenationality, occupation,
and
social station of thewearer—
and
oftensomething
about his or her religion, education,and
sexual proclivities as well.From
wedding
band
to old school tie,from
hardhat to sensible shoes, every item of apparelhelps to establish its owner's place in society.
There
isno
readier index to an individual'swealth,
power,
taste,and
influence thanwhat
he orshewears.The
notion ofcostume
is as old asman,
for itis the
wearing
of clothes, rather than theoppos-able
thumb,
that separatesman
from
the lesserprimates.
The
initial function of clothingwas
largely practical: it protected primitive
man
from
the elementsand
from
predators—including othermen.
The
knight's armor, thehockey
play-er's shin pads, the astronaut's spacesuit—all
were
designed for utility, not elegance.But
at leastsince the invention of
modesty,
costume
hasserved another, equally importantfunction: it has
played a principal role in courtship, seduction,
mating,
and
marriage. Since the beginning ofrecorded
timeboth
sexeshave sought
toenhance
their natural looks, often at considerable cost
and sometimes through
considerable pain. Feethave
been bound,
heads elongated, waistscon-stricted,
and
nosesbobbed,
all in thename
offashion.
The
concept
ofwhat
constitutesbeauty
has varied greatlyfrom
culture to cultureand
continent to
continent—
Japanesewomen
dusted themselveswith
chalk-whitepowder,
Aztec
(Continued
on back
flap)COSTUME
NEWSWEEK
BOOKS
AlvinGarfin,EditorandPublisher
KathleenBerger,ManagingEditor
Edwin
D. Bayrd,Jr.,Contributing EditorMary
Ann
Joulwan,ArtDirector LauriePiattWinfrey,Picture EditorTitle page:
A
Sung Dynasty scroll painting, attributed to Emperor Hui Tsung,depicts court ladies ironing a bolt of newly
woven
silk.Grateful acknowledgment is
made
for the use of excerpted material on pages154-81 fromthefollowingworks:
Afterthe Banquetby Yukio Mishima. Copyright
©
1963 byAlfredA.Knopf, Inc.Reprinted by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Translated by Donald Keene.
From
Babbittby Sinclair Lewis, copyright, 1922, by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.; renewed, 1950, bySinclair Lewis. Reprinted bypermission of the publishers.Death in Venice and Seven Other Stories by
Thomas
Mann. Copyright©
1930and renewed 1958 by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Alfred A.Knopf,Inc.Translatedby H.T.Lowe-Porter.
The
GreatGatsby byF. ScottFitzgerald.Copyright©
1925 byCharles Scribner's Sons. Reprinted with the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons.ISBN: Regular edition 0-88225-137-6 ISBN: Deluxe edition 0-88225-138-4
Library of Congress CatalogCard No. 77-78799
©
1977EuropaVerlag. Allrightsreserved. Printedandbound byMondadori, Verona,Italy.Contents
COSTUME
by
Rachel
H.
Kemper
1
The
Invention
ofModesty
72 Civilizing
Costume
173
The
ClassicalWorld
354
Saints, Soldiers,and
Savages
515
The
Rebirth
of Style67
6
Elegance
and
Excess
89
7
Haute
Couture
Comes
ofAge
115
8
The
Democratization
ofFashion
135IN
A
LITERARY
FASHION
153GLOSSARY
182ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
185PICTURE
CREDITS
1851
The
Invention of
Modesty
There were several reasons
why
primitive
men
chose to clothetheir nakedness, but ?nodesty
was not one of them.
The
no-tion that nudity is shaineful—the
concept behind the
Michelan-gelo fresco detail opposite—is a
fairly recent develop?>ientin the
long history of clothing, and it
is one that had no influence on
the prehistoric
Adams
and Eveswho
were the true inventors of costume. Indeed, it seems likely thatmen
andwomen
alike firstcovered their genitals to empha-sizeratherthanto hidethein.
And
the eyes ofthem
bothwere
opened,and
theyknew
that theywere
naked;and
theysewed
fig leaves togetherand
made
themselvesgarments. Genesis3:7
And
he
said,I heard thy voice in the garden,and
Iwas
afraid, because1
was
naked;and
Ihid myself. Genesis3:10Like
Adam,
primitiveman
was
afraid.Indeed
his entire, all-too-short existencemust
havebeen
spent in amiasma
of fear. Fearcrowded him
on
every side; fear of starvation, fear of sterilityamong
hiswomen,
fear ofthe elemental forces of nature, fear of
sudden
deathunder
therending claws
and
fangs ofmore
efficiently designed predators.His
options
were
brutally simple: master the fear or descend again into thebeasthood
from which
he so recentlyhad
arisen.Man's
first embellishmentsand
rudimentary
clothing served aspotent
weapons
in thefightagainstfear.The
useofbody
paintwas
thefirst step in the
development
of clothing. Its functionwas
entirelymagical.
Through
itspower,
primitiveman
attempted to controland
modify
the forces, naturaland
supernatural, thatdominated
his life.Yellow
ochresmeared
across hisbody
helpedhim borrow
thelife-giving
power
of the sun;white
clay or ash pasteon
his facegave
him
the grinning
countenance
of a skull to terrify his enemies;powdered
red ochre sifted
on
the bodies of his deadgave
their pallid flesh thesemblance
oflifeand
enabledtheirspiritstoliveagaininabetterworld.Next came
the use of ornament.Necklaces
of lions' claws or bears'teeth, assorted amulets of horn, ivory, or bone, capes of leopard or
ocelot skin helped early
man
capture the strength, stealth,and
virilityboth
of the animals hepreyed
upon
and
those thatpreyed
upon
him.Decked
outinborrowed
finery,man
feltan
increase ofconfidence—
as he has continued to feel ever since.The
lion-skin cloak still retainedthe animistic
power
ofitsoriginalowner,
and
italso servedasaconstantand comforting reminder
ofhow
itsnew
owner
had
come
to obtainit.The
oldtruism "Clothesmake
theman"
was
nevermore
true than here at thedawn
ofhuman
evolution.Throughout
mankind's
long infancy,costume
was
one
of themore
visible characteristics that distinguishedCostume was
also used toenhance man's
earliest religious rituals.A
paintingfrom
thecave of Les Trois Freres in southern France, datingto about 20,000 B.C.,
shows
a mysterious figurewearing
the antlersand
mask
ofadeerand
the skinofsome
other animalwith
along,bushy
tail, perhapsa horse orawolf.The
figure, popularlycalled"The
Sorcerer,"seems
to be dancing.He
is heavilybearded
and
displays his genitals.Religious
costume
retaineditsmagicalsignificancethroughout
much
of
human
history.Approaching
agod
is a serious businessand
usually requires special garments. InWestern
culture, the magicalpower
ofreligious vestments has declined into
mere
symbolism. In othercivili-zations the supernatural value has
been
carried to extremes,with
theAztecs ofancient
Mexico
pursuing their belief in themagic
of clothingto alogical
and
grisly conclusion.One
of theirmajor
deitieswas
Xipe
Totec,
"Our
Lord
theFlayed
One,"
"theDrinker
by
Night," a naturegod whose
power was
expressed in the fertile spring rain.Victims
dedicated to
him
were
shotwith arrows and
then skinned.His
priestsdonned
thesehuman
skinsforspecial rites atthebeginning of therainyseason.
