How To Understand And Understand The Purpose Of Research

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Contact details:

Regenesys Business School Tel: +27 (11) 669-5000 Fax: +27 (11) 669-5001 Email: [email protected]

www.regenesys.co.za

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Research Methodology

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Version Control: 15_e_f

Date of Publication: July 2014

Publisher: Regenesys Management

Place of Publication: Sandton

Document Change History

Date Version Initials Description of Change

23 December 2013 14.3 DL New Masters Research Study Guide

29 December 2013 14.3.1 KG Reviewed 2 January 2014 14.4 PL Reviewed 27 January 2014 14.5_f FVS Formatting 30 January 2014 14.5_e CJ Proofreading

31 January 2014 14.6_e_f DL Incorporating suggested editing changes and addressing editing queries 4 February 2014 14.7_e_f FVS Final formatting

5 February 2014 14.8 KG Reviewed

5 February 2014 14.8_e_f FVS Addressing comments from SME 5 February 2014 14.9_e_ LS Edited and proofread

6 February 2014 14.9_e_f FVS Formatting 17 June 2014 15_e_f TS Updated definitions

This Study Guide highlights key focus areas for you as a student. Because the field of study in question is so vast, it is critical that you consult additional literature.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without written permission of the publisher. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation

to this publication may be liable for criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

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C ONTENTS

1

WELCOME TO REGENESYS ... 1

2

INTRODUCTION ... 2

2.1

TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODOLOGY ... 2

2.2

ALIGNING ORGANISATIONAL, TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL OBJECTIVES ... 3

3

ICONS USED IN THIS STUDY GUIDE ... 4

4

STUDY MATERIAL FOR THE MODULE ... 5

5

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES ... 5

5.1

List of Tables

TABLE 1: PURPOSE OF RESEARCH 12

TABLE 2: RESEARCH CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY 14

TABLE 3: REAL-WORLD PROBLEMS 31

TABLE 4: POPULAR, TRADE AND SCHOLARLY PUBLICATIONS 43

TABLE 5: DETERMINANT OF QUALITY OF INFORMATION SOURCES 46

TABLE 6: THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

APPROACH 61

TABLE 7: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND THE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY 63

TABLE 8: TERMS COMMONLY USED IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS 71

TABLE 9: TERMINOLOGY 73

TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF NOMINAL SCALE 91

TABLE 11: EXAMPLE OF NOMINAL SCALE 92

TABLE 12: TYPES OF SCALES 96

TABLE 13: T-TESTS 121

TABLE 14: T-TEST TWO-SAMPLE ASSUMING EQUAL VARIANCE 123

TABLE 15: SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL TESTS TO EXAMINE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN

VARIABLES 125

List of Figures

FIGURE 1: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH 22

FIGURE 2: THE RESEARCH ONION 54

FIGURE 3: 10-STEP RESEARCH PROCESS 69

FIGURE 4: RESEARCH PROCESS AND THE RESEARCH REPORT 70

FIGURE 5: HISTOGRAM — AREA 1 110

FIGURE 6: HISTOGRAM AREA 2 111

FIGURE 7: CORRELATION ANALYSIS 117

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© Regenesys Business School 1

1 W ELCOME TO R EGENESYS

“Have a vision. Think big. Dream, persevere and your vision will become a reality.

Awaken your potential knowing that everything you need is within you.”

Dr. Marko Saravanja

At Regenesys, we assist individuals and organisations to achieve their personal and organisational goals, by enhancing their management and leadership potential. We approach education and development holistically, considering every interaction not only from an intellectual perspective but also in terms of emotion and spirituality. Our learning programmes are designed to transform and inspire your mind, heart and soul, and thus allow you to develop the positive values, attitudes and behaviours, which are required for success.

Having educated over 95 000 students based in highly reputable local and international corporations across over 100 countries since Regenesys' inception in 1998, we are now one of the fastest-growing and leading institutions of management and leadership development in the world.

Regenesys’ ISO 9001:2008 accreditation bears testimony to our quality management systems meeting international standards. Regenesys is accredited with the Council on Higher Education.

Our work is rooted in the realities of a rapidly changing world and we provide our clients with the knowledge, skills and values required for success in the 21

^st

century.

At Regenesys, you will be treated with respect, care and professionalism. You will be taught by business experts, entrepreneurs and academics who are inspired by their passion for human development. You will be at a place where business and government leaders meet, network, share their experiences and knowledge, learn from each other, and develop business relationships. You will have access to a campus, in the heart of Sandton, with the tranquillity of a Zen garden, gym and meditation room.

