The Writing Process
➢ Writing is a way of thinking and learning.
➢ Writing is a way of discovering.
➢ Writing creates reading.
➢ Writing ability is needed by educated people.
I. Pre-writing – also called “invention” a. Finding a Topic
Brainstorming – is the process of stimulating creative thinking by letting your
mind wander freely over a subject. It means making a list of all the ideas that come to mind associated with a topic. The ideas can be listed as words or phrases. Clustering – is an interesting and unusual version of brainstorming. It is also
called “mapping” or “webbing”.
Freewriting – means writing down whatever comes into your mind: thoughts,
half-thoughts, words, fragments, in the form an the language that they come to you, without stopping to worry about grammar, punctuation, or style.
I don’t know exactly when and where and how to start but anyhow I need to write something things seem so complicated to me lately I agree that one must have control over things I see I can write something about the problems I am facing right now at home about misunderstanding what about misunderstanding about my parents who quarrel oftentimes about finances dad being a gambler and drinker and mom having to meet both ends with very limited family income and resources what makes me upset about their quarrel is that they seem not able to compromise and resolve the problem peacefully.
Journal Writing – is a source of ideas for future writing, a storehouse of personal reactions and impressions of people, places, new experiences, and ideas.
Keeping a journal can help you in three ways. First, writing every day gives the habit of productivity. Second, a journal instills the habit of close observation and thinking. Third, a journal serves as an excellent source of ideas when you need to write in response to assignment.
b. Restricting the Topic
• Choose a topic that is suitable, that can be presented and developed well.
• When choosing a topic on your own, be careful not to use a very narrow one or too broad to be discussed in a single paragraph.
a. Determining Purpose and Audience
• Writing is often defined by its purpose. Writing purposes have to do with goals, often referred to as aims of writing or writing intentions. Purpose refers to what the writer seeks to achieve. Purposes for writing, though varied, can be categorized into four major groups:
General Purposes:
to express yourself
to provide information for your reader to persuade your reader
to create a literary work
Specific Purposes:
1. expressive function of language: express your own feelings, attitudes, wishes, and intentions, to condemn, approve, praise, rebuke, or celebrate
2. directive function: influence other people’s actions, emotions, beliefs, and attitudes, to persuade, advise, order, threaten, warn, encourage, or exhort.
3. Informative function: convey information, to inform, report, describe, assert, declare, announce, confirm, or refute
4. Poetic function of language: connect directly with the readers’ emotions by the use of devices such as intonation, sound, rhythm, imagery, and so on to communicate meaning that could not be otherwise conveyed.
Argumentative purpose – a research paper that primarily intends to persuade the reader of the
author’s viewpoint about a topic
Persuasive writing called argumentative because it argues a position, seeks to convince the
reader, to change the reader’s mind, to bring the reader’s point of view closer to the writer’s and focuses on the reader, whom the writer wants to influence.
Informative purpose – one that minimizes expression of the author’s ideas and seeks mainly to
present information for the reader’s benefit.
Informative Writing seeks to give information and, when necessary, to explain it. This writing
is known also as expository because it expounds on, or sets forth, ideas and facts. Informative writing focuses on the subject being discussed. Informative writing includes reports of observation, ideas, scientific data, facts, and statistics. It can be found in textbooks, encyclopedias, technical and business reports, nonfiction books, newspapers, and magazines. Checklist for Informative Essay
1. Is its major focus the subject being discussed?
2. Is its primary purpose to inform rather than persuade? 3. Is its information complete and accurate?
4. It its information verifiable?
5. Is its information arranged for clarity? 6. Is it interesting to read?
Persuading writing seeks to convince the reader about a matter of opinion. This writing is
sometimes called argumentative because it argues a position.
Persuasive writing focuses on the reader, whom the writer wants to influence. Examples of persuasive writing include editorials, letters to the editor, reviews, sermons, business or research proposals, opinion essays in magazines, and books that argue a point of view.
Checklist for Persuasive Essay 1. Is its major focus the reader?
2. Is its primary purpose to convince rather than inform?
3. Does it offer information or reasons to support its point of view? 4. Is its point of view based on sound reasoning and logic?
5. Are the points of its arguments arranged for clarity?
6. Does it motivate the reader to action or otherwise evoke the intended response? • Good writing is often judged by its ability to reach its intended audience.
a. Choosing a Point of View
• A point of view is the position from which a writer looks at his subject. While pertaining specifically to description, point of view is necessary in all writing in order to stay within a context that will insure unity in the paragraph of essay.
I. Writing
a. The Draft
Focused Freewriting – involves concentrating on a predetermined topic.
Well, the assignment says a problem. Let’s see if I’m going to write a lot of old junk about things. War. War. War is stupid. Unemployment lines and trying to find a job on this campus. Nuclear energy is too frightening to think about. Anyway, I don’t know enough to write about. I really want to think about divorce. The big D. Why bother getting married if I only have 50-50 chance of making it. But many of my friends are not making it. Lives ripped apart. Writing like this gets tiring of my hand. Keep moving, keep moving. Sounds like a movie theater usher. My parents had a great marriage. Since my dad died my mother has had a hard time. She has to live alone now that I am out of the house. It isn’t easy for her to get used to a new lifestyle.
Rough Outline
An outline is a listing of the main points of a book, a composition, or any piece of writing that provides a visual guide and checklist. It is especially useful for informative and persuasive writing because it can clearly reveal flaws – missing information, undesirable repetitions, digression from the thesis.
Two Types of Outline
1. Informal Outline – is constructed before the writing begins, and it often changes as the writing progress. It does not have to follow all the formal conventions of outlining. It lists
the main ideas of an essay - the major subdivisions of the thesis statement. It also lists subordinate ideas and details, but without attention to levels of generality.
Thesis Statement: Rain forests must be preserved because they offer the human race many irreplaceable resources.
Definition of Rain forest
80 inches rainfall a year
Tropical regions (warm temperatures) Lush, dense vegetation
Canopy
Branches overlap
As high as the trees (I think about 98 feet) Evergreens
Plant and insect life thrive Biomedical Uses
Over 1,400 plants and animals Compounds for medicines
Parkinson’s Mental illnesses Anticancer Natural balances
Level forest→birds leave→insects are no longer eaten by birds→insects overgrow and eat crops→hunger Level forest→native displaced→become dependent on
government→more pressure on national debt
2. Formal Outline – shows exactly what points the writer covers. It follows conventions concerning content and format.
The formal outline uses Roman numerals (I, II, III), capital letters (A,B,C), and Arabic numbers (1,2,3) to show the relationships of major and minor ideas in the paper.