Many
works
of artfrom
that beautifuland
doomed
culturegraphically illustrate this practice.
The
raw
skinwas
carefully pulledon
overthe priest'sown
body,
ratherlikea suitof longunderwear,
and
laced neatlyup
the back.The
feetwere
removed
but thehands
were
usually retained to dangle horribly at the priest's wrists.
The
victim's facewas
alsoflayedand
tiedon
overthat ofthepriest.This
magical actthen
induced
the earth itself to puton
anew
skin: vegetation thathad
died duringthedry
seasonwas
born
again.Preoccupation
with
sex,with
female fecundityand male
virility,no
doubt
led to thedevelopment
ofthe official fig leaf. Genitalswere
almost certainly first
covered
as aform
of sexual display rather thanfrom
shame.To
earlyman,
genitalswere
sacred, not shameful; the source oflifeitselfratherthantheseat oforiginalsin.The
crotchcame
to be
covered
to protect this life sourcefrom
evil magic.Modesty,
toparaphrase a
modern
sex goddess,had
nothingtodo with
it.Cowrie
shells,
shaped
like the vulva,were
strung together toenhance and
protect the female reproductive parts. Leaves, ferns, animal hair,
and
feathers, selected
on
the basis ofpresumed
magical potency,were
pressedintoservice.
No
doubt
theseornaments
also calledmale
attention to the sexualavailability of the ladies in question.
One
of the earliest preserved records of femalecostume
supports this theory.A
little Paleolithicfertility figure, the
Venus
ofLespugue,
is entirelynaked
except for a curiousapron
at the rear,worn
under
rather than over her buttocks.It is impossible to identify the material, possibly
hanks
of hair or leather.The
strips are fastened to acord
that passesunder
themonu-mental backside to loseitself in the
heavy
thighsand abdomen.
Women
were
probably
the firstto covertheir sexual organs. Itwas
certainly obvious that this
was
where
childrencame from
althoughthere
must have been
a great deal of lively conjecture as towhat
putthem
there. Eventually, theconcept
of fatherhoodwas
grasped and, inspiredby
animistic magic,male
sexual display achieved astonishingdimensions. In ahostile environment, survival of the small tribal
group
To
survive in a hostile worldprimitive
man
needed topro-create, and vestigial draperies
suchasthe onethat encircles the
buttocks of the Venus of Les-pugue (above) evolved
specifi-cally to enhance their wearer's
sex appeal. Fertility rituals were
also designed to increase repro-duction. In theseitwas oftenthe
males—adorned with skins,
ant-lers, and body paint (right,
above)—
who
were the focus ofattention. Fertility—not of
htt-??!ans but of the soil-was the
chief concern of agrarian
socie-ties such as the Aztec.
At
right,below, a priest adorned in
flayed-out hzmian skin worships
the god of spring rains.
depended
oftenon
sheer brute force,and male
strengthand
leadershipcame
to beidentifiedwith
sexual virility.The
firstmale
genital coversmust
havemimicked
apermanent
erection
and
possibly originatedwhen
some
aging chief, fearful of being deposed, stufi^ed hisdrooping
parts into a penissheath thatwould
have staggered Zeus himself.
This
garment
survivedamong
the ancientLibyans
wellup
into historic times. Tribute bearers areshown
inEgyptian
tomb
paintingswearing
this characteristic attire, anexagger-atedly long tubular case, supported
by
adraped
baldricand
tastefullyornamented with
beadsand
tassels,swinging
in the general vicinity ofthe wearer's knees.
The
message
was
plain:no
evil spiritwould
daretoassaultsuchan
imposing
bastionofstrengthand
virility.The
magicalpower
ofliferisesagainst the threatof debilityand
death.This, then,
was
where
it allbegan. Paint,ornament,and rudimentary
clothing
were
firstemployed
to attractgood
animisticpowers and
toward
offevil.Costume
originated inthe service ofmagic and
althoughthis
motive
no
longer survivesamong
uson
a conscious level, itmight
be
argued
that in our subconscious it still reigns supreme.Once
magic formed
a precedent forman
tohang
strangeodds and
ends
around
hisbody,
otherreasons forwearing
costume emerged and
remain
very
much
with
us.The
notedfashionauthorityJames Laver
hasdescribed thesemotives asthe utility principle, the seduction principle,
and
the hierarchical principle.Then,
asnow,
men
and
women
were
pre-occupied
with
protection, comfort, sexual attraction,and
social status.It used to be
assumed
that clothing originated as protection againstweather, yet millennia
must
have passed beforeman
migrated to aclimate
where
that consideration arose.Once
man
began
to think in terms of comfort, hisingenuitywas
givenfull reinindevisinggarments
tokeep
out theweather—
arcticsnow,
torrential rains, or tropical sun.By
and
large, suchcostumes
havebeen
designed strictly for utilityand
havehad
aminimal
effecton
thedevelopment
of fashion.Protective clothing for warfare, for
dangerous
activity, or forstrenuous sports tells another story altogether. Status
comes
into thisas well as
mere
utility.A
garment
tokeep
off the rain,no
matterhow
elegantly designed, lacks glamour.Garments
intended to deflect the point of a lance, flying arrows, or solar radiation possess a strangeIdnd of instant chic
and
are sure to be modified into fashions forboth
men
and
women.