We encourage you to embark on a journey of personal development with Regenesys. We will help you to awaken your potential and to realise that everything you need to succeed is within you. We will be with you every step of the way. We will work hard with you and, at the end celebrate your success with you.

Areas of Expertise

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2 I NTRODUCTION

Welcome to the module on Research Methodology.

This module will guide and assist you in understanding research philosophies, research methodology, research design, and conducting and analysing data to produce meaningful information. This will assist you and provide you with a sound basis for research, which can be, used both in your personal and work life. There are references to video clips, which are recommended to complete the Mini-dissertation and will assist in gaining more insight into this subject. The cases and exercises will reinforce the theoretical concepts and it is highly recommended that you do there exercises as you work through this study guide .The study guide consists of the main body of knowledge and is supported by two annexures which are specifically designed to allow you to gain insight into the marking and structure of a dissertations.

2.1 T EACHING AND L EARNING M ETHODOLOGY

Regenesys uses an interactive teaching and learning methodology that encourages self-reflection and promotes independent and critical thinking. Key to the approach utilised is an understanding of adult learning principles, which recognise the maturity and experience of participants, and the way that adult students need to learn.

At the core of this is the integration of new knowledge and skills into existing knowledge structures, as well as the importance of seeing the relevance of all learning via immediate application in the workplace.

Practical exercises are used to create a simulated management experience to ensure that the conceptual knowledge and practical skills acquired can be directly applied within the work environment of the participants. The activities may include scenarios, case studies, self-reflection, problem solving and planning tasks.

Training manuals are developed to cover all essential aspects of the training comprehensively, in a user-friendly and interactive format. Our facilitators have extensive experience in management education, training and development.

Please read through this Study Guide carefully, as it will influence your understanding of the subject

matter and the successful planning and completion of your studies.

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2.2 A LIGNING O RGANISATIONAL , T EAM AND I NDIVIDUAL

O BJECTIVES

This course will draw on a model developed by Regenesys Management, which demonstrates how the external environment, the levels of an organisation, the team and the components of an individual are interrelated in a dynamic and systemic way. The success of an individual depends on his/ her self-awareness, knowledge and ability to manage successfully these interdependent forces, stakeholders and processes.

The degree of synergy and alignment between the goals and objectives of the organisation, the team and the individual determines the success or failure of an organisation. It is, therefore, imperative that each organisation ensures that team and individual goals and objectives are aligned with the organisation’s strategies (vision, mission, goals and objectives, etc.); structure (organogram, decision-making structure, etc.); systems (HR, finance, communication, administration, information, etc.); culture (values, level of openness, democracy, caring, etc.).

Hence, an effective work environment should be characterised by the alignment of organisational systems, strategies, structures and culture, and by people who operate synergistically.

Regenesys’ Integrated Management Model

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3 I CONS USED IN THIS S TUDY G UIDE

Icons are included in the study guide to enhance its usability. Certain icons are used to indicate different important aspects in the study guide to help you to use it more effectively as a reference guide in future. The icons in this study guide should be interpreted as follows:

Definition

The definitions provide an academic perspective on given terminology. They are used to give students a frame of reference from which to define a term using their own words.

Examples

The example icon is used to indicate an extra/ additional text that illustrates the content under discussion. These include templates, simple calculation, problem solution, etc.

Video clip or presentation

This icon indicates a URL link to a video clip or presentation on the subject matter for discussion. It is recommended that students follow the link and listen/ read the required sources.

Interesting source to consult The source icon is used to indicate text sources, from the Internet or resource centre, which add to the content of the topic being discussed

In a nutshell

This icon indicates a summary of the content of a section in the workbook and to emphasise an important issue.

Calculations

This icon indicates mathematical or linguistic formulae and calculations.

Self-reflection

Students complete the action of self- reflection in their own time. It requires students to think further about an issue raised in class or in the learning materials. In certain instances, students may be required to add their views to their assignments.

Tasks

The task icon indicates work activities that contact students must complete during class time. These tasks will be discussed in class and reflected upon by students and facilitators. E-learning students can use these tasks simply to reinforce their knowledge.

Note

This icon indicates important information of which to take note.

