GREEN LINE POWER PVT LTD PONDICHERRY
Created and calculated By M SIVARAMAKRISHNAIAH
Design of solar parabolic trough collector(Tracking Mode 11)
length of collector 3.6576
Aperture(w) 2.45
Concentration ratio 16
51.3296
Outer diameter of tube 0.047731 Efective aperture area (W-Do)L
Absorber tube area 3.145*Do * L
Absorber innerdiameter Glass cover Outer diameter Glass cover Inner diameter
Specular reflectivity of concentrator surface Glass cover transmissivity for solar radiation Glass cover emissivity/absorptivity
Absorber tube emissivity/absorptivity Intercept factor
Date Time
Hourly beam radiation Hourly global radiation Ambiant Temperature wind speed
Mass flow rate of Thermic fluid Inlet Temperature
LAT(φ)
Angle of incidence @ April 15 (δ) 105 th day Hour angle (ω)
Slope of apture plane(β) Angle of incidence
Properties of Thermic fluid
Mean fluid Temperature Density
Specific heat capacity Kinamatic viscosity Thermal conductivity Average velocity Reynolds number Prandtl number Tape twist ratio Nusselt number Heat Transfer coefficient Colletor heat removal factor
Assume Overall heat transfer coefficent 13.1 w/m^2 k
Colletor heat removal factor Heat removal factor Concentration ratio Beam Radiation
Absorbed flux Usefull heat gain rate Rate of heat loss
Avarage Temperature of absorber Tube
Calulate "U" CORRESPONDING TO THIS VALUE OF Tpm and show that it is equal to the assumed value.
Assume Temperature attained by the cover
Mean Temperature of air between tube and Cover
At this Temperature properties Thermal conductivity Kinamatic viscosity Prandel number Radial gap Rynolds number
Ambient air temperature
Effective thermal conductivity 0.159776
Convective heat transfer coefficent absorber tube and the glass cover(hp-c)
Mean temperature of air between the cover and ambientProperties of air
Thermal conductivity Kinamatic viscosity Rynolds number Nusult number
Heat transfer coefficent outside surface of cover(hw) Overall heat coefficent
Sky Temperature
AND
The two values of q/l match with each other.the corresponding value of "U"
which also matches the original guess
GREEN LINE POWER PVT LTD PONDICHERRY
Created and calculated By M SIVARAMAKRISHNAIAH
MTech Thermal Engineering
Design of solar parabolic trough collector(Tracking Mode 11)
Glass Tube m 12 ft m 8.038057743 ft m 47.73074405 mm 8.786540031 m 3.145*Do * L 0.549158752 m^2 0.0381 m 0.063 m 0.056 m 0.85 0.85 0.88 0.95 0.95 15-Apr 1230 h 12.5 LAT 705 w/m^2 949 w/m^2 30 C 5.3 m/s 0.0986 kg/s 150 C 11.92 Deg 9.414893347 Deg 16.94418733 -7.5
9.494661091 250 C 750.3 kg/m^3 2.449 kj/kg 2.45E-06 m^2/s 0.119 w/m k 0.115119399 m/s 1.79E+03 37.83056735 4 6.14E+01 191.9093915 w/m^2 K
Assume Overall heat transfer coefficent 13.1 w/m^2 k
13.5
0.919010067 0.906166031 16 0.993319235 467.8641299 W/m^2 2919.005206 W 1191.901701 W 190.7713882 C
Calulate "U" CORRESPONDING TO THIS VALUE OF Tpm and show that it is equal to the assumed value.
Assume Temperature attained by the cover
78.5 C
Mean Temperature of air between tube and Cover
134.6356941 C0.03526 w/m k 2.45E-05 m^2/s 0.7 0.004134628 2.22E+02
300 K
0.446059798 3.86E+00 0.542577Convective heat transfer coefficent absorber tube and the glass cover(hp-c)
5.017233929 w/m k325.75 K 0.027 w/m k 1.60E-05 m^2/s 1.58E+04 6.83E+01
Heat transfer coefficent outside surface of cover(hw) 29.2746592 W/m^2 K 310.3233894 w/m
294 K
323.2741804 w/m
The two values of q/l match with each other.the corresponding value of "U"
13.39247 w/m^2 k
0.156597 38.1 mm 63 mm 56 mm 303 K Deg 0.991445 Deg Aperture area Outer Diameter rim angle
1 Radiation loss from Glass to sky
2 Covective loss fromm the galss to atmospher
w/m^2 K
463.7714 K351.5 K
407.6357 K27 C
52.75 C21 C
Principle and operation:
A linear solar fresnel solar plant uses an array of single axis, linear solar mirrors to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube.In that way it is similar to a solar parabolic trough system.