Contemporary
examplesabound:
the ubiquitousaviator glasses that line the rails of fashionable singles bars, perforated racing gloves that grip the wheels of sedate family cars, impressively complicated scuba divers'
watches
that will never beimmersed
inany
body
ofwater
more
challenging than the country-club pool.This
curious fashion trend hasbeen
around
ever since the Renais-sancewhen
thedukes
of Berriand
Brittany, indolentand pampered,
had
cuirasses stitched ofwhite
satin in imitation of plate mail.There
are other examples
from
that period.Armor
was
designed, in the mid-sixteen century,with
what was
called a "peasecod belly," a sharply pointed projection of the torsowhich
produced
a rather grotesque pigeon-breastedeffect.The
designwas
eminentlypractical; itprovided
that
would
catch the point of a lance.The
tip of an opponent'sweapon would
slide off harmlessly.But
stripped of hisarmor
by
a squireand
dressed for dinner, theman
of fashion retained thesame
peculiar shape.His
doubletwas
heavily
whaleboned and
padded, causing it to standaway from
the natural lines of thebody.
His trunk
hose, or slops,were
alsoboned
to imitate the steel skirts of the armor.The
same
basic lines carriedover into the bodices of
women's
fashions, although the peasecodeffect
was
minimized
and
the torsowas
flatter,with
nature fullyconstrained
under
marvelous contraptions of bone,wood,
and
steel.The
implication, for the gentlemen,was
thatthey
were
alreadydressed as if in
armor and immediately
prepared to cover themselveswith
gloryon
the field of honor.What
the ladieswere
expected tocover themselves
with
is equally obvious but less blatantly expressed; certainly theywould
havehad
to be pried out of those corsets first.An
interesting aspect of sportscostume
is its curious lack of consistency.The
ancientGreeks
exercisedand
competed
stark naked,a
custom
which
perhaps accounts for theirban
on
female spectators atthe games.
Their
sole gesturetoward
protectionwas
the practice ofbindingthe genitals
with
asoftcord
so as totuck
them up
inthe groin out of harm'sway.
Even
so, thethought
of the all-out, no-holds-barred pankrationmust
have givenmany
an
aspirantsecond
thoughts.This
inconsistencyis still apparent in professional sports.A
footballplayer goes
helmeted and
padded, looking like a crossbetween
King
Kong
and
theThing from
Outer
Space. Baseball players, inhonor
ofthe ninety-mile-an-hour-plus fastball, are permitted batting helmets
and
a protectivecup
familiarlyknown,
according toJim Bouton,
as a "ding-dong." Alas for basketball. Since it is officially designated as anoncontact
sport,its players arereduced
to athinuniform, an ordinarysupporter,
and
an apprehensive smile.In the future it is not entirely impossible that the linebacker's
helmet or the goaltender's
mask
might
appear, gussied up, asan
ele-ment
offormal attire. It hashappened
in the past.A
classicand
oftencited
example
is the top hat. Itwas
originally designed tobe
worn
on
the fox
hunt—
"the unspeakable in pursuit ofthe inedible." If the horse stoppedsuddenly
and
the rider didn't, the stiff topperwould
cushion thecollision.Within
fiftyyearsofitsintroduction to the Englishsport-ing scene, the top hat
became
an indispensable part of evening attireand
is still seentoday
at fashionableweddings and
gangsters' funerals.The
seductionprinciple hasalways figuredprominently
inwomen's
fashions.
Throughout
the greater part ofWestern
history it hasbeen
woman's
role, indeed almost her only option, to seducemen
intomarriage. Fashion functioned as an element of direct or indirect seduc-tion, since during long centuries
women
could scarcely exist sociallyor economically
on
theirown
and
were
confinedunder
the protection of theirnearestmale
relative.The
degree of awoman's
well-being forthe greater partof her life, her affluence
and
social position,depended
entirelyupon
those of theman
towhom,
quite literally, shewas
given.Woman's
only stockintradewas what
was
bluntlyknown
as her"com-modity."
When
themerchandise
went
on
the market, itwas
onlyModesty haslong dictated that a
woman
should conceal herphys-ical attributes; morality has
dic-tated
how
well. During thereign of piousPhilip IIof Spain, somber colors, bound bosoms,
stiff corsets, and excessive
pad-ding (left, above) reflected the asceticism of the age.
Two
anda half centurieslater, fashionable
wome7i of the FrenchDirectoire (left, below) dressed for a more permissive age in sheer fabrics that revealed rather thai2 con-strained the figure.
As
Frenchfashions changed toward the end
of the nineteenth century,
mus-lin gave
way
to velvet, andwhite to black. Billowing
fab-rics, flowers and jewelry, and
vast expanses of alabaster skin
were a la mode, as the Ingres
portrait of
Mme
Moitessier seenabove plainly indicates.
common
sense to dress itup
as attractively as possible.Seduction in dress
was
greatly helped alongby
the invention of modesty.The
concept
ofmodesty probably
originated as asophisticated reaction against the primitivecustom
of sexual display. Clothesmay
"resemble a perpetual blush
upon
the surface of humanity," butby
concealingthe greater partofthe
body,
they arouse anunholy
curiosity toknow
what's actuallyunder
all that yardage. Sexual emphasis inwomen's
fashions changes rapidly.Over
a period of a relativelyfew
years in almost
any
given century since the fourteenth, emphasis willshift
from
the hips to the belly to the bustand
back
again. In this centurywe
haveenjoyed
theadded
attraction of legs, to say nothingof
backbones and
belly buttons. Apparently,men
getbored with
thesame
sceneryand need
the constant refreshment ofnew
landscape.Modesty
in clothing, particularly inwomen's
clothing, is usually an excellentindicator ofthe socialand
religious standards ofany
givenperiod.
During
the earlyMiddle
Ages, in a societydominated
by
theChurch,
clothingwas
quite conservative, coveringand
disguising thefigure.
Formal costume
formen
and
women
was
similar, very nearly identical. In cathedral sculptures or in manuscript illuminations,about
the onlyway
sex can easily be determined isby
checking
to seewho
wears
the beard.Normally,
the unisex look is to befound
only insocieties
where
little emphasis is placedon
sex other than for the laudablepurpose
of procreation. Consider theuniformly
trousered masses ofmodern
China.Today's
unisexlookisanothermatter entirely.Sex
per se is still important, almost obsessively so, but sex-stereotyped rolesare increasingly obsolescent.Extreme modesty
incostume
usually indicates a repressed orregi-mented
society. Spanish styles of themid
to late sixteenthcentury
provide an excellent example. In this era,
manners
were
formaland
morality
was
rigorous. Societywas
repressiveboth
politicallyand
intellectually; there
was
little social mobility or personalfreedom and
therewas
even
asystem
ofideologicalthought
control, the Inquisition.Women's
costume
was
severeand
angular, the torso totally flattenedunder
heavy
corsetry, the sleevespadded
to give ageometric, unnaturallinetothearm. Strong,
tough
velvetsorheavy
satinsand damasks
were
favored;rich, dark colors
were
preferred.By
contrast, the era of theFrench
Directoirewas
a period ofextreme
freedom. Societywas
mobile,manners
were
relaxed, moralitywas
consideredtobea matterofpersonalinclination rather than publicdecree.