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4 S TUDY M ATERIAL F OR T HE M ODULE

You have received material that includes the following:

• Study Guide

• Recommended reading

• Assignment

These resources provide you with a starting point from which to study the contents of this module.

In addition to these, other resources to assist you in completing this module will be provided online via the link to this module. Guidance on how to access the material is provided in the Academic Handbook that you received when you registered for this qualification.

5 R ECOMMENDED R ESOURCES

A number of recommended and recommended resources have been identified to assist you in successfully completing this module.

5.1 R ECOMMENDED R EADING

The following textbook is highly recommended and must be used to complete the module:

• Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2013, Research Methods for Business Students, 6

^th

ed., Cape Town:

Pearson Education.

Please ensure you order, or download your textbook, before you start with the module.

5.2 R ECOMMENDED A RTICLES

• Collins, J. and Hussey, R. 2003, ‘Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students', 2

^nd

edition, Palgrave Macmillan, 32–37.

• Humphrey, C. 2008, ‘Auditing research: A review across the disciplinary divide,’ Accounting, Auditing and

Accountability Journal, (21) 2, 170–203.

• Hyde, K. F. 2000, ‘Recognising deductive process in qualitative research’, Qualitative Market Research, (3) 2,

82–89.

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• Jack, E. P. and Raturi, A. S. 2006, ‘Lessons learned from methodological triangulation in management research’, Management Research News, (29) 6, 345–357.

• McNamara, C. 2008, ‘General guidelines for conducting research interviews’,

http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm, (accessed 7 January 2009).

• Woodside, A.G. and Wilson, E. J. 2003, ‘Case study research methods for theory building’, Journals of

Business and Industrial Marketing, (18) 6/7, 493–508.

Additional articles that may prompt discussions and further assist you in completing this course will be saved on Regenesys Online under the relevant course. Please visit the site regularly to access these additional sources.

5.3 R ECOMMENDED M ULTIMEDIA

• Cranfield SoM. 2012, 'Management research: Delivering business results', [video clip],

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7XuQxukmb0 (accessed 16 January 2014).

• DrSamFiala. 2012, 'Research ethics’, [video clip], http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir3VvYNzHeM (accessed 16 January 2014).

• Meeng Uofu. 2012, 'How to write a problem statement (review for ME1010)’, [video clip],

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JwdHL3U0eoc (accessed 16 January 2014).

• Massey University. 2010, ‘The literature review’, [video clip], http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jKL2pdRmwc4 (accessed 16 January 2014).

• UELRDBS. 2013, ‘Postgraduate research planning workshop — Research process and philosophy’, [video clip], http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjhrfqZTUD8 (accessed 16 January 2014).

• Ignousohs. 2011, 'Sampling issues in research studies’, [video clip],

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgLALMJ62-U (accessed 16 January 2014).

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5.4 A DDITIONAL S OURCES TO C ONSULT

You are responsible for sourcing additional information that will assist you in completing this module successfully. Below is a list of some sources that you may consult to obtain additional information on the topics to be discussed in this module:

Emerald:

This is an online database containing journal articles that are relevant to your modules. Please refer to the attached Emerald manual to assist you to download required articles. Information on how to access Emerald is provided to you in your Academic Handbook. You will receive access to the database once you register as a student.

NetMasters: This is one of several web addresses that provide a selection of ‘Masters’ constructs and discussion. It is one of the better of these addresses. http://www.netMasters.com/

MindTools: MindTools.com is a very useful source of ideas, constructs, management models, etc. with even more useful commentary and description. http://www.mindtools.com/

Brunel Open

Learning Archive: A Brunel University support-site that provides an easily accessible library of ideas, concepts, constructs techniques, tools, models, etc. http://www.brunel.ac.uk/

ProvenModels:

ProvenModels' Digital Model Book presents digitalised management models categorised in a clear, consistent and standardised information structure to improve the usability and reusability of management literature. Management models are important generalisations of business situations when applied in context and are powerful tools for solving business issues.

http://www.provenmodels.com/

12manage.com: This is a website on which one can access numerous models as well as global comments on the models and principles. This could also serve as a place where you could voice your ideas and get feedback from all over the world. http://www.12manage.com/

Alliance Online: The Alliance for Non-profit Management's general introduction to strategic planning is built around 15 questions that cover just about all aspects in brief. (Click on ‘Strategic Planning’)

http://www.allianceonline.org/faqs.html

The Free Management Library:

The Free Management Library can be used to improve your organisation, and for your own personal, professional and organisational development. This is by far the most comprehensive overview of all aspects of strategic planning covering all stages of the process.

http://www.managementhelp.org/np_progs/sp_mod/str_plan.htm

The Charity Village:

A series of twelve very short articles, by Ron Robinson, an independent Canadian consultant, appeared on Charity Village between November 2001 and October 2002. These articles are refreshing in that they do not advocate a ‘one best way’ for all types of non-profit organisations.