All the headings in a formal outline share a similar grammatical structure. In a sentence outline, each point, major or minor, is stated as a complete sentence; in a topic sentence, all the headings are written as words and phrases. These two forms should not be mixed in the same outline.
Pattern for Formal Outline of an Essay
Thesis Statement:
I. First main idea
A. First subordinate idea 1. First reason or example
2. Second reason or example a. First supporting detail b. Second supporting detail A. Second subordinate idea
I. Second main idea
Airplanes I. Airplane Use A. Personal B. Commercial I. Kinds of Airplanes A. Private Planes 1. Size 2. Equipment A. Passenger planes 1. Types 2. Historical development 3. Routes I. Post-Writing
DISTINCTION AMONG THE LATER PARTS OF THE WRITING PROCESS Drafting – calls for you to write your ideas in sentences and paragraphs.
Revising – multiple drafts leading to unedited final draft; calls for you to evaluate your draft and,
based on your decisions, rewrite it by adding, cutting, replacing, moving-and often totally recasting material.
Editing – final draft with correct surface features; calls for you to check the technical correctness
of your grammar, spelling, punctuation, and mechanics.
Proofreading – final, edited draft with repaired typographical or handwritten errors; calls for you
to read your final copy for typing errors or handwriting legibility.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH RESEARCH
➢ searching for a theory (a scientifically acceptable general principle
offered to explain observed facts). For testing a theory, or for solving a problem.
➢ a SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED, EMPIRICAL, and
CRITICAL investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973)
SYSTEMATIC – follows steps or stages that begin with identification of the problem, relating of this problem with existing theories, collection of data, analysis, interpretation of these data, drawing of conclusions, and integration of these conclusions into the stream of knowledge.
CONTROLLED – is so planned every step of the way that fancy and guess work do not set in. The problem is defined thoroughly, variables identified and selected, instruments carefully selected or constructed, conclusions drawn only from the data yielded, and recommendations based on the findings and conclusions.
EMPERICAL DATA – will form the bases for conclusions. Everything is so controlled that any observer of the investigation will develop full confidence in the results.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS – is done by a panel of judges that passes judgment on the entire research.
➢ an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS
ORGANIZED – involves a structure or method in going about doing research. It is planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.
SYSTEMATIC – follows a definite set of procedures and steps. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.
FINDING ANSWERS – is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.
QUESTIONS – are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
DEFINITION OF A RESEARH PAPER
A RESEARCH PAPER
➢ sometimes called a term paper or library paper, an
ordinary critical essay or the more daunting thesis (an essay embodying results of original research especially one written for an academic degree or dissertation (an extended usually written treatment of a subject especially one submitted for a doctorate)
➢ reports the writer’s research findings.
➢ involves “searching again” through what others have
➢ is primarily characterized by its use of data gathered
from a wide range of sources to clarify, analyze, expound on, discover, discuss, and debate an idea.
➢ entails understanding a scholarly endeavor and
acquainting yourself with the variety of materials at your disposal (e.g., the library, various institutions, field interviews, questionnaires, the internet, email, and the like) to support your claims.
TWO APPROACHES
(1) a summary of information from many resources
If the paper summarizes research, it reports the reading from a single source or, more likely, from many sources.
(2) an evaluation of research information
If the paper evaluates the research information, it considers why or how and is frequently either a comparison paper or a cause-effect paper. The evaluation paper requires the use of numerous sources and assumes the writer’s ability to show originality and imagination.
CHARACTERISTICS
An effective research paper fulfills these requirements:
➢ indicates careful, comprehensive reading and understanding of the topic
➢ establishes, in its introduction, a thesis to be developed in the course of the paper
➢ follows a clear organization
➢ employs the principles of good composition
➢ includes direct quotations, paraphrases, or precis that supports
the thesis
➢ includes documentation in the form of parenthetical notes, endnotes, or footnotes
➢ includes a list of works cited
➢ exhibits careful, thorough documentation o sources of ideas ➢ follows a carefully prescribed format
➢ is almost always typed or, if prepared on a computer, printed on a letter-quality printer
REMEMBER!
A research paper * uses documentation
* analyzes, discusses, and debates ideas * acquaints you with a cross section of materials
* engages you in critical, not creative, reading and writing
A research paper is not a
* piece of expository writing * personal essay
* reflection paper
* review of academic literature * mere reporting of facts and/or opinions
THE RESEARCH WRITING PROCESS
Almost all materials on research paper writing summarize research writing as a matter of completing a series of step. As the English 112 course outline delineates, writing a research paper conventionally entails the following steps:
Step 1: Choosing a Research Topic Step 2: Developing a Research Strategy
Step 3: Evaluating and Compiling a Preliminary Research Bibliography Step 4: Taking Good Notes
Step 5: Conducting Interviews and/or Surveys Step 6: Writing the Data Commentary
Step 7: Writing the First Draft
Step 8: Revising the Research Paper
Step 9: Preparing the Final Research Paper for Submission
THE YO-YO APPROACH
Rather than completing one step of the research/writing process and moving neatly on to the next step, you will find that you confront problems that cause you either to go back to a previous step or to think ahead to the next step.
STEP 1: CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC
Key Steps in Choosing a Research Topic 1. Choose General Subject Area
2. Narrow the Topic
3. Select Focused Topic from General Subject Area 4. Verify Topic with Instructor
5. Research Available Information 6. Start Research
SOURCES OF A PROBLEM FOR INVESTIGATION
1. personal or friends’ experiences, observations, and knowledge
2. the vast amount of literature (the production of written works having excellence of form or expression and dealing with ideas of permanent interest) in your own field
4. journals, books, magazines, or abstracts 5. theses and dissertations
6. your professors, librarians, and classmates
SHARPENING SKILLS FOR DISCOVERYING AND IDENTIGYING A PROBLEM
1. Reading a lot of literature in your field of interest and being critical of what you read.
2. Attending professional lectures.
3. Being close observant of situations and happenings around you.
4. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lessons in content courses.