This
state of affairswas
reflected directly inwomen's
costume
with
its strong neoclassic trend.Garments were
simple, uncorseted,and
as easyastheirwearer's virtue.Underwear was
normally
notworn
at all,
and
dresseswere
oftenwrung
out inwater
before puttingthem
on
so that they clungmore
closelyand
revealingly to thebody.
A
great lady's ballgown
might
weigh
all of five ouncesand
couldbe
drawn
through
a ring.The
hairstyleswere
softand
tousled;women
had
a "just out ofbed"
appearance,which
may
very
well havebeen
the case.The
thinnest,most
delicatesilksand
muslins, inevitably white,were
worn.
Touches
ofcolorwere
introducedintrimmings
and
The
quality of seduction in clothing largelydepends
on
what
type of female isconsidered
most
sexually desirable atany
given time.In themid-nineteenth century, politesociety
was
dominated
by
mature
matrons
who
had
passed their firstyouth
and, if truth be told,were
quitewellalongin theirsecond.
Their
gowns
emphasized
avast expanse ofcreamy
bosom,
elegantbarearms,atiny waist,and
massive haunches.Majestic, well-fleshed, sophisticated, slightly
world-weary,
they gaze out of the canvases of Ingreswith
a placidand
somewhat
bovine air.Youthful innocence
alsohad
its charms. Billows ofwhite
muslinprovided a pleasant alternative to the flowing yards of
heavy
velvets.Afternoon
gowns
ofroughly
thesame
period, tieredand
flouncedwith
ruffles,
were
set offwith
onlythemost
delicateembroidery
ornarrow
black ribbons.
The
eff^ectwas
naive, childlike,and
wickedly
alluring.On
young
women,
suchcostumes
must have been
irresistible.Older
women
would
havedone
well to avoidthem
lest, in thewords
of the time, they resemble"mutton done
up
hke
lamb."Matron
or child,both
costumes
indicate the generally subservient role ofwomen
in a basicallymale
society.Throughout
most
ofWestern
civilization,women's
clothing hasbeen
designed deliberately to inhibitorprevent freemovement,
to limitaction,and hence
to limit freedom.Hoop
skirts, hobble skirts, corsets,and
high heels all havebeen
highly touted in thename
offashionand
all havebeen
physicallyrestrictive.
Wearing
thepants—
or the shorts, or the kilt—men
have generallybeen
free to carryon
an active life.Women,
by
contrast,have
been
kept in skirts and, until the present century, the skirtswere
longand
voluminous.Nothing
could speak louder of themale
deter-mination to
keep
women
barefootand
pregnant.Only
in the presentcentury with
the increasingindependence and
liberationofwomen
hasthe basicstereotype—
and
the basiccostume—
altered appreciably. Traditionally,women
have
dressed for seduction,men
have dressed for status. Consider, briefly,how
impossible social relationswould
become
ifeveryone
went
naked. In a restaurantyou would
not beabletotellthewaiter
from
thecustomers.A
policeman
would
look thesame
as a burglar.A
lawyer
or judgewould
be indistinguishablefrom
the prisoner at the bar; there's often little
enough
difference as it is.Throughout
history,Western
and non-Western,
lack of clothinghas
normally
indicated alackofstatus. In ancientEgypt,
childrenwent
happily
naked
untilthey
reached puberty.They
had no
status, lovedand
cherishedthough they
were. Slaveswere
unclothed; theywere
nonpersons. In pre-Inca Peru, the
Mochica
immediately
stripped theirprisoners of war,
removing
theiremblems
ofrank
and
their humanity.The
modern
world
does not strip,itmerely
humiliates.An
elegantlyturned-out prostitute,
thrown
in the slammer, is issued black oxfordswith
Cuban
heels,anklesocks, plain cotton dresses,and underwear with
bras laundered flatand
useless. In 1944, at the trial of the generalswho
had
conspired against Hitler,the defendantswere
outfitted in old, nondescript clothes, deprived of collars, neckties,and
suspenders.A
once-proud
field marshal,even
his false teeth gone, could onlymum-ble in the dock,
fumbling
at his beltless trousers like a dirty oldman.
The
militarymind
hasalways
been
particularly obsessedwith
In every society, from the most
aboriginal to the most advanced,
clothes are thefirstand foremost
index of status.
They
identifythe priesthood, the military, the 7nerchant class—and in so doing
autojnatically reinforce the
no-tions ofcasteandrank. Thereis,
for example, no mistakiiig the power and pelf of the
Mayan
princes see?!at lowerright; their
"borrowed finery''''—jaguar skins,
quetzal plumes, jade, and shells
—bespeaks their privileged place
in Mesoamerican society.
The
same was true of the samurai of feudal Japan. Their heavilyem-bellished armor, generally
sur-?7iounted by a lacquered steel
mask (right, above), set them
apart from the rest of Japanese
society as co?npletely as did
theirprofessional code of ethics.
status:
"You
salute theuniform and
nor theman."
In warfare it is obviously necessary to havecostume coded
in such away
that rank can beimmediately
determinedand
friend canbe
distinguishedfrom
foe.
Even
the draband
khaki-clad armies oftoday
retain this system of identification, although the sartorial splendors of a military levee atthe
Court
of St. James's are long gone. In the days of theNapoleonic
Wars,
the presencechamber was
amass
of color; naval officers inblueand
gold, infantry in scarlet, light infantry in a multitude of colors, foreignallies in greens, bluesand
white, the glitter of starsand
decora-tions, thesomber
richness of fur, the swirling robes of theKnights
ofthe Garter, ofthe
Bath and
of St. Patrick,topped
offwith
bearskins,plumed
helmets,cockaded
top hats, bicornes,and
tricornes.Such
magnificence isby no
means
restricted to theWestern
world.The
armor
of the Japanese samurai reveals a similar pride in militaryarts
and an
equal obsessionwith
rank.His armor
was
built out in aseries offlaps orplates of lacquered metal that
gave
him
an impressivebulk.