The compact linear fresnel solar power system, however, uses a 'parabola' made up of ten flat mirrors that each rotate to follow the sun,Instead of a more expensive parabolic shaped mirror, as in the solar parabolic trough system.This type of system allows theCompact Linear Fresnel Solar Mirrors.flat solar mirrors to remain near the ground, avoiding wind loads.
linear solar fresnel system heat water to produce steam at 400 C in the absorber tubes. The steam is used directly to drive a turbine in a standard Rankine cycle to produce electricity, avoiding the need for a heat exchanger to produce steam from some other high temperature fluid.
Advantages
1 Main advantages of linear Fresnel are its lower investment and operational costs.Firstly,the flat mirrirs are cheaper and easier to produce then parabolic curved reflectors and so are readily available from manufacturers worldwide. 2 The struture also has a low profile,with mirrirs just one or two meters above groud.This means the plant can operate in strong wind and it can use a lightweight,simple collector structure.
3 Linear Fresnel collectors also make more efficient use of land,packing more mirrors closer together compared to parabolic through.
The collectors also easier to maintain since they have fewer moving parts and they can turn down during the night for protection from sand and to allow for automated cleaning. 4 The three leading versions of linear Fresnel technology generate steam directly,which means they do away with the need for expensive and performance-reducing heat exchangers. 5 Linear fresnel technology costs between 50 to 60% of costs of a parabolic trough collector per square metre.
6 A linear solar fresnel solar plant can be hybridized with fossil fuel backup to be used for electrical generation when the sun isn't shining
7 The absorber tube is simpler and less expensive than that of the parabolic trough system, because multiple solar mirrors reflect solar power to a single absorber tube and the absorber tube doesn't need couplings as the receiver tubes for the parabolic trough and parabolic dish systems do, because the absorber tube is fixed.
Disadvantages
1 A linear solar fresnel solar plant doesn't produce a fluid temperature as high as the parabolic trough or parabolic dish solar concentrators, so its thermal efficiency for conversion of solar power to electricity is lower.
Design and arrangement of mirrors
As per above pictures How to adjest mirrors and receiver tubes in correct mannar For this we will use ray Trace simulation software
will use for optical efficiency simulation of the concentrating collector.
Large number of rays of incident radiation throughout the system for reflecting surface.
The direction and point of intersection of incident ray with the reflecting surface are determine
Reflecting ray follows the priciple that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence
Tracking angle Ψ of the ith reflecctor calculated according to Mr.Rabl
Ψ = (φ - θ)/2
Single Axis tracking about the polar axis approaches with in 4% the radiation avalability of the collector. Tracking about East-west horizantal axis
Take Example of one day rays angles calculations: Date
Time
Hourly beam radiation Hourly global radiation Ambiant Temperature wind speed
Inlet Temperature LAT(φ)
Angle of incidence @ April 15 (δ) Hour angle (ω)
Slope of apture plane(β)
Tracking about East-West horizantal Axis
Fresnel mostly convex shaped mirrors for low and medium concentrating one axis tracking or stationary collectors.
Parabolic concentrators is the unique reflector shape that focuse beam radiation into a single point.How ever the manufacturof parabollic reflector is too expansive.
In this system we will adopted cylindrical mirrors with different curvature.The mirror radius of curvature "ri "depends on the Focal length "f" of the mirror,and Tracking Angle
The radius of curvature we are going to implement ,Tracking angle for perpendicular incident radiation (θ = 0)
and for focal length the distence from mirror center to absorber center.
Radius of curvature for mirrors :
ri =
East-West orientation
possibly the most complex tracking. The angle of the mirrors is determined by the vector towards the sun projected onto the vertical axis running north-south
During the winter, the mirrors tilt down towards the south,coming up till noon and decreasing again. The severity of this angular adjustment decreases from winter solstice till equinox, when no angular adjustment is needed (the plane of the sun's motion is co-incident with the plane of the parabolic trough), and reverses direction during the summer, as the sun rises slightly north and comes slightly south by noon.