5. Attending research colloquia or seminars.
6. Conducting mini-researches and noting the obtained findings closely.
7. Compiling researches with special emphasis on content and methodology.
8. Visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics.
9. Subscribing to journals in your field and in research. 10. Building-up a library of materials in your field.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC
1. The topic should be of great interest to you. 2. It should be within your abilities.
3. It should be manageable and achievable in terms of: a. Length of research paper
b. Duration of research project
c. Availability of research resources(necessary equipment, subjects/participants, and sufficient library facilities)
4. The topic should be interesting and intelligible to the general reader and can meet the general reader’s needs and expectations. 5. It should be of importance and of significance.
6. It is useful for the concerned people in a particular field.
TOPICS TO AVOID
1. Too narrow, too broad, or to recent for discussion and for adequate use of a cross-section of research materials or resources.
2. Too ordinary, standard, popular topics commonly chosen for student research papers.
3. Too hard to investigate and to distasteful or uninteresting to you. 4. Philosophical topics or those based on personal belief.
5. Strictly biographical topics—Abraham Lincoln as a father—that are already discussed fully in book-length studies.
6. Highly technical or specialized.
7. Too sensitive or too controversial and topics that carry ethical or more impediments.
STRATEGIES TO NARROW A RESEARCH TOPIC
1. Conducting preliminary library research
Sources for preliminary research include encyclopedias, various readers’ guides and indexes, books, magazines, newspapers, and other reading materials.
a. Consult an encyclopedia. An encyclopedia is a good starting point for students who have no idea what they can write about. Encyclopedias contain general information (often about broad subjects) that you can use as triggers for possible topics.
b. Search an Index. You can also go through the computerized card catalog of your library and get ideas for your research paper.
c. Surf the net. The internet is a rich source of possible topics. It has been used by scholars to exchange information and discuss development in their fields.
d. Go through books, magazines, newspapers, and other reading materials. A news item or a feature article may spark your curiosity and trigger you to ask questions.
1. Freewriting
This strategy involves writing continuously about the general topic for a specified time---usually ten minutes, without rereading, pausing, or editing and without restrictions.
Steps to Follow in Freewriting
1. Start by setting a time limit or a number of pages that you have to fill up.
2. Then write without stopping (with a pen, a pencil, or at a computer) all your thoughts on a subject. Write what you think and fell about the topic, questions that occur to you, images that arise, statements you’ve heard others make, whatever comes in the allotted time.
If you have trouble getting started with freewriting, try focusing with introductory phrases that will launch you directly into discussion of your research subject. Start freewrting with introductory phrases like the following:
One unsettled question about (subject) is…. (Subject) is important today because…. (Subject) should (or should not) be… I am interested in (subject) because….
If you cannot think of anything at the moment, then write this down. Just write or type away, and ideas will come to you eventually.
3. When something hits you, write everything that is in your mind. If your mind wanders off to another topic, pursue this new direction and just write. Do not worry about leaving the earlier topic “undeveloped”. Remember, you are still exploring possible topics for your research paper, and you should not expect to come up with an elaborate description of your topic free writing.
4. When you have reached your time or page limit, stop. Then go back to what you have written. Highlight any statements or questions that strike you as particularly interesting. List down all the topics you have developed through free writing and choose a phrase or sentence that seems to be potentially promising for a research topic.
Subject : Censorship in the schools Sample Free writing:
Censorship only makes the books censored more popular, trying to suppress ideas doesn’t work; on the other hand. Maybe some books harmful, maybe some ideas distorting, giving kids the wrong picture. Is censorship based on values or fear? Fear of what? If values, what are we trying to exclude and why? Whose taste, whose reality, whose definitions? Is censorship ever justified? Is it necessary in education to censor certain books?
3. Clustering or webbing
This technique is nonlinear brainstorming activity that generates ideas, images, and feelings around a stimulus word that represents the general topic.
Mind mapping is a term often associated with clustering or webbing. It is used more often to organize material that students have brainstormed earlier.
4. Listing
This method is a variation of brainstorming, which involves listing all the topics you can think of that fall under your general subject. Then cross out the ones that are too broad or inappropriate and check those that might be a good starting point for your preliminary research. Select the one that you find the most interesting.
General Topic: Censorship
1. First Amendments rights (too broad)
2. Role of free thought in democracy (too broad)
3. Criteria for censorship who sets them, do they change with the
times? (not interesting to me)
4. Censorship and education (too broad)
5. Enforcing censorship---can it be done? (mildly interesting)
6. Censorship as free publicity for groups, books, material (interesting)
7. Self-censorship on part of the press---what do they agree not to print and why?
(research this one) 1-government secrets? 2-misconduct of officials? 3-foreign affairs blunders? 4-military errors
5-misconduct of certain groups? 5. Brainstorming
This technique is intended to generate as many ideas as possible about a subject.
1. Begin by making a list of what you know and what you are interested in knowing about each of the following categories: people, place, events, trends, controversies, developments.
People Places Events Trends Controversies
Develop-ments *Gloria Macapagal -Arroyo *Efren “Bata” Reyes *Manny “Pacman” Pacquiao *George W. Bush *MILF *Al Qaeda *Afghanistan *North Korea *West Bank of the Gaza Strip (Israel) *Mindanao *Iraq *Outbreak of SARS *Call centers *September 11 bombing of the world Trade Center* *Scandals in the Catholic Church *Extreme Sports *Reality television shows *Korean Telenovelas *Orange and Lemon and other rock bands *Estrada plunder case *Charter change *North Korea’s nuclear arsenal *MMDA drive to solve the traffic problem *Random drug testing in schools *Genetic engineer-ing *Robotics * Cloning
2. Go back to your list. For each category, identify an entry that seems interesting. For each entry you have chosen, write down what particular aspect about this topic you would want to know more about. For example:
➢ Manny “Pacman” Pacquiao: techniques in boxing ➢ Afghanistan: after the fall of the Talibon
➢ Call centers: the proliferation of call centers in the country ➢ Reality television shows: what makes them sell
➢ MMDA drive to solve the traffic problem: legal or not? ➢ Genetic engineering: bane or boon?
3. When you have identified a particular angle you are interested in exploring, check if this is researchable. Make sure you choose an angle which has not yet been exhaustively written about.
Topic Important to
general reader?
Interesting
to you? Interesting to general reader? Verifiable by a variety of sources and references Relatively
New? Manage-able?