They discuss various way of approaching the strategic planning process.

http://www.charityvillage.com/cv/research/rstrat.html

There are many more sites and articles available that can help you to successfully complete this module. You are encouraged to post the website addresses or URLs of any additional interesting sites that you come across on the Regenesys Learning Platform. In this way, you can assist other students to access the same wonderful information that you have discovered.

A word of caution — not all information available on the Internet is necessarily of a high academic

standard. It is, therefore, recommended that you always compare information that you obtain with

that contained in accredited sources such as articles that were published in accredited journals.

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6 L EARNING O UTCOMES

Upon completing this course, students should be able to:

• Critically explain research terminology, concepts and principles

• Evaluate and compare the various types of research philosophies

• Apply and critique various research methods

• Comply with ethical issues in business research

• Understand the relationship between information resources and the knowledge management process of a specific organisation

• Collect and analyse research data and demonstrate its value in business decision-making;

• Apply the research process in resolving a business problem

• Demonstrate the ability to apply advanced statistical and other scientific data analysis techniques

• Collect data by using the appropriate research methods, and

• Collate and analyse data by performing the relevant descriptive and inferential statistical analysis using appropriate tools and techniques

• Develop and present a professional research proposal

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7 C ONTENT S COPE AND L EARNING G UIDANCE

A number of topics will be covered to assist you in successfully achieving the learning outcomes of this module. It is important to study each of these sections to ensure that you expand your knowledge on the subject and are able to complete the required assessments. The sections that will be dealt with include:

Section 1 Introduction to Research Methods Section 2 Research Ethics

Section 3 The Research Problem, Objectives and Rationale Section 4 Formulating and Clarifying the Research Topic Section 5 Conducting a Critical Literature Review Section 6 The Research Philosophy and Approach Section 7 Formulating the Research Design Section 8 Sampling Design

Section 9 Planning your Data Collection Design Section 10 Data Analysis

A more detailed framework of what is required for each of these topics follows under each section heading. A number of questions to initiate discussion and guide you towards better comprehension and greater insight are also provided.

The timetable under each section heading provides guidance on the time to be spent to study

each section. It is recommended that you follow the given timetable to ensure that you spend the

appropriate amount of time on each section. Following the timetable will ensure that you have

covered the required sections relevant to each assignment and have appropriate time to prepare

for the examination.

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7.1 I NTRODUCTION TO R ESEARCH M ETHODS

Timeframe: Minimum of 4 hours Learning

outcomes: • Critically explain research terminology, concepts and principles

• Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A., 2013, Research Methods for Business Students, 6

^th

ed., Cape Town: Pearson Education.

• Collins, J. and Hussey, R. 2003, ‘Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate

and Postgraduate Students', 2^nd

ed., Palgrave Macmillan, 32–37.

Recommended multimedia:

• Cranfield SoM. 2012, 'Management research: Delivering business results', [video clip],

Section overview:

This section introduces you to the research concept and the research need. The characteristics of research are discussed to allow contextualisation of the research. This will allow you to understand the relevant research concepts and their definitions.

This section will cover the following:

• The research concept

• Conducting research

• Understanding the need for research as a core business driver to remain competitive

• How things (study objects) are defined — i.e. to define the nature of the study object(s)

• Explaining why things (study objects) are the way they are and to explain the relationship between things (study objects)

• How to predict phenomena, such as human behaviour in the workplace, with the aim of using this information in future (e.g. for screening job applicants)

• The characteristics of research, and

• The purpose of research so as to apply it in a pragmatic and systematic manner to solve an organisational problem

7.1.1 An Overview of Research

To a certain extent, most of us have been exposed to the research process and we have often

been research subjects, without actually realising it. We are often approached to participate in

surveys, for example on our preferences or experiences with regard to services, holiday

experiences and household products, or on our preferences with regard to magazines,

newspapers and radio stations. These surveys are typical examples of market research in which

the service provider aims to determine customer needs and/ or potential customers. A specific

research process is followed and an appropriate research method (such as a survey) is employed

to collect and analyse data in order to achieve the aim of the study.