A
steelmask,modeled
into apermanent
snarl, protected his face.Ancient
Americans
wore
less armor, but they dressed ingorgeous
costumes
toindicate their status.The
Mayan
frescoesfrom
Bonampak
wearing
fiber headdresseswith
animaland marine
motifsbacked
by
huge sweeps
of iridescent quetzal feathers; jaguar skins held in placeby
richlyembroidered
belts; ankles, wrists,and
chests loadedwith
jewelry
made
from
shells, gold,and
jade.They
were, in actual fact, dressed to kill.In civilian life, too,
men
have habitually dressed to indicate theirposition in the
pecking
order. In the past, clothingwas
often regulatedby
sumptuary
laws,which
preciselydefinedwho
was
permittedtowear
what.
More
often, the unwritten but equally rigid laws of societydetermined
these customs.An
eighteenth-centurysprig of the nobility,for example,
would
have sent his lackeys to beat thepresumptuous
middle-classcounterjumper
who
had
the temerity towear
a sword.The
pursuit of status is the driving forcebehind
fashion.As
Wil-liam Hazlitt remarked, "Fashion is gentility
running
away
from
vul-garityand
afraid of being overtaken."But
what
thehuman
race hascome
up
with
in theway
of clothing to proclaim status pales beforethe ingenuity exercised, at
one
time or another, to customize thehuman
body.
The
morbid
pastime ofcutting, painting, constricting,and
otherwise
improving
on
basicanatomy
isprobably
rootedin protectivemagic.
The
still-common practice of circumcision, for all the medicaltootle
about
healthand
hygiene,would
seem
to confirm this.InEgypt,
parts of Africaand
the Americas, heads of infantswere bound
toproduce
an elegantly sloping cranium.Mayan
infantshad
abead
tiedtoastrandofhair
hanging
down
overtheir nosetoensurea fashionablecross-eyed glare
when
they
grew
up. Constrictive legbandages
were
used inthe
Caribbean
and
arm
rings in Melanesia, forcing the musclesto bulge mightily
on
either side.Tattooing
hasbeen
widely
practiced in all parts of the globe; a full tattoo suit can still be seen,though
rarely, in
downtown
Tokyo.
Body
scarification,though
lesscommon,
can still
be
found
in Africa, particularlyamong Dahomean
ladies ofrank
who
allow themselves tobe
carved like a Christmas goose forpurely cosmetic purposes.
Men
and
women
haveworn
ear spools soenormous
that anarm
could be insertedthrough
the distorted lobe;nose
ornaments
that piercedand
distorted theseptum
were
once
popular; front teeth have
been
filed to elegant points orknocked
outaltogether to
accommodate
ornate lip jewels.As
might
be expected,women
suffered the worst. In provincialAfrican courts at the turn of the century,
young
girlswere
force-fattened to hopeless obesity.The
wives of the king ofKaragwe
could notstandup; the explorerJohn
Speke
commented
of one, "her featureswere
lovelybut herbody was
asround
as a ball."In old China,the feetof high-born
women
were
cruellybound
and compressed
toform
theprestigious
Golden
Lilies.Her
bride pricedepended
directlyupon
thesizeof herfeet; her tiny shoes
were
exhibited to theprospective in-lawsduring the marriage negotiations.
From
the age of three or four untildeath,there
was
no
respitefrom
constant,tormenting
agony.That
sortof thingcan'thappen
here?On
thecontrary,thetwentiethcentury
provides unparalleled opportunities forimproving
on
nature.It has not
been
all that long since the greatbeauty
Anna
Held
had
her
lower
ribssurgicallyremoved
toreduce
her waistto thirteen inches.The
high priceofhigh jashion isnotalways measured in terms of
dollars; sometimes it is more
ac-curately assessed in terms of
human
suffering. Foot binding,tattooing,ritiialscarification,
cos-metic surgery—all cause physical
pain, yet all have been endured
in fashion's name. Styles differ,
but the ijnpulse to reshape the
body isconstant,whetherit is to
distend the ear lobes with ?}ietal spools (above) or produce a
wasp waist by surgically
remov-ing thelowerribs(opposite).
yaa^iesKSM
Society doctors
today
could tell of toesamputated
to permit a smallershoe size. Skin can be
burned with
chemicals toremove
freckles orabraded with
pumice
to discourage wrinkles.Face
lifts arecommon.
Noses
arepruned
rightand
left.What God
has forgotten isno
longersimulated
with
cotton, it isinjected with silicone. Breasts can be lifted,rears likewise,
and an
entirebody
lift is available for thosewho
can
pay
theprice.Men
areby
no
means
immune
to the siren call ofinstantyouth and
virility.
They
cannow
obtain so-called scalp transplants, in actualitythis
means
awig sewn
to wiresembedded
in the scalp.They
oftenpull loose.
Hair
implants are available; in this operation small plugs of hair are simplygouged
outand
resettled inmore
barren regions.Compared
to the cosmetic surgeons of today, thebeauty
expertsofthe ancient
world
were
pikers.It
would
be difficultto cite a singlehuman
culturewholly
innocent ofcosmetics.The
magical function ofbody
paintfadedwith
thedawn
of civilization, but the paint itself
remained
as ornament.Men
and
women
have decorated their facesand
bodies in all the colors of therainbow.
Aztec
ladies painted their faces acreamy
yellow
and
dyed
theirteethred orblack;Japanesegeishaspreferred a dazzling
porcelain-white complexion;
Roman
and
Etruscan warriors favored a coating of red lead for victory celebrations;and
the ancient Briton stained himself bluewith woad.
Conventional face painting hasbeen
astand-ard aspect of fashion
from
ancientEgypt
to the present.The
hair of thehead—
or of themale face—
hasbeen
similarlysub-jected to
improvement.
Coiffures havebeen
constructedwith
the aid of such diverse ingredients as clay, tallow, lime, bear grease,and
cow
manure.
The
sprays, gels, lotions,and
lacquers oftoday no doubt
smellbetter but the function is the same. Fashion has often dictated hair styles so
complex
that theywere
combed
outand
re-erectedon
amonthly
ratherthan a daily basis.And
the story, possibly apocryphal,is still told in
beauty
salons across theUnited
States, of theyoung
woman who
expiredfrom
the bites of spiders thathad
nested in heroverteased, oversprayed,
and
unwashed
bouffant.There
isprobably
nothing,no
matterhow
painful or repulsive, thatwillcause
humankind
to hesitate in the pursuit of beauty;no
costume,however
uncomfortable
or ridiculous, that will notbe
flauntedwith
pride in thename
of fashion. Fashion functionsand
has always func-tioned as ameans
ofwish
fulfillment.Throughout
the ages,women
have
wished
to appearyoung,
radiantly gorgeous,and
infinitelydesir-able.