FUNCTIONS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
Summary of the content of the entire study Frame of reference for the whole research paper Researcher’s claim of ownership
Other researcher’s reference for possible survey of theory
Preparing a good title means:
➢ having the most important words appear toward the beginning of your title,
➢ limiting the use of ambiguous or confusing words,
➢ breaking your title up into a title and subtitle when you have too many words, and
➢ including key words that will help researchers in the future
find your work.
1. You should write the title clearly and specifically. 2. The main concepts should be included.
3. The title should contain three things: (1) the variables you will study, (2) the relationship among the variables, and (3) the target population.
4. The title should not exceed 20 substantive words, function words
not included in the counting (Baker & Schutz, 1972) Examples of RESEARCH TITLE
Sample 1
A Study of the Relationship between IQ, Socio-Economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career Preference (incomplete)
IQ, Socio-Economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career Preferences Among Fourth Among Fourth Year High School Students of Metro Manila (better)
Sample 2
The Relationship of Parental Behavior and Personality to Problem Behavior (incomplete)
Factors in Parental Behavior and Personality as Related to Problem Behavior in Children (better)
Sample 3
Smoking Behavior of Fourth Year High School Students (incomplete) Peer and Other Influences on Smoking Behavior among Fourth Year High School Students in Cainta, Rizal (better)
Sample 4
A Comparison of Grade IV Gifted and Non-Gifted Children (incomplete)
Self-Concept and Parent Identification Among Grade IV Gifted and Non-Gifted Children in the Division of Isabela (better)
Sample 5
Verbal Creativity Among Senior High School Students (incomplete) Sex and Mental Ability Differences in Verbal Creativity Among Senior High School Students in Selected Schools in Lipa City (better)
WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT?
It is the point, gist, or condensation of the paper. It is a one- or two-sentence summary of the entire text, whether an argumentative position or an analytical exploration of issues.
Why should your paper contain a thesis statement?
1. To establish a point in the paper.
2. To ensure that you have a clear grasp of the subject matter.
3. To provide a framework for the organization and development of your arguments or analyses.
4. To prepare and guide your reader in the reading of your paper.
Writing a thesis statement
1. A thesis statement is always expressed as a complete sentence. 2. A thesis statement takes a position (or makes a stand) on a topic. 3. A thesis statement uses specific language.
4. A thesis statement makes an assertion based on clearly stated support.
Helpful hint: Clear and effective thesis statements are usually introduced by because, since, so,
although, unless, in order to and however (when used with a semi-colon).
Example:
Thesis statement:
In order to address the problems associated with the deteriorating reading, writing and mathematical skills, a revised basic curriculum is needed to ensure that our students receive quality education.
THESIS STATEMENT
• asserts the main idea controlling your paper’s content and organization.
• has two primary characteristics: it states or suggests the paper’s main topic, and it states or implies the order in which the ideas will appear.
• states your main idea or purposes and lets your reader recognize the relationship among ideas and the emphasis of your paper.
1. States the paper’s main idea 2. Reflects the paper’s purpose 3. Includes a focus
4. Briefly states the major subdivision(s) of your topic
Suitable subject: Teenagers Coping with Alzheimer’s Patients Possible Subtopics: Alzheimer’s Symptoms
Disease progression Patient’s behavior Home care
Caregiver’s problems
Other family members’ concerns Patient’s frustration
Sources of patient/family frustrations Reducing everyone’s frustration Treatments
Daily routine
Communication with patient Nutrition
Support groups for family Support groups for teens Day care
Nursing home - if? When? Teen’s social life
Teen’s school life (homework, extracurricular activities)
Broad Categories
Patient’s emotions are probably the result of Alzheimer’s symptoms and the disease’s progression.
The emotions affect the patient’s behavior
Frustration probably best describes the emotions.
Patient’s emotions form one main idea, then it’s logical that family emotions make up another main idea.
The topic includes the ideas of caregiver’s problems, family members concerns, family frustration; decision about a nursing home, teen’s schools and social life.
The remaining ideas fit loosely into the category of reducing frustration—either those of the patient or of the family.
Preliminary Thesis Statement:
Understanding the emotions of both the patient and the family will help reduce everyone’s frustrations.
Main points in implied order: Patient’s emotions
Reduction of patient’s frustrations
Reduction of family member’s frustrations Final Thesis statement:
Teenagers face a tough challenge both to understand and to deal with a loved one afflicted with Alzheimer’s disease as he or she regresses through cognitive deterioration, communication impairment, and behavior problems.
Topic: Preliminary: Final: Houseplants
Houseplants are harmful.
Certain seemingly household plants can cause serious health problems, even death.
Topic: Preliminary: Final:
Science Fiction
There are many types of science fiction
Science fiction novels range from stories with scary creatures to stories that make serious comments about modern society.
Topic: Preliminary: Final:
The history of American architecture
The history of American architecture is varied. American architecture has gone through major phases: from colonial to federal to Victorian to modern.
Weak (summarizes known facts)
AIDS is usually fatal disease in which the body’s immune system fails to resist infection. Better
People with AIDS should have legal access to promising new drugs without having to wait for their approval by the U.S Food and Drug Administration.
Weak (too general)
The drug problem is something we need to solve. Better
Anti-drug campaigns are most effective when designed and targeted for specific local populations.
Weak (intention only)
This paper will show that the moral content of children’s cartoons is too ambiguous to present acceptable behavior models.
Better
The moral content of children’s cartoons is too ambiguous to present acceptable behavior models.
Once you have narrowed your topic significantly and have verified your topic with your teacher, you are ready to develop an appropriate research strategy to make sure there is enough information available on the topic to complete your paper.
In this stage, you are searching for books, articles, reviews, essays, and other information specifically related to the topic you have selected. Planning a Research Schedule
A Research Schedule is a calendar of all steps necessary for completing a successful research paper on time. It lists the paper’s due date and includes the major research steps in the research process.
A Research Schedule is a Time Schedule that includes time allocation for different stages of research writing. This time schedule may be used as a guide.
To begin, make a research plan. Use the following guidelines, recognizing that a week represents five working days. You choose the days.
If your final research paper is due in 10 weeks, spend 4 days choosing a topic
6 days doing preliminary work 12 days taking notes
8 days gathering the data 9 days writing a first draft 4 days revising
6 days documenting and polishing 1 day proofreading
Stevens, Mark English 112
RESEARCH PAPER SCHEDULE
Completed November 10 Begin thinking about research topic.