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In this Research Methodology module, you will come across a number of frequently used research concepts, with which you should become familiar. We will start by describing the research-related concepts so that you have a clear understanding of them. To increase your understanding on research. revisit the following descriptions from time to time.

The term ‘research’ is derived from the French word recherché, which means ‘to travel through or to survey’.

Research is defined as follows:

“A systematic investigation to establish facts or collect information on a subject.”

(Collins English Dictionary, 2004:1379)

“The process of thoroughly studying and analysing the situational factors surrounding a problem in order to seek out solutions to it.”

(Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran, 2001:4)

“ … a systematic, careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationships and to expand/verify existing knowledge for some specified purpose.”

(Bennett, 1991:68)

“A process that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge.”

(Saunders et al., 2013) From the above definitions, it is evident that research involves systematic investigation (Ghauri and Grønhaug, 2010). The term 'systematic' suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs (Saunders et al. 2013). Research is not conducted haphazardly, but it is a systematic process with a specific purpose in mind. In other words, we can regard research as the systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) to increase our understanding of the subject or phenomenon involved. As a researcher you will want to conduct research into your area of interest and this suggests that research involves enquiry or examination ‘to find things out’

on what you want to study in your mini-dissertation (Ghauri and Grønhaug, 2010).

In essence, research is a process that is followed in order to find answers or to come up with findings regarding a certain topic. In other words, research is a process of investigation: It examines a particular subject from a variety of different points of view considering a variety of assumptions, limitations and models proposed by various authors.

The following authors’ definitions focus specifically on research in a business context:

“Undertaking systematic research to find out things about business and management.”

(Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2003:3)

“An organised, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem or issue with the purpose of finding solutions to it or clarifying it.”

(Cavana et al., 2001:5)

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These definitions are essential as they establish a common understanding of what research means to you as the researcher. Research students should, therefore, follow a systematic process to investigate a management-related problem in order to compile their mini-dissertation.

According to Saunders et al. (2013), there are three main factors which a researcher needs to take cognisance of when conducting research. These are as follows:

Firstly, Saunders views the practice of management as being largely 'eclectic' as it is influenced by other disciplines and a variety of sources, such as physical sciences, pure sciences, social sciences, economics, statistics and maths. Students must be able to work across spiritual, emotional, technical, cultural and functional boundaries. They need to draw on knowledge from all modules, inter-alia, Leadership, Emotional and Spiritual Intelligence, Human Resources, Financial Management, Marketing Management, etc. The dilemma for any researcher, who attempts to compile a mini-dissertation, is whether to examine management from the perspective of one discipline, or whether to adopt an inter-disciplinary approach.

Secondly, a researcher will most likely conduct research within organisations, either public or private. Note that, as a researcher, you may be constrained to access the organisation you want to research, unless such an organisation can see some intrinsic, commercial or personal advantage to be derived from the research study. Research can become challenging as it involves issues such as confidentiality, ethics, moral issues and consent from the organisation.

Thirdly, as a researcher you will need to appreciate that research will require both critical analysis and theory application to resolve the research problem. The researcher must be able to critically compare the various theories and models in the context of the research objectives. The final research report should add value to organisations and society.

7.1.2 The Purpose of Research

The purpose of our research is to conduct a research study in a pragmatic and systematic manner to solve an organisational problem.

Welman and Kruger (1999:19) identify the purpose of research as follows:

Table 1: Purpose of Research

Describing To describe how things (study objects) are — i.e. to define the nature of the study object(s)

Explaining To explain why things (study objects) are the way they are and explain the relationship between things (study objects)

Predicting To predict phenomena, such as human behaviour in the workplace, with the aim of using this

information in future (e.g. for screening job applicants)

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7.1.3 The Characteristics of Research

Although research may vary in complexity and duration, Leedy and Ormond (2003:2–3) argue that research typically has the following eight distinct characteristics:

1. Research originates with a question or a problem.

Research will usually begin with a problem statement, such as: Organisation X lost 10%

per annum over the last three years in the area of technical skills. The researcher needs to ensure that the real problem (root cause) is identified and correctly defined, and not the symptoms of the problem, as this will lead to incorrect research with meaningless results.

2. The research goal requires a clear articulation because research is time consuming and usually costly to conduct.

A research goal that is not clearly defined, may lead to research findings that differ from what is required by the researcher. This may nullify the research study conducted.