This tracking will likely need to be accomplished by sensors rather than formulas.
The North-South orientation is similar to the polar orientation, but may be flat or cylindrical on the ground.Tracking may be as simple as in polar or it may have hidden complications (We don't know). Due to the latitude of the Factor E farm, the end losses associated with the shallowness of the suns angle parallel to the axis of the collector would be severe in winter if this orientation were laid flat on the ground.
Since we do not wish to tilt the array towards the south for construction cost reasons (same as polar), and wish to collect energy during the winter, The factor E Farm team has shied away from this orientation as well. Also, the reflectors move between plus and minus 22.5 degrees of tilt from 9am till 3pm. Thus there will be a maximum half angle loss of cosine 22.5
and a total daily loss of the integral of cos (1/2 theta) from theta =-22.3 to 22.5
One Example
Mirror arrangement
φ = is the angle between optical axis and the line from focus to reflector. θ = is the incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal.
Included angle of sun relative apeture angle ( θ )(perpendicular incident radiation)
Note:
Glass mirrors
As far as curvature goes, there are structural advantages to having fewer reflectors, each with a concentration ratio of 5 or so. Although a perfect parabola could have a concentration ratio of 50 or more there are geometric limitations to a system which must track the sun. Also, we found a perfect parabolic shap difficult to achieve under non-tracking conditions.
Our best results for curvature where with 2'x 1' panels of glass, with an image size of just under an inch and a half (concentration ratio of about 20), wit
about seven inches of unconcentrated light around the focus (ie: only 75% of the mirror assumed the curve, since the ends, for whatever reason, do not curve). image sizes of about 3 inches were achieved with mylar on thin plywood, but this could not be achieved over the entire length of the focus.
the limits of concentration
1 As light travels down different angles parallel to the axis of the concentrator, it travels different distances before reaching the absorber. Thus, if the array is in perfect focus at one angle, at another angle it will be out of focus. The percentage out of focus is inversely proportional to the amount of concentration possible.
2 At twice the focal distance (%100 out of focus), the image is the same size as the width of the reflector. At 1.5 the focal length (%50), the image will be half the width of the reflector. 3 In an east-west axis system, the sun moves from 45 degrees at 9 am to 0 at noon to 45 again at 3 pm. If this system were perfectly in focus at noon,
the extra path length of Square root of two (~1.4) in the morning and evening would correspond to %40 out of focus or 2.5 times concentration.
The best achievable theoretical fix would be to have the system focused perfectly at 22.5 degrees, so that the absorber is too close at noon and too far at 3pm, but neither as badly as if the system were in focus at noon. This corresponds to a maximum concentration of 3.27 (change in path length is 1/cos45 - 1/cos22.5 = 1.41 - 1.08 = .33 -> % out of focus of .33/1.08= %30.5).
since the sine changes quickly around 45 degrees, greater ratios could be obtained by sacrificing efficiency at the extremes.
A north south axis orientation
will experience this distortion less severely due to the fact that the seasonal angular deviation of the sun is much less than its daily variation.Examples of Fresnel power plants:
1 Novatec 2
Ausra
Liddell power station
Carrizo Energy Solar Farm(CESF)
http://www.novatec-biosol.eu/index.php?article_id=5&clang=1 http://www.ausra.com/technology/
Example:
Apture area
Average solar radiation for indian conditions
Average sunlight available from morning 8 am to 4 pm Total Energy out put Aperture area x solar radiation x hours With 65% concentration efficiency the energy out put
Example:
Water flows inside of receiver tube of
passing through the tube.The tube wall is maintained at constant temperature of 160 C.Find heat transfer
Inner diameter of tube water velocity
Tube wall temperature Inlet water temperature Outlet water temperature Length of tube
Bulk mean temperature Properties of water at 80 C
Rynolds number
Solar fresnel alignment of collectors and Receiver Tube
A linear solar fresnel solar plant uses an array of single axis, linear solar mirrors to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube.In that way it is similar to a solar parabolic trough system.
The compact linear fresnel solar power system, however, uses a 'parabola' made up of ten flat mirrors that each rotate to follow the sun,Instead of a more expensive parabolic shaped mirror, as in the solar parabolic trough system.This type of system allows theCompact Linear Fresnel Solar Mirrors.flat solar mirrors to remain near the ground, avoiding wind loads.
linear solar fresnel system heat water to produce steam at 400 C in the absorber tubes. The steam is used directly to drive a turbine in a standard Rankine cycle to produce electricity, avoiding the need for a heat exchanger to produce steam from some other high temperature fluid.