Start research notebook.
November 13 Review general sources on possible research topic. Search the index, surf the net, read encyclopedia, Books, and other reading materials.
November 17 Select research topic and verify it with instructor. November 20 Formulate research questions.
Write the statement of the problem.
November 24 Devise a research strategy to locate information. Compile a preliminary bibliography.
December 4 Turn in preliminary bibliography
December 11 Start preliminary reading and note taking.
January 8 Start writing the different sections of the Research Proposal.
January 22 Turn in the Research Proposal. January 29 Start collection of data.
February 5 Analyze research data. February 12 Write the first draft. February 19 Prepare the final paper.
February 26 Revise, edit, and proofread the final paper. March 3 Final research paper due!
Keeping a Research Notebook
A Research Notebook is any handy-size spiral-bound notebook that you can literally carry with you everywhere and make a habit of using throughout the research process.
Suggestions in Setting up a Research Notebook
1. Keep a particular notebook reserved especially for your research notes and writing.
2. Use a pencil or ink to record ideas and information. While you do not need to worry about neatness, write legibly and make complete entries.
3. Record names, titles, and other bibliographic data accurately and fully to avoid errors in your final paper.
4. Use as many headings or subtitles in the notebook as necessary to keep your entries organized.
5. Date each entry in the research notebook. This will help you see a pattern to the research as well as provide an occasional nudge when you have ignored something for too long.
Kinds of Entries in a Research Notebook
1. Your research schedule: Having your research schedule readily available will keep your efforts organized and give you direction. Make it the first item you put in your notebook.
2. Ideas about your research topic: Jot down spontaneous insights before you forget them. If you find yourself writing a lot, keep going. What you write could become valuable material for the final paper.
3. Research questions: Keep track of the questions you need to answer for yourself about the paper’s topic as well as those questions you will need to ask others.
4. Sources to follow up on: Record author’s names, source titles, libraries, data services, and other information you may need for your paper.
Doing Library Research
When it comes to doing research work, nothing beats the traditional approach of leafing through printed pages. A good library is a goldmine of resources if you know how to use it.
Practical Tips to Consider in Doing Library Research 1. Move from general to specific references.
2. Learn to use bibliography/reference lists. 3. Know how to evaluate a source.
Doing Internet Research
The internet has a wider reach across a variety of sources – academic, professional, government, and commercial as well as individual sources and provides an easier transfer of information to electronic format. However, the internet is simply a research tool; it is not a substitute for the rigorous discipline of scholarly research.
Use and Advantages of Internet
1. Use the internet to build basic background information.
2. Use the internet to be up-to-date on the latest discoveries regarding your topic.
3. Use the internet only if you have time.
STEP 3: EVALUATING AND COMPILING A PRELIMINARY RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography is a systematic and comprehensive listing of works (e.g, books, periodicals, newspapers, and other documents) cited or consulted for the study, including book-length compilations of bibliographical entries on a given subject.
Functions:
1. It enables the reader to verify the documentation provided in the paper.
2. It provides the reader with a list of further readings on the subject.
3. It enables the reader to estimate the probable value of
the paper on the bases of the range, up-to-dateness and reliability of the sources used.
Basic Kinds of Source Materials
1. Primary Sources—include first-hand accounts of experimentation and investigation (articles in professional journals, monographs, doctoral theses, interviews, and questionnaires), original works (letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, poems, novels, autobiographies, and other literary works), reports(proceedings of Parliament, court testimony, reports of government departments and agencies, annual reports, laboratory reports, field observations, and minutes), and the researcher’s own experiences.
2. Secondary Sources—are summaries of information gathered from primary sources. These secondary sources include translations, summaries, and reviews of research (for example, encyclopedia articles), abstracts, guide books, magazines, journals, newspapers, pamphlets, indexes, computer databases, and other publications containing information, commentaries, and so on.
3. Tertiary Sources—include textbooks, since these are generally compiled from secondary sources. Tertiary sources of information can be useful in providing an overview or broad summary of a field. They may even be acceptable as references because some textbooks become acknowledged as authorities.
1. Works Cited—comprises a list of sources that has been referred to
in the text or footnotes of a paper. It is the most common form of bibliography, although the heading Bibliography or References or List of References is normally substituted for Works Cited. The term Reference is the most commonly used of these terms across different disciplines.
2. Sources Consulted—is a broader kind of bibliography and consists of a comprehensive listings of works consulted, including those that are not quoted from, referred to or strictly relevant to the subject of a particular paper.
3. A Selected Bibliography—contains those sources cited, together with the more relevant of the works that have been consulted.
4. A Brief Annotated Bibliography—is a list of references, at least some of which are followed by a note on the content and usefulness of the references.
Procedure in Compiling a Research Bibliography
1. Consult bibliographical guides.
2. Consult an encyclopedia article on your topic.
3. Consult standard reference materials such as atlases, handbooks, and dictionaries.
4. Consult the computer/card catalogue. 5. Consult a guide to these and dissertation. 6. Consult periodical and newspaper indexes. 7. Consult the vertical files.
Critically Evaluating Sources
○ Fairness: Does the author demonstrate knowledge and consideration of the other viewpoints and research in the field? Is there discussion of opposing viewpoints as well as application and citation of other works or authorities?
○ Logic: Has the author supported his or her ideas with valid evidence? Is the presentation logical, and has the author avoided bias and common fallacies of logic?
○ Evidence: Do the examples and other evidence presented fairly reflect current data? Is there a clear separation of fact and opinion? ○ Authority: Does the author refer to qualified experts or establish
his or her own credentials to speak with authority on the subject?
Evaluating Information
Is the Publication Useful to You?
✔ Can you understand the material?
✔ Is it too theoretical, too general, too specific?
✔ Does it contain illustrative material to clarify information? ✔ Can you use it as a source for your notes?
Is the Material a Primary or Secondary Source?
✔ Include a balance of primary and secondary materials in your paper to cross-check information and to gain some idea as to the usefulness and accuracy of primary and secondary work.
How Recent is the Source?
✔ Check the publication date of your books, articles and other sources to make sure you have the latest information on your topic. Is the Writer an Authority or Reliable Scholar in the field?