3. Research follows a specific format.

Leedy (2013:75) views the basic format of the research process as having the following steps:

• Step 1: The researcher asks a question to which there is no (currently) known solution.

• Step 2: Convert the research question into clearly stated research problem that is researchable.

• Step 3: Based on the problem statement, state the research questions and hypothesis. The hypothesis is what the researcher believes may be causing the problem.

• Step 4: Select relevant literature and relevant secondary data, which already exists and is relevant to this problem. Conduct a critical analysis of the literature.

• Step 5: Once the literature review is completed and the secondary data analysis has been exhausted, collect primary data, specifically for where there are gaps in the secondary data.

• Collate the data and synthesised it into a logical structure to analyse through the appropriate data analysis tools and techniques, such as, hypothesis testing.

• Interpret the data and link it back to the previous steps to ensure a logical research flow and link back to the research objectives.

• Compare the data analysis and information produced from the data with the research problem statement and the extent to which the hypothesis tests, validates or solves the problem.

4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.

This allows the researcher to manage the research by focusing on more manageable areas

to research.

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5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis.

The researcher must ensure a clear link between the research goal, objectives, problem statement, research questions and the hypothesis.

6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions and limitations, as well as delimitations to ensure that the parameters of the research scope are clearly defined before any research is undertaken.

7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research.

8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical.

It is critical for the researcher to understand that his/her research may be influenced by the market, organisation, product or other relevant cycles.

7.1.4 Types of Research

Before we discuss the types of research you need to read through some useful definitions to assist you in this section of the Study Guide. You should familiarise yourself with these definitions, as they will be referred to throughout the research module. Most of the commonly-used terms are explained in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Research Concepts and Terminology

Applied research Research conducted to find solutions for specific problems in real situations.

Assumption A basic premise that we believe is true.

Basic research Pure, theoretical or scientific research, with the main purpose of creating new knowledge.

Bias Prejudice or distortion.

Concept An abstract idea representing a real phenomenon.

Construct To create or build (verb).

Correlate An association between two or more variables determined statistically.

Deduction Going from the general to the specific.

Dependant variable A variable that is influenced or changed.

Descriptive statistics Mathematical techniques used to see underlying patterns of data.

Empirical Based on observation and experience.

Epistemology A branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of knowledge.

Ethnography Comprehensively describing situations.

External validity The extent to which results can be generalised to other populations.

Hypothesis A tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

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Independent variable A variable that changes or influences the independent variable.

Internal validity The extent to which the study confirms the existence of a cause-effect relationship.

Interval The difference between two points on a scale.

Literature review An exhaustive review of a wide range of existing literature on the research topic.

Methodology The rules and procedures of research work.

Norms Customary behaviour created by society and organisations which are standardised and usually followed by members of society and organisations

Ontology A branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality.

Population The entire group of persons or objects and events of interest to the researcher.

Prediction Statement that tells us of a future outcome.

Qualitative research A research approach that focuses on human beings as the research subjects and on the observation of events from the perspective of those involved in an attempt to understand the behaviour of individuals.

Quantitative research A highly structured research approach that involves the quantification of concepts, in order to do measurements and conduct evaluations.

Random assignment Every subject has an equal chance of being in a group.

Rank Arrange in hierarchy.

Reliability This means that if an identical investigation was repeated, similar research results would be obtained.

Research The systematic process of collecting and analysing information, in order to increase understanding of the research subject(s) or phenomenon involved.

Research design A plan or a set of guidelines and instructions that enable the researcher to determine the research methodology and to address the research problem.

Sample A subset of a research population.

Sampling error Differences between population parameters and sampling statistics.

Theory A framework of ideas that provides an explanation of something.

Theoretical framework A collection of interrelated concepts, similar to a theory but not necessarily well worked out in its initial stages.

Validity A methodological requirement for research methods.

Variable A property that changes empirically.

(Saunders et al., 2013) Saunders et al. (2013) distinguishes between two major types of research, namely: basic research and applied research:

1. Basic research is often referred to as pure, theoretical or scientific research and its purpose is mainly to create new knowledge.

2. Applied research is used to solve specific problems in real situations. In other words, one

could say that applied research is used to investigate and find solutions for real-world

problems.