Main advantages of linear Fresnel are its lower investment and operational costs.Firstly,the flat mirrirs are cheaper and easier to produce then parabolic curved reflectors and so are readily available from manufacturers worldwide. The struture also has a low profile,with mirrirs just one or two meters above groud.This means the plant can operate in strong wind and it can use a lightweight,simple collector structure.
Linear Fresnel collectors also make more efficient use of land,packing more mirrors closer together compared to parabolic through.
The collectors also easier to maintain since they have fewer moving parts and they can turn down during the night for protection from sand and to allow for automated cleaning. The three leading versions of linear Fresnel technology generate steam directly,which means they do away with the need for expensive and performance-reducing heat exchangers. Linear fresnel technology costs between 50 to 60% of costs of a parabolic trough collector per square metre.
A linear solar fresnel solar plant can be hybridized with fossil fuel backup to be used for electrical generation when the sun isn't shining
The absorber tube is simpler and less expensive than that of the parabolic trough system, because multiple solar mirrors reflect solar power to a single absorber tube and the absorber tube doesn't need couplings as the receiver tubes for the parabolic trough and parabolic dish systems do, because the absorber tube is fixed.
A linear solar fresnel solar plant doesn't produce a fluid temperature as high as the parabolic trough or parabolic dish solar concentrators, so its thermal efficiency for conversion of solar power to electricity is lower.
As per above pictures How to adjest mirrors and receiver tubes in correct mannar For this we will use ray Trace simulation software
will use for optical efficiency simulation of the concentrating collector.
Large number of rays of incident radiation throughout the system for reflecting surface.
The direction and point of intersection of incident ray with the reflecting surface are determine
Reflecting ray follows the priciple that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence
Tracking angle Ψ of the ith reflecctor calculated according to Mr.Rabl
φ = is the angle between optical axis and the line from focus to reflector. θ = is the incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal. Single Axis tracking about the polar axis approaches with in 4% the radiation avalability of the collector.
15-Apr 1230 h 12.5 LAT 705 w/m^2 949 w/m^2 31.9 C 5.3 m/s 150 C 11.92 Deg
105 th day 9.414893 Deg
16.94419 -7.5 9.494661
Tracking about East-West horizantal Axis
COS θ = COSδ(COS^2ω + TAN^2δ)^0.5
Fresnel mostly convex shaped mirrors for low and medium concentrating one axis tracking or stationary collectors.
Parabolic concentrators is the unique reflector shape that focuse beam radiation into a single point.How ever the manufacturof parabollic reflector is too expansive.
In this system we will adopted cylindrical mirrors with different curvature.The mirror radius of curvature "ri "depends on the Focal length "f" of the mirror,and Tracking Angle
The radius of curvature we are going to implement ,Tracking angle for perpendicular incident radiation (θ = 0)
and for focal length the distence from mirror center to absorber center.
Radius of curvature for mirrors :
possibly the most complex tracking. The angle of the mirrors is determined by the vector towards the sun projected onto the vertical axis running north-south
During the winter, the mirrors tilt down towards the south,coming up till noon and decreasing again. The severity of this angular adjustment decreases from winter solstice till equinox, when no angular adjustment is needed (the plane of the sun's motion is co-incident with the plane of the parabolic trough), and reverses direction during the summer, as the sun rises slightly north and comes slightly south by noon.
This tracking will likely need to be accomplished by sensors rather than formulas.
The North-South orientation is similar to the polar orientation, but may be flat or cylindrical on the ground.Tracking may be as simple as in polar or it may have hidden complications (We don't know). Due to the latitude of the Factor E farm, the end losses associated with the shallowness of the suns angle parallel to the axis of the collector would be severe in winter if this orientation were laid flat on the ground.
Since we do not wish to tilt the array towards the south for construction cost reasons (same as polar), and wish to collect energy during the winter, The factor E Farm team has shied away from this orientation as well. Also, the reflectors move between plus and minus 22.5 degrees of tilt from 9am till 3pm. Thus there will be a maximum half angle loss of cosine 22.5
and a total daily loss of the integral of cos (1/2 theta) from theta =-22.3 to 22.5
8 Rows 4 reflected mirrors with a noth - south Tracking Axis Primary mirrors are cylindrical with different small curvatures. Number of rows
Number of sets Mirror width Length
Mirror spacing
Total mirror area approximatly
incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal.