✔ Look up the author’s credentials (necessary expertise, training or expertise to write completely about the subject) in biographical sources
✔ Notice not only the number of sources listed but the quality of primary and secondary sources.
Does the Writer Have Biases or Prejudices?
✔ Does the writer have some personal motive for writing for or against a topic?
✔ Is the language filled with emotional adjectives and adverbs that color the facts?
✔ Are the facts loaded on one side or another of an issue?
✔ Does the author present both sides accurately, and are the facts substantiated by other sources?
Has the writer Defined Terms and Major Concepts?
✔ Are the definitions too personal or too vague to be useful?
Making Bibliography Cards
To make a bibliography card for a text, use a 3”x5” index card and write only one bibliography entry on one side of the card.
Advantages of Working or Preliminary Bibliography on index cards: 1. Cards allow for quick organization and sorting of bibliographic
sources.
2. Unwanted cards can be easily discarded or new ones conveniently added.
3. Information from the cards can be easily transferred to a computer file and then serve as a back-up to the file.
4. Because they cam easily be shuffled and arranged alphabetically,
the cards will later provide bibliographic information in the order needed for preparing the list of References.
References: All sources included in the References section must be cited in the body of the paper.
A. Pagination: The references section begins on a new page.
B. Heading: References (centered on the first line below the manuscript page header)
C. Format: The references (with hanging indent) begin on the line following the References heading. Entries are organized alphabetically by surnames of first authors. Most reference entries have three components:
1. Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using surnames and initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are seven or more authors, list the first six and then use et al. for remaining authors. Id\f no author is identified. The title of the document begins the reference.
2. Year of Publication: If no publication date is identified, use “n.d.”
in parentheses following the authors.
3. Source of Reference: Include title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or title, city of publication, publication (for book).
Italicize titles of books, titles of periodicals, and periodical volume
numbers.
Some General Rules for APA Reference Pages
Begin the reference list on a new page. The page begins with the
word References )Reference if there is only one), centered in the top, middle of the page, using both upper and lower case. If the references take up more than one page, do not re-type the word Reference on sequential pages. Simply continue your list
The first line of the reference is flush left. Lines thereafter are indented as a group, a few spaces, to create a hanging indention. Double space between citations.
The italics for titles of longer works such as books, newspapers, magazines, and journals.
Reference cited in text must appear in the reference list,
conversely, each entry in the reference list must be cited in text.
Give in parentheses the year the work was published. For
magazines and news papers, give the year followed by the month and date, if any. If no date is available, write n. d.
Give volume numbers of magazines, journals, and newsletters.
Include the issue number for journals if and only if each issue begins on page 1.
Capitalize all major words in journal titles.
When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book,
article, or web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.
Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the last names of the first author of each work.
Personal communications, such as email messages to you. Private interviews that you conducted with another person, speeches, and telephone conversations should not be cited in your reference list because they are not retrievable sources for anyone else. You should make reference to these sources in your in-text citations.
If you have more than one article by the same author(s), single-author references or multiple-single-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.
Example:
Bernt, T. J. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion (2nd
ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Bernt, T. J. (2002). Religion and sexual adjustment. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.), religion and mental Health (pp.70-84). New York: Oxford University.
Murzynski, J., & Degelman (1998). Body language of women and adjustments of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-1626.
Murzynski, J., & Degelman (2000). Publication manual of the American psychological association (5th ed.) Australia:
John Wily & Sons.
When an author appears both as a sole author and, n another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
Example:
Murzynski, J. (1998). Body language of women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied social Psychology, 26, 1617-1626.
American psychological association (5th ed.) Australia:
John Wily & Sons.
References that have the same first author and different second
and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name the third if the first and second authors are the same.
Example:
Manlapaz, E.Z., Francisco, M. E. N., & Manlapaz, R.L. (1995). The anvil guide to research paper writing: A step-by-step guide. Pasig City: ANVIL.
Manlapaz,E. Z, Sevilla, C. G., Punzalan, T. G., Regala,B. P., & Uriate,G. G. (1992). Research Methods (Revised ed.). Manila: Rex Book Store.
• If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize then in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year.
Example:
Sue Baugh, L. (1997). How to write term paper and reports (2nd ed.).
Illinois: VGM Career Horizons.
Sue Baugh, L. (1997b). Writing the modern research paper (2nd ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Examples of Sources
Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of religion. RetrievedAugust3,2001,from
http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm Stand-alone Web Document (no author, no date)
Gender and society. (n.d.).Retrieved December 3, 2001, from http://trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html
Journal article from database
Hien, D., & Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug abuse-maternal aggression link. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved May 20, 2000, from ProQuest database.
Abstract from Secondary Database
Garrity, K. & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server introduction on restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172. Abstract retrieved July 23, 2001, from PsycINFO database. Entry in an Encyclopedia
Imago. (2000). In World Book Encyclopedia (Vol. 10, p. 79). Chicago: World Book Encyclopedia.
STEP 4: TAKING GOOD NOTES Objectives of Note Taking
1. To record the main ideas that will form the backbone of your research report.
2. To gather specific evidence to support your main ideas.
3. To record the exact wording of sources you may want to quote in your paper.
Unavoidable Difficulties of Taking Notes
1. You cannot tell ahead of time exactly what information you will need.
2. You cannot copy down everything you read. Secret of Taking Good Notes
1. Develop a system and stick to it.
2. Know what not to take notes on as well as what to write down.
Note Content
1. Background information that you need to understand the research topic better.
2. Summary of general ideas supporting your preliminary thesis statement.
3. Explanatory such as histories, definitions of terms, plot summaries, biographical data, and other material that you may need to provide for your reader.
4. Quotations, examples, and anecdotes that will illustrate or support your ideas in the paper.
5. Little known facts or questionable and controversial ideas about your topic .
6. Statistical figures, such as percentages, weights, amounts of money, ratios, and dates that are not commonly known, as well as the sources in which you found them.
Guidelines for Taking Effective Notes
1. Use phrases instead of complete sentences.
2. Avoid using unusual abbreviations as a form of shorthand in note taking.
3. Identify facts and opinions as you take notes.
4. Facts of common knowledge (e.g., the bombing of Pearl Harbor)
do not have to be documented. Unusual or little-known facts (e.g., how many civilians were killed in the surprise attack) do need to be documented. Make sure you include your source on the note card.