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Saunders et al. (2013:11) argues that much of the business and management research projects can be placed on a continuum with two opposing types of research. These are ‘basic’ versus

‘applied’ research. Basic research focuses on expanding the existing body of knowledge in the academic literature, where the knowledge of business paradigms and constructs are supported by grounded theory. The mini-dissertation will most likely be ‘applied’ in nature. This implies that the researcher will focus on identifying an organisational challenge, typically a problem within the organisation, in which the researcher will apply the research process to solve an organisational problem. This is a more pragmatic and action-oriented approach and Saunders et al. (2013:12) liken this to consulting. As mentioned earlier, the research is focused on developing graduates who can add value to both society and organisations.

From the above it is clear that the researcher needs to possess in-depth knowledge of people, systems and processes. The research process requires the collection of (new) primary data, based on previously collected and analysed (secondary) data, in order to gain a revised view of the situation.

Task Questions

Read through the case study below, and answer the questions that follow. Case 1, ‘Reporting evidence from business and management research’, extracted from Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2013, Research Methods for

Business Students, 6^th

ed., Cape Town: Pearson Education, 22–24.

Case 1

Reporting Evidence from Business and Management Research

Katie is working in her local National Health System (NHS) hospital on a six-month internship. During her time there, the hospital plans to introduce what they call a ‘Leadership at all Levels’ programme. All staff members are encouraged to act as leaders, and Katie is asked to write a report for her manager setting out the best way to ensure that the aims of the programme actually happen. Her manager makes a special point of telling Katie that the hospital wants to make its introduction ‘evidence-based’. This means, he explains, that he would like her report to set out the scientific evidence about what works in these kinds of initiatives. Katie agrees to do the report, and she thinks it may also be suitable as the research project for her degree.

‘Where do you start with a project like this?’ Katie wonders. ‘Well’, she thinks, ‘I may as well type ‘leadership at all levels’

into Google!’ On the day she does this, the entry at the very top of the list takes her straight to ‘Leadership at all levels:

Leading public sector organisations in an age of austerity ’. The title page says it is a ‘research paper’ and it is published by the prestigious firm of management consultants, Deloitte (Deloitte 2010). She reads it all carefully. While the report is very enthusiastic about leadership as a general idea for improving public services, she is surprised to see that it contains very few concrete details.

Although it is 16 pages long, there is nothing specific about what leadership is, nothing about how ‘leadership at all

levels’ is actually going to happen; no academic research at all, as far as she can see. In fact, the more she thinks about

it, the more she feels its recommendations are vague with little justification.

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For instance, among a list of bullet-points on page 12, it recommends that top public sector leaders ask themselves questions like:

• Do you have a senior team that is ready for change and is working collectively to enable it?

• Can you articulate a brief, compelling message of change, framed appropriately to connect with your staff?

‘But how could chief executives really know whether their answers to such questions were correct?’ Katie ponders. She feels chief executives are likely to have a vested interest in making their answers fit with what they already believe to be the case. Even if they can put their managerial interests aside, she thinks that the questions arising from the bullet point list such as ‘how “ready for change” is my team?’ or ‘how “compelling [a] message” might I be delivering to staff?’ are never going to be things that can be measured with any degree of objectivity. They are quite different from the kind of medical questions a hospital generally deals with; such as: ‘What is this patient’s body-mass index and blood pressure?’

‘So’, Katie thinks, ‘Deloitte’s is probably not the kind of scientific evidence my manager had in mind when he asked me for an evidence-based report!’

She decides to look instead at academic journals, thinking that they might be a better place to look for scientific evidence than the World Wide Web. But she soon finds it a rather daunting task. Not only are there an almost overwhelming number of potentially relevant research papers, when she starts reading them she gets very confused. Not primarily because she does not understand them (though because of the language that can sometimes be a problem!) Still, her confusion is more down to the fact that many of the articles apparently contradict one another — even within the same journal. What is worse, their disagreements are often over fundamentals, rather than over details. For example, in the journal Human Relations, Schippers et al. (2008:1593) think that transformational leadership is key to the ‘adoption of a shared vision by the team’. However, Harding et al. (2011:1) claim ‘that leaders evoke a homoerotic desire in followers such that followers are seduced into achieving organisational goals’.