φ = is the angle between optical axis and the line from focus to reflector. θ = is the incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal.
Included angle of sun relative apeture angle ( θ )(perpendicular incident radiation)
Radius of curvature of different mirrors
Mirror 1 2 3 4 5
Note:
"That means Radius of mirror curvature mainly depends on the focal length of the mirror and tracking angle.
As far as curvature goes, there are structural advantages to having fewer reflectors, each with a concentration ratio of 5 or so. Although a perfect parabola could have a concentration ratio of 50 or more there are geometric limitations to a system which must track the sun. Also, we found a perfect parabolic shap difficult to achieve under non-tracking conditions.
Our best results for curvature where with 2'x 1' panels of glass, with an image size of just under an inch and a half (concentration ratio of about 20), wit
about seven inches of unconcentrated light around the focus (ie: only 75% of the mirror assumed the curve, since the ends, for whatever reason, do not curve). image sizes of about 3 inches were achieved with mylar on thin plywood, but this could not be achieved over the entire length of the focus.
As light travels down different angles parallel to the axis of the concentrator, it travels different distances before reaching the absorber. Thus, if the array is in perfect focus at one angle, at another angle it will be out of focus. The percentage out of focus is inversely proportional to the amount of concentration possible.
At twice the focal distance (%100 out of focus), the image is the same size as the width of the reflector. At 1.5 the focal length (%50), the image will be half the width of the reflector. In an east-west axis system, the sun moves from 45 degrees at 9 am to 0 at noon to 45 again at 3 pm. If this system were perfectly in focus at noon,
the extra path length of Square root of two (~1.4) in the morning and evening would correspond to %40 out of focus or 2.5 times concentration.
The best achievable theoretical fix would be to have the system focused perfectly at 22.5 degrees, so that the absorber is too close at noon and too far at 3pm, but neither as badly as if the system were in focus at noon. This corresponds to a maximum concentration of 3.27 (change in path length is 1/cos45 - 1/cos22.5 = 1.41 - 1.08 = .33 -> % out of focus of .33/1.08= %30.5).
since the sine changes quickly around 45 degrees, greater ratios could be obtained by sacrificing efficiency at the extremes.
A north south axis orientation
will experience this distortion less severely due to the fact that the seasonal angular deviation of the sun is much less than its daily variation.Liddell power station
Carrizo Energy Solar Farm(CESF)
http://www.novatec-biosol.eu/index.php?article_id=5&clang=1 http://www.ausra.com/technology/
1 m^2 Average solar radiation for indian conditions 750 W/m^2 Average sunlight available from morning 8 am to 4 pm 8 hours/day
Total Energy out put Aperture area x solar radiation x hours 6000 Wh/day 6 With 65% concentration efficiency the energy out put 3.9 KWh/day 3355.638
1423.5 KWh/year
Water flows inside of receiver tube of
20 mm diameter and 3
m long at a velocity of 0.03m/s.The water gets heated from 40 C to 120 C.while
passing through the tube.The tube wall is maintained at constant temperature of 160 C.Find heat transfer
20 mm 0.02
0.03 m/s 160 C
Inlet water temperature 40 C
Outlet water temperature 120 C
3 m
Bulk mean temperature 80 C
Properties of water at 80 C
Density 974 kg/m^3
kinamatic viscosity 3.64E-07 m^2/s
Prandel number 2.22
Thermal conductivity 6.69E-01 W/Mk
Rynolds number 1.65E+03
Thiis Rynolds number value below 2300,this flow is laminar
Nusselt Number 3.66
Nusselt Number hD/K
heat transfer coefficent 122.3721 W/m^2K
Absorber area :
Aperture area :
A linear solar fresnel solar plant uses an array of single axis, linear solar mirrors to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube.In that way it is similar to a solar parabolic trough system.