5. When copying quotations, use ellipses if you omit a few words. Otherwise, you may not remember that you condensed the quoted material.
6. Keep all your note cards until your paper has been graded. Your instructor may ask to see your notes or may have questions about a fact in your work.
Note-Taking Techniques
1. Keep notes in a flexible and convenient form, so that they can be sorted out, arranged or shuffled to suit any order you need and to add or take out cards as your research progresses.
2. Use a uniform size of index cards (4” x 6”). Resist the temptation
to write on odds and ends of paper, since these are easy to loose. 3. Keep the cards bound with an elastic band and store them in a
portable case, preferably in a strong envelope. 4. When taking notes, use only one side of the card.
5. Use a separate note card for each idea from each source.
6. Write only one entry—items of information constituting a single point—per card, regardless whether the note is brief or not. If the notes you need to take cannot be contained on one side of the note card, use another note card but take care to (1) write down the source on the second and subsequent cards, and (2) indicate that it is the continuation of the preceding note cards, and clip or staple the cards together.
7. Take notes in your own words. You may use phrases, lists, key words, sentences, or paragraphs.
8. When you find a particularly poignant passage—perhaps a phrases or even a whole sentence or two—then copy it on your note card exactly as it appears, comma for comma, letter for letter. Enclose the passage in quotation marks.
9. If a word is misspelled or misused in the quoted passage, clarify
your accuracy in quoting by inserting the word sic (meaning thus, to clarify that the error is not yours), in italics (because it is a foreign word), and enclosed in brackets.
Example:
“The recipient hereby expresses his hartfelt [sic] thanks for the commendations.”
10.If you omit words or phrases or choose not to quote a complete sentence, show the omission by using ellipsis points. Use three points for the omission of a word or phrase; use fourth point to represent a period at the end of a sentence.
Full text quoted:
“You can reinforce your verbal message with nonverbal ones by pointing, gesturing, and using ‘body language’ to convey your pleasure or displeasure with your relative’s behavior.”
Partial text quoted; three ellipsis points
“You can reinforce your verbal message with nonverbal ones… to convey your pleasure or displeasure with your relative’s behavior.”
Partial text quoted; four ellipsis points
“You can reinforce your verbal message with nonverbal ones by pointing, gesturing, and using ‘body language’ to convey your pleasure or displeasure….”
11.Use brackets to enclose words you add to quoted material [to clarify or to refine style].
Example to clarify
“You can reinforce your verbal message with nonverbal ones by pointing, gesturing, and using ‘body language’ to convey [your reactions to] your pleasure or displeasure with your relative’s behavior.”
Example to refine style
“[One] can reinforce [his] verbal message with nonverbal ones by pointing, gesturing, and using ‘body language’ to convey [one’s] pleasure or displeasure with [a] relative’s behavior.”
a. Before anything else, write down the source of your note preferably at the bottom of the card remember to use the same method of citations you chose for writing down your bibliography notes.
If you are making only one note from the source, be sure to write down its full bibliographical description. If you are planning to make several note from the same source, write down the full bibliographical description only on the first note card and use the abbreviated form for the rest.
e.g., First Note card:
Harrison, P. (1980). The third world tomorrow. New York: Penguin Books, p. 25.
Second Note Card
Harrison, Third world, p. 28.
b. Write the subject, called the Slug, on the top line, upper left hand
corner of the note card. This slug line gives you the main idea of the card and helps you arrange your cards by main point. This topic heading will save you much time later when sorting out your cards.
Write only one idea per card and on only one side of the card. c. Write out the note itself
Potential Pitfalls in Note—Taking
1. Do not rely too heavily on one source. In general, you should have about an equal number of note cards from each source.
2. If your subject permits, try to use book and periodical references and other sources. However, the topic ultimately determines the appropriate sources.
3. Be sure to check nonprint media sources, which can provide
additional perspectives. Television documentaries, public—radio talk shows, films, lectures—all are legitimate research sources. 4. Do not overuse direct quotations. You can usually summarize ideas
in fewer words. Probably less than one-fourth of your cards should quote directly.
5. Make absolutely certain that you put quotations marks around any words not your own.
Different Types of Notes 1. Paraphrase
A paraphrase is a restatement of another person’s ideas or the author’s material in your own words, retaining the basic meaning of the original. It involves simplification, with some of the details being omitted. Paraphrasing is not simply changing a word here and there in a sentence.
A good paraphrase usually
Reflects your own words, your own style of writing but retains the senses of the original
Reduces the original only slightly, usually by less than one-fourth
Displays careful reading of the original
Represents the original idea accurately and completely, without reflecting personal bias
Recasts original language for better clarity and readability Uses clear, effective sentences as well as good mechanics,
usage, and grammar. Point to Consider:
a. One should always acknowledge the source of his facts and ideas (except for facts and ideas which are common knowledge) in order to avoid the “sin” of plagiarism.
b. When paraphrasing, do not merely substitute synonyms for the original words while maintaining the same sentence pattern; similarly, do not merely alter the sentence pattern while using the same words.
c. Avoid the “mosaic” which merely lifts phrases from the original text and patches them together in new patterns.
d. In cases where one wishes to retain a particularly striking or apt term, phrase or expression, you can do so properly by enclosing it within quotation.
e. Be careful to retain the sense of the original; otherwise, you run the risk of misinterpreting or distorting the idea. To reduce the risk, mentally digest the material before you take down any notes.
Example:
Original Version
The Weather in Hawaii
Hawaii has mild, tropical weather year round. There is almost never a time when it is too cold to swim or wander around enjoying the outdoors.
However, there are some variations. In summer, it may be hot, with occasional afternoon rains. In Winter and spring, you just might catch a Kona storm, but the rain is so gently warm that it is kind of fun to wander around it, wearing as few clothes as the law allows.
Fall is the driest time of the year.
Paraphrased Version
According to Sunshine Magazine (1976), Hawaii’s tropical weather is so mild that one can go swimming and enjoy the outdoors all year round.
But the weather does vary somewhat according to the season. In summer, it sometimes gets hot, with occasional shower in the afternoon. In winter and spring, there are a few rainstorms, which are known as “Kona” storm. However, the rain is so “gently warm” that most people enjoy walking around wearing just a minimum clothes.
The article also reports that it hardly ever rains in the fall.