Men
have sought to look virile, distinguished, rich,and
superior. In all countries, climes,and
eras,both
men
and
women
havepursued
the elusive goals of statusand
recognition, attributeswhich
are usually the prerogative of wealthand
social position.By
following or, better yet,by
setting the current fashion,we
constantly identify ourselveswith
the social group,the ideal, of our choice.We
are stillvery
much
convinced
thatclothesmake
theman.
Intellectually, perhaps,we
know
better;emotionally
we
remain
truebelievers.By
providinguswith
psy-chological security, fashion
becomes
notmerely
a luxury but aCivilizing
Costume
With the advent of agriculture
and animal husbandry, 7nan was
able to abaTidon bisnomadic
ex-istence and settle in the fertile,
temperate river valleys of the
Near East.
The
subsequentgrowth of cities and commerce
brought about the divisio?i of
labor,which in turn necessitated
the creation of costumes by which those specialists could be
readily identified. There is no
mistaking the imperial presence
opposite.
Her
kohl-lified eyes,massive wig, and bejeweled
dress identify her as a
member
of the royal household of the
Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III.
For
uncounted
centuries
man
stalked the plains ofAfrica, splendidly tricked out in colorful paint, hisbody hung
with
ornaments
of bone, teeth, claws, feathers,and
shells, his private parts shielded againstmalignantforces,hisshoulders,head, orwaist
draped with trophy
skins attesting to his skill as a hunter.He
moved
northward
across the land bridges that then linked the shores of the Mediterranean, following in the tracks of the great animal herds.As
he continued his long trek,he
probably
became
aware
ofa steadily increasing chill in the air.One
morning
heawoke
to find theground
blanketedwith snow.
Without
intending to,
man
had
just entered the IceAge.
By
then,our
ancestorshad probably
lostmost
of theirbody
hair.A
commonly
accepted explanation ofthe"naked
ape"mutation
isthata hairlesshide permitsrapidcooling of the
body
duringand
afterburstsof strenuous activity, like
running
down
game.
The
loss ofbody
hairand
the increase in thenumber
of sw£at glandswere
prime
survival factors in thedevelopment
of earlyman.
To
compensate
for the loss of his fur coat,man
developed a thick layer of subcutaneous fat.But
along the fringes of theice sheets that
covered
northernEurope,
thisnatural insulation
was
notenough.
Something
new
was
about
tobe
added.
From
then on, animalswere
trackeddown
and
killed for theirpelts as well as for their flesh.
A
thick bearskin,once
the bearhad
no
further use for it,went
a longway
toward
keeping out the cold.But problems
arose.For one
thing, fresh hides reek to heaven.Al-though
it is not likely that earlyman
felt aesthetic revulsion againstthe stinking, slimyhides he
was
forced towear, the stenchwould
have
clogged his
keen
hunter's noseand
unnecessarily have advertised his presence to thegame
he pursued.Moreover,
when
hidesdry
outthey
become
stiffand unmanageable.
By
way
ofremedy,
itwas
found
thatpatient, steady mastication of a
raw
hiderenders it softand
pliable.To
this day,Eskimo
women
follow this procedure, literallychewing
the fatfarinto theArcticnight.Oilsand
fatsrubbed
into the leatherwork
even
better, although, like thechewing,
the process has tobe
repeatedifthe
garment
getswet.The
discovery of tanningmust
havebeen
accidental.Some
ancient geniusfound
an animal hide thathad
soaked for a long time in a poolsupple
and
impervious to water. Perhaps itwas
his wifewho
figuredout
how
to shapeand
stitch the hide to fit thebody.
The
earliest truegarment
was
probably
similar to aponcho,
a hidewith
a hole cut in itto
admit
the wearer's head, then lappedand
tiedaround
the waist.Although
warm
and
protective, itmust
also havebeen
cumbersome,
flapping about
and
getting in theway. But
cuttingand
tailoringmade
the
garment
more
efficient.At
first holeswere punched
with
stone orbone
awlsand
the pieces laced togetherwith sinew
or hair. Little perforatedbone
plateswere
used as stitching guides.The
eyed
needle, crafted ofbone
or antler,was
invented at least 40,000 years ago.Paleolithic
costume
probably
evolved into an outfit similar totraditional
Eskimo
attire—a semifitted jacketand
pants.A
fully flayedouthide
from
a large animal,complete with
the skinfrom
the foreand
hind legs,would
automaticallyhave suggested a shape appropriatefor
men.
Interestingly enough, prehistoricwomen
seem
to haveworn
fairly long skirts
and
shawls, sexual diff^erentiation in clothing thus appearingvery
early.But
thereisprobably
a simple explanation: tailor-ing pantsand
jackets out ofheavy
furswould
havebeen
a long, pains-taking,and
boringtask.Women,
largely confined to the cavesand
the care of children, did notneed
thesame
kind of physical mobility or protectionthatmen
required.A
simplewrap-around
skirtand
looselydraped
shawl
orponcho
would
haveprovided
more
thanenough
warmth
and
taken considerably less trouble tomake.
Even
today, thehome
sewer
who
faces themost
complicatedVogue
Couturier patternswithout
blinkingan
eye
would
think twice before attempting a fullytailoredsuitforherspouse.
In other,
more
temperate parts of the world, additional discoverieswere
beingmade.
At some
remote
point in time, the people of centralAsia discovered felt.
Most
likely this materialwas
inventedby
herds-men
who
wanted
warm
clothing but did notwant
indiscriminately to kill ofi^ their domestic animals to get it.To
make
felt, animal hairis
combed
out, spreadin layerson
theground
oron
a mat,thoroughly
wetted
and
beaten, stamped, or rolled until the fibersmat
together.Apparently
itwas
often given a particularly fine finishby
dragginglengths of it across several miles of Siberian steppes at the tail of a gallopinghorse. Feltisextremelyuseful. Itcan
be produced
inallgradesfrom
fine to coarseand
used for clothing, blankets, rugs, or tents. Itdoes not drape gracefully, but neither does it ravel.
Moreover,
itcan
be
cutand
tailoredwith
ease into fitted garments. Central Asia hasgiven the
world
the caftanand
the shaped jacket,costumes
that stillretainthe crisp lines oftheir felt orleather prototypes.
In tropical
and
subtropicalareas, clothwas
made
from
the softinnerbark
of certaintrees. Strips ofbark were
peeledfrom young
branches ornew
shoots, then soakedand
beaten as in the felting process, untilthe fibers
adhered
together. Since the material does not lend itself tosewing
ortailoring, it is usuallymade
up
into simple rectangular panelsand
wrapped
around
the waist like the traditionalOceanian
sarong.Weaving
was
invented at aremarkably
early date.The
origins of the craft are lost in primeval mist, but the plaitingand
knottingFlocks of domesticated sheep and goats were plentiful in the
river valleys of the Near East
and fur-bearing animals were
scarce. It followed, then, that
fabrics should replace pelts as
man's identification of status
and protection against the elements.