Gross area:
The compact linear fresnel solar power system, however, uses a 'parabola' made up of ten flat mirrors that each rotate to follow the sun,Instead of a more expensive parabolic shaped mirror,as in the solar parabolic trough system.This type of system allows theCompact Linear Fresnel Solar Mirrors.flat solar mirrors to remain near the ground, avoiding wind loads.
linear solar fresnel system heat water to produce steam at 400 C in the absorber tubes. The steam is used directly to drive a turbine in a standard Rankine cycle to produce electricity,
Main advantages of linear Fresnel are its lower investment and operational costs.Firstly,the flat mirrirs are cheaper and easier to produce then parabolic curved reflectors and so are readily available from manufacturers worldwide. The struture also has a low profile,with mirrirs just one or two meters above groud.This means the plant can operate in strong wind and it can use a lightweight,simple collector structure.
The collectors also easier to maintain since they have fewer moving parts and they can turn down during the night for protection from sand and to allow for automated cleaning. The three leading versions of linear Fresnel technology generate steam directly,which means they do away with the need for expensive and performance-reducing heat exchangers.
φ = is the angle between optical axis and the line from focus to reflector.
Deg 0.991444861 Deg
Parabolic concentrators is the unique reflector shape that focuse beam radiation into a single point.How ever the manufacturof parabollic reflector is too expansive.
During the winter, the mirrors tilt down towards the south,coming up till noon and decreasing again. The severity of this angular adjustment decreases from winter solstice till equinox, when no angular adjustment is needed (the plane of the sun's motion is co-incident with the plane of the parabolic trough), and reverses direction during the summer, as the sun rises slightly north and comes slightly south by noon.
The North-South orientation is similar to the polar orientation, but may be flat or cylindrical on the ground.Tracking may be as simple as in polar or it may have hidden complications (We don't know). Due to the latitude of the Factor E farm, the end losses associated Since we do not wish to tilt the array towards the south for construction cost reasons (same as polar), and wish to collect energy during the winter, The factor E Farm team has shied away from this orientation as well.
Also, the reflectors move between plus and minus 22.5 degrees of tilt from 9am till 3pm. Thus there will be a maximum half angle loss of cosine 22.5
8 Rows 4 reflected mirrors with a noth - south Tracking Axis Primary mirrors are cylindrical with different small curvatures.
8 4 0.5 4 0.15
Total mirror area approximatly 64
incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal. 0
2.995496019
0.978147601 12.26808714
φ = is the angle between optical axis and the line from focus to reflector. θ = is the incident angle of the sun relative to the aperture normal.
Included angle of sun relative apeture angle ( θ )(perpendicular incident radiation)
Radius of curvature of different mirrors
φ ψ Focus (f ) Radius of mirror (ri) 6.28 3.14 2.5 5.007517923 18.26 9.13 2.6 5.266724875 28.81 14.405 2.65 5.472032747 37.6 18.8 3.2 6.76068769 44.71 22.355 3.6 7.785087972
"That means Radius of mirror curvature mainly depends on the focal length of the mirror and tracking angle.
As far as curvature goes, there are structural advantages to having fewer reflectors, each with a concentration ratio of 5 or so. Although a perfect parabola could have a concentration ratio of 50 or more there are geometric limitations to a system which must track the sun. Also, we found a perfect parabolic shap difficult to achieve under non-tracking conditions.
Our best results for curvature where with 2'x 1' panels of glass, with an image size of just under an inch and a half (concentration ratio of about 20), wit
about seven inches of unconcentrated light around the focus (ie: only 75% of the mirror assumed the curve, since the ends, for whatever reason, do not curve).
As light travels down different angles parallel to the axis of the concentrator, it travels different distances before reaching the absorber. Thus, if the array is in perfect focus at one angle, At twice the focal distance (%100 out of focus), the image is the same size as the width of the reflector. At 1.5 the focal length (%50), the image will be half the width of the reflector.
The best achievable theoretical fix would be to have the system focused perfectly at 22.5 degrees, so that the absorber is too close at noon and too far at 3pm, but neither as badly as if the system were in focus at noon. This corresponds to a maximum concentration of 3.27 (change in path length is 1/cos45 - 1/cos22.5 = 1.41 - 1.08 = .33 -> % out of focus of .33/1.08= %30.5).
A north south axis orientation
will experience this distortion less severely due to the fact that the seasonal angular deviation of the sun is much less than its daily variation.Kwh Kcal
m long at a velocity of 0.03m/s.The water gets heated from 40 C to 120 C.while
passing through the tube.The tube wall is maintained at constant temperature of 160 C.Find heat transfer
the area of absorber
the area in which solar radiation enter the collector
the area based on outer dimention of collector
m m m m^ 2 Deg