Original Passage
Recent research has determined that humans tend to fall into one of four quadrants according to their learning styles. Quadrants one learners tend to be divergent thinkers and need personal and emotional involvement in order for learning to take place. As idea people, they function through social integration and strive to bring unity to diversity. Quadrant two learners are assimilators, needing systematic learning via a logical and intellectual approach. As analytic learners, they reflect on ideas to create concepts and models. Quadrant three learners tend to be convergent thinkers who are practical, problem-oriented people. Pragmatic decision makers, they restrict judgment to concrete things. Quadrant four learners are accommodators needing random patterns of learning. They aim to bring action to concepts and exercise authority through common vision, hesitating to make decisions affecting others.
Paraphrase
As learners, we fall into four groups. The first kind of learner needs to be caught up in an idea physically and personally. His personal involvement and concern for others make him seek harmony. He’s emotional. The second kind of learner absorbs all the information around him, categorizes it, and reasons out the results. The third king of learner is opposite the first. He tends to be less emotional, more utilitarian. His thorough analysis results in a valid decision. He’s practical. The fourth kind of learner needs numerous approaches to learning something new. As an opposite to the second kind of learner, he relies more on instinct than on logic. When decisions must be made, he doesn’t like to interfere with other’s lives. He’s an accommodator.
1. Summary
Like a paraphrase, a summary, also called as précis, is a restatement of the written passage. Unlike a paraphrase, however, it is shorter than the original material—usually about one third as long. Generally, it is a condensation of the main points of a piece of writing.
A paragraph or two can often be summarized in a single sentence, and a three- or four- paragraph passage can usually be summarized in a single paragraph. A summary of one page may well reduce the points presented in twenty-five pages of carefully supported detail. Similarly, a summary of a hundred words may restate what an author explains in three pages. A summary usually
Omits details, illustrations, and subordinate ideas, presenting instead the major ideas.
Reduces the original passage by two-thirds Indicates careful reading of the original passage
Portrays the original author’s concept accurately, without adding bias
Follows the guidelines of standard grammar, usage, and mechanics by using strong, effective sentence structure.
How to Summarize:
1. Read the material thoroughly.
2. Determine the author’s organization of ideas by dividing the material into different parts and labeling each section. This is similar to creating an outline of the material and identifying the major sections and headings of the material.
3. Construct one-sentence summaries of each of the sections.
4. Read the mini-summaries you made and then determine the central idea of the entire material. State this in a thesis statement of 1-2 sentences.
5. Combine your mini-summaries with your thesis statement.
6. Compare your summary with the original to make sure that you accurately expressed the author’s ideas and that you did not use the author’s exact words. Remember to indicate the source of the material/passage you are summarizing.
7. Edit for language and coherence. Example:
Original Version
Patients Sometimes Die Because of Unqualified, Untrained Technicians
by A.Gribben
A 23-year-old college student was playing touch football with some school chums. While running for the ball, he fell and whacked his
head, hard. Hours later, he complained of a “bad” headache. The young man was taken to a major West Coast Hospital where doctors examined him and diagnosed brain hemorrhaging. A team of surgeons operated on the injured man at once. A short while later, the surgery was declared a complete success.
But unfortunately, the young man died. An uncertified, poorly trained respiratory technician tending the patient bumbled during an emergency in the recovery room.
The National Observe, April 21, 1973
Summarized Version
According to Gribben (1973), a college student sustained a severe head injury while playing touch football. Later, the young man was taken to a hospital where doctors diagnosed brain hemorrhaging and performed a successful operation. But the patient died in the recovery room at the hands of an unqualified respiratory technician.
Original Passage
Wood is a universal material, and no one has ever been able to make a satisfactory count of its many uses. The Forest Products Laboratory, a research institution of the United States Forest Service, at Madison, Wisconsin, once undertook to make an official count of wood uses. When last announced, the number was mote then 5,000 and the argument had only started over how general or how specific a use had to be to get on the list.
Just one well-known wood-cellulose plastic, including its conversion products, claims 25,000 uses—among them such different items as doll’s eyes and advertising signs. The use of wood fiber as the basis for such products is increasing every day.
Another important use of wood is paper for printing our books, magazines, and newspapers. A high point in our culture came less than a century ago with the discovery that wood fiber could take the place of cotton or linen in paper manufacture. Today we use more than 73 million of paper and board each year. Of this amount each person’s annual share of all kinds of paper and board is about 660 pounds. When paper was made chiefly of rags, each person’s annual share was less than 10 pounds.
Container board accounts for about a fourth of our paper and board use. Newsprint accounts for an additional 17 percent of paper use. The rest is used in a myriad of forms—writing paper; sanitary cartons for prunes, cereals, butter, ice cream, paper cups, plates, disposable napkins, towels, handkerchief, wrapping paper for groceries, meats, dry goods. Summary
The Forest Products Laboratory, a research institution of the U.S. Forest Service, suggests over 5,000 uses for wood, but admittedly no one knows how to set the limits of specificity for the list. For instance, some wood fiber products alone can boast over 25,000 uses, including dolls’ eyes and billboards. In another example, wood supplies annually over 73 million tons of paper and board, used for everything form containers to newsprint, amounting to over 40 percent of paper use.
3. Direct Quotation Different Purposes
1. To capture individual authority or interest: An authority, a
well-known person, or another individual should be quoted when his or her own words would be more important or more interesting to your reader.
2. To ensure accuracy: Exact language is often needed to
The precise language that scientific, medical, and technical sources rely upon for accuracy cannot always be preserved in summary or paraphrase.
3. To illustrate unique language: Sometimes language is more
important for its uniqueness or emotional power than its ability to convey meaning. In discussing a literary work, for instance, a quotation demonstrates the author’s use of language to create meaning and tone.
When to Quote
a. Direct quotations should be used only when the original words of the author are expressed so concisely and convincingly that you cannot improve on these words.
b. Direct quotations may be used for documenting a major argument where a footnote would not suffice. In this case, quotations are limited in length and comprise only essential passages.
c. Direct quotations may be used when you wish to comment upon, refute or analyze ideas expressed by another writer.
d. Direct quotations may be used when changes, through paraphrasing, could cause misunderstanding or misinterpretation or would diminish the original text’s significance or rhetorical appeal. e. Direct quotations should be used when citing mathematical,
scientific and other formulate. What to Quote