The
Sumerian statu-ette at left presents an exajnple of the ubiquitous male garb ofthe era—a skirt of bidky, fleecy
fabric that hung to mid-calf in
front and sported a padded tuft
in the rear.
By
the timeGudea
(above) ascended the throne of
Lagash around 2130 B.C., the tufted kilt had largely been superseded by a plain but
sub-stantial woolen cloth draped to
cover the left shoidder and arm.
The
Mesopotamian monarchalso wears a lambskin cap with
a turned-up brim.
may
have provided the inspiration. Inany
event,weaving
was
rarelyattempted before
mankind
settleddown
inpermanent
agriculturalcom-munities.
Looms
tend to beheavy and
nomadic
peopleswould
surelyliave
found
them
a crushing burden.Even
today,wandering
pastoraltribes in central Asia
do
notweave
theirown
cloth, although theireconomy
is basedon
flocks of sheepand
goats.They
buy
fabricfrom
townsmen;
in ages past theywould
haveworn
felt or leather.The
craft of
weaving
isunknown
to them.The
Neolithic periodemerged
in recognizableform
between 9000
and
8000b.c.The
discoveries of agricultureand
stockbreeding enabledour
ancestors,with
some
grumbling no
doubt, to forego theirnomadic
existenceand
to settle inpermanent
village communities.The
flocksprovided
wool;
flaxand
cottonwere
cultivated; thewomen
spun
thread
and
settleddown
to the serious business of perfecting theworld's first
major
invention, the loom.Although
societieshave
been
known
where
weaving
was
men'swork, normally
in the ancientworld
it
was
done
by
women.
Almost
certainlywomen
were
responsible for the basic design of this complicated device.The
earliest fabricswere
plaintabby
weave, the simpleover-and-under
technique still usedby
kindergarten children for potholdersand
place mats. In time, the design of theloom was
refinedby
the addition of bars or sheds that raised orlowered
thewarp
in various combinations toproduce
pat-terned weaving.
Once
weaving
became
a standard feature of village life,costume
aswe know
itdevelopedrapidly.Village domesticity
was
not achieved overnight.Many men
must
deeply have regretted the lost
freedom
of thegood
old dayswhen
they
hunted
by
day and
swapped
liesaround
the campfire at night.Trotting
around
after aflockoftame
sheepclearly lackstheexcitementand
prestigeofthe hunt.Many
earlyfarmersand
herdsmen
were
surely reluctant toabandon
their skins, the successsymbols
offormer
times,and
theymust have
regardedwith
suspicion thenewfangled
cloththeir
womenfolk were
weaving and
wearing.The
earliestmale
costume
from
the ancientNear
Eastwas
acom-promise,
combining
the authorityoffurwith
theconvenience
ofcloth.The
garment, called the kaunakes,was
the world's firstexample
offake fur. It
was
made
by
threading tuftsofwool
or loosely rolledyarn
through
a coarselywoven
cloth panel.The
tuftswere
inserted in neatrows and
brushed orcombed
toward
thehem
of the garment.The
result
was
a long,shaggy
kilt thatmust
have looked a great deal like a flokati rug. Insome
of the early examples, a large tuft like a tailwas
retained at the rear. Eventually
Sumerian
maleswere
eased into plain,heavy
woolen
clothwith
tufts retained onlyas a decorative fringe.The
basicSumerian
garment
was
anunsewn
rectangular piece ofcloth
wrapped
around
thebody
and
fastenedon
the left shoulder, leavingthe rightarm
free.For
greater display ofwealth or position, asecond
garment
was
added, ashawl
that couldbe draped
around
theshoulders
and
worn
inany
number
ofways.
The
wool was dyed
avariety of colors; bright red, saffron yellow, blue,
and
deep
olivegreen
were
particularly favored in ancientMesopotamia.
The
basicand
borders, rich cmbroidcrv, and decorative tassels.The
effectwas
brilliant
and sumptuous.
On
the other hand, nakedness or amere
loin-cloth
was
thebadge
of slavery, although priests—as slaves of thegods—
often
went
naked on
ceremonial occasions.By
and
large, in theLand
Between
theTwo
Rivers,costume
served to defineand enhance
social status. Fashionswere
setby
great lordsand
ladies,who
in the pursuitof dignitv quietly
and
stoically perspired into themany
layers of theirheavy
court costumes.In ancient
Egypt
clothing developed along other lines entirely.Garments
therewere
woven
from
cottonand
linen;wool was
held incontempt
assomething
worn
onlyby
barbarians.For
priests itwas
ritually unclean.
The
Egyptians dressed for comfort, cleanliness,and
eventually elegance.The
costume
of theOld
Kingdom
{c.2680-2258
B.C.)
was
simpleand
minimal.Pharaoh
or slave,men
wore
loinclothswrapped
around
thebody
and
fastened in front.They
couldbe
wrapped
ordraped inany
number
ofways,worn
long orshort,pleatedor unpleated, or starched to a stiff,
pyramid-shaped
front panel, butfor centuries the loincloth
remained
the basicand
almost the only article ofmale
attire.Women
wore
straight sheath dresses supportedby
shoulder straps.Sometimes
the strapswere broad and covered
thebreasts;
sometimes
the breastswere
left bare.The
dresses,normally
made
ofwhite
linen,were
oftenornamented with
embroidery, beads,and
what
appearstobe featherwork.They
were
made from
rectangularpieces of linen
sewn up
the side. Artistic conventionsshow them
asskintight; in reality they
must
havebeen
more
loosely fitted.The
Egyptianswere
not clothes conscious; theywere
body
con-scious.The
attentionthey
didnotgive to clothingwas
lavishedon
their bodies.They
bathed frequently,washed
their linen daily,and
spentLinen—light, cool, and easy to
launder—was the basis of
vir-tually every Egyptian garment
jrom slave''s loincloth to
phar-aoh's haik.
Woven
(right) fromthe flax that grew in abundance
in the Nile Valley, thisnaturally
white cloth was draped and
pleated into hundreds of
differ-ent shapes, hi the fresco detail at
left, a god is flanked by female attendants
who
wear the body-hugging linen sheath that washours
on
personalgrooming.
Body
hairwas
not tolerated.Both
sexesshaved all over
with
elegant crescent-bladed razorsand rubbed
their skinswith
fine pumice.Their
heads, too,were
usually shaved, thencovered
with
aheadclothor,on
galaoccasions, elaboratewigs
of animalhair or vegetable fiber.
Eyebrows were
kept in linewith
delicatetweezers or
removed
entirely for ritualmourning,
as for example,upon
thedeath ofthe family'ssacredcat.Oils, pastes, lotions,
and perfumes
were
used lavishly; at dinnerparties a thoughtful host
would
provide his guestswith
cones ofper-fumed
ointment
for their heads.These
would
slowly melt, drenching the wearer'swig
inrare scents ofmyrrh
orcinnamon.
Cosmeticswere
essential. Ladies of
rank
were
expected to be theirown
beauticians,adept at
concocting and
applyingbeauty
aids.They
used foundationcreams
tolighten their skinsand
colored their lipsand
cheekswith
anorange-tinted rouge. Fingernails
and
toenailswere
paintedwith
ahenna
stain.
Eye
make-up was
especially important, kohlwas
used asan eye
liner
and
powdered
green malachite as eyeshadow.
To
offsettheirwhite
linen, theEgyptianswore
jewelry of unparal-leled magnificence.Both
men
and
women
favored thebroad
collar, adeep
semicircular bibcomposed
of beads strung inmany
rows
and
often
ornamented
inback with
aheavy
counterweight.Pendants
in theform
of amuletswere
worn,
ringswere
popular,and
braceletswere
oftencrowded
on
from
wrist to elbow. Preciousand
semipreciousstones
were
used, butglass, "the stone that melts," castin tiny decora-tive shapes,was
also popular.Gold,
of course,was
preferredabove
all,forit
symbolized
the eternaland
incorruptible flesh ofthe sunand
was
thought
topromote
eternal survival inthe afterlife.All of these
charming
earthly treasureswere
laidaway
with
theirowners
in theHouse
ofEternity:golden
razorsand
tweezers; brushes,sticks,
and
tubes for eyemake-up; manicure
sets,combs
and
curlingirons;mirrors of polishedsilversupported
by
naked
slavegirls; opulenttrinkets for the wig; necklaces, crowns, breastplates, collars, bracelets, anklets, rings, girdles,
and
earrings; and, of course, the cosmetics chest,stuffed
with
tiny bottles, jars, boxes, phials,and
pots.No
other ancient civilizationcommunicates
so clearly, directly,and
intimatelywith
us acrossthegulfofcenturies.Living under an implacable sun,
the ancient Egyptians had little
use for elaborate clothing, and
their basic costume—the
loin-cloth (right)—remained
essen-tially unchanged for milleimia.
Another concession to the heat
and to theirpassion for personal
cleanlinesswastheremovalofall
body hair.
Women
as well asmen
wore their hairclose-crop-ped or shaved their skulls en-tirely, then donned complicated
wigs (left) for festive occasions.
Other forms of omamenthtion
and items of personal apparel served largely symbolic func-tions.In the tombpaintingdetail
below,apharaoh is identifiedby
hisfalsebeardand tenpinshaped crown, a priest by his sacred leopard-skincape.
Wi^
Egypt's
costume
changed
very
little during the threethousand
years ofitshistory.
The
religion, socialstructure,and moral
philosophyofthe
country
were
conservative, basedon
adeep
beliefin the eternalstability ofthe universe.
The
basiccostume
was
occasionally modified,and
afew
more
garments
were
introducedfrom
time to time, butno
radicalchanges occurred. In theNew
Kingdom
(c.1786-1314
b.c.)the old straight
gown,
the kalasiris,became more
elaborate. Itwas
now
made
of almost transparent linen, finely pleated,and
wrapped
around
thebody
invariousways.
Sometimes
itwas
cutwith
sleeves,sometimes
merely draped and
tied to give a sleevedbat-wing
effect. Itmight be
modestly
sewn
together or leftopen
in front exposing thebody from
the waist
down.
One
shoulder,even
one
breast could be bared, but at this time itwas
not usual to exposeboth
breasts.The
fabric couldbe
treatedordraped
to cling tightly to thebody,
delineating each curve.Gowns
acted as ashowcase
for a beautifulbody,
calling attention to itinways
that simple nudity could not. InEgyptian
art, goddessesare often depicted
wearing
older styles, while mortalswear
newer
fashions,but
Egyptian
costume
was
basicallytimeless.The
Great
Royal
Wife
of thepyramid
builderKhafre
could have appeared 2,500 years later at the court of Cleopatra in the dress of herown
eraand have
caused
no more
stirthanafew
liftedeyebrows.
Men's costume changed even
less.Royalty
might
go
in for longerloincloths, semitransparent kilts
with heavy
jeweled girdles, ordraped
gowns
similarto thoseworn by women,
but thiswas
about
the limit.White was
still predominant, but afew
pale tintswere
added—
lightgreens, blues, or yellows, since linen did not take richly colored dyes.
Red
was
seldom
used. Itwas
associatedwith
the red-haired, ass-earedSet, the evil brother of the
god
Osiris,and
was
considered unlucky.Royal and
priestlycostume
was
consciously symbolic.The
pharaoh
might
wear
the simple headcloth, but he alsohad
a battery ofcrowns
for different occasions, the
Red
Crown
ofLower
Egypt,
theWhite
Crown
ofUpper
Egypt,
theDouble
Crown
(acombination
of thetwo),
and
theBlueCrown,
which'was
adaptedfrom
amilitary helmet.In a
uniformly
clean-shaven society thepharaoh
wore
a short, stifffalse beard fastened behind his ears.
Even
the greatqueen Hatshepsut
wore
such
an articlewhen
she ruledEgypt
as the femaleHorus.
Royality also
wore
the haik, a large rectangular piece ofvery
thincloth, knotted
and draped
around
thebody
so that thewearer appeared
to haveon
threegarments—
a short kilt, a tunicwith
flaring sleeves,and
a long cloak. It appearsonly
in theNew
Kingdom,
after theHyksos
invasion oftheSecond
Intermediate Period,and
may
indicate Asiatic influence. Priestswore
an elaboratetunicwith
double skirtsand
a separate scarf tied
around
the hips.They
alsowore
a ritual leopardskin
draped
over the right shoulder. Itwas
the only articlefrom
ananimal source permitted to them.
Even
their sandalswere
made
of papyrus.Some
fascinatinggarments
were
recoveredfrom
thetomb
ofTutankhamen.
Directly over his shaven skull theyoung
kingwore
atightly fitted cap