After a few weeks of reading this evidence, Katie starts to think that she has been asked to do something that misunderstands the nature of scientific evidence — at least that of business and management studies. Her manager appears to have assumed that ‘the evidence’ will all point in the same direction. But Katie has discovered that in the case of leadership, ‘the evidence’ cannot even agree what leadership is, or whether it is a good or a bad thing for managers to adopt — never mind the best way to get all staff to become leaders. Authors disagree so much — and so fundamentally — that she finds it impossible to extract ’best practice’. Unfortunately, Katie did say she would write the report. It occurs to her that she could just mention those articles that imply leadership is a good thing, and that detail ways of involving staff in it. She thinks that is really what her manager would like. After all, it’s already been announced across the hospital that a Leadership at all Levels programme is going to happen, and her report would still enable him to tell people that what he was doing was ‘evidence-based’.

After some soul-searching, Katie decides to write a partial and somewhat misleading report (recognising she will need a good reference from him if she wants to get a job). Nevertheless, she knows that all her other readings will not go to waste — at least she can include these in her research project for university!

Questions

1. Consider that Katie is correct, and that evidence does not necessarily tell managers the best way to take action. Do we still need evidence?

2. Can Katie’s decision to submit a report she thinks is misleading be justified on ethical grounds?

3. In what ways are the kinds of research projects that most managers want to read likely to be different from the kinds

of research projects that get high marks at university?

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Before deciding on the research you want to undertake, you need to ask the following questions?

• Am I interested in this study?

• Who will be interested in this topic?

• What is the significance of the topic?

• Why is there a need for this particular topic to be researched?

• Who are the stakeholders involved in this study?

• Do the stakeholders have any vested interest in this study?

• What are the main concepts?

• What are the main ideas and theories?

• What are key terms, phrases or vocabulary used?

• What are the issues to consider in this study?

• Use the following queries to clarify the topic: Who? What? Why? Where? When? How?

• Can this study be done?

• Are there any ramifications if these study findings are published?

• Are there other studies that can be linked to this study?

(Adapted from Saunders et al., 2013)

Watch the following short video clip:

Cranfield SoM. 2012, 'Management research: Delivering business results', [video clip],

Task Questions

1. Select a possible research topic and then answer the questions listed above to determine whether the topic warrants research. You need to provide a detailed motivation of why you think this topic warrants research.

Once the task above has been completed, finalise the recap question below to clarify your

research topic.

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Recap Questions

1. Answer the following questions to clarify your research topic with the resources that are available to you:

1.1. Is your topic clear and easy to understand?

1.2. Is your topic focused and realistically designed?

1.3. Is there relevant data and information (secondary information is data and information which exists already)?

1.4. Is there appropriate data and information?

1.5. Is there accurate and reliable data and information?

1.6. Is there relevant and reputable data and information?

1.7. Is there accessible data and information?

1.8. What is your view of the available data and information and is it available and readily accessible?

2. Based on the above questions, discuss the areas that require attention.

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7.2 R ESEARCH E THICS

Timeframe: Minimum of 8 hours Learning

outcomes: • Comply with ethical issues in business research

• Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2013, Research Methods for Business Students, 6

^th

ed., Cape Town: Pearson Education.

Chapter One.

Chapter Six

• Collins, J. and Hussey, R. 2003, ‘Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate

and Postgraduate Students, 2^nd

ed., Palgrave Macmillan, 32–37.

• Bak, N. 2004, Completing your Thesis: A Practical Guide, Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Recommended multimedia:

• Dr Sam Fiala. 2012, 'Research ethics’, [video clip],

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir3VvYNzHeM (accessed 16 January 2014).

Section overview:

All research subjects have ethical rights. These rights include the right to be consulted, to give or withhold consent and the right to confidentiality. As a researcher, you investigate subjects in some depth and often have access to personal information. It may happen that you elicit information that could potentially compromise either a person or an organisation, and this could result in misuse.

The implication is that there should be mutual trust between the researcher and the participants.

This section will cover the following:

• Ethical issues in organisational research

• The factors involved in the ethics for research

• Ethical issues involved in doing research, and

• Drafting a code of ethics for the research problem you identified earlier

7.2.1 Introduction

Ethics forms an integral part of any research. In this section we emphasise ethical consideration.

We will consider a few ethical considerations…

It is essential that the researcher acts ethically responsible when dealing with both individuals

(research subjects) and organisations that are involved in any research you undertake. According

to Gorman and Clayton (2005:43), ethical considerations are essential, regardless of the research

approach adopted. Even so, the qualitative approach (as opposed to the quantitative approach)

tends to result more in situations where ethics may become an issue (for example, where the

researcher works in close collaboration with the participants as opposed to simply handing out

questionnaires with minimal contact, if any with the respondent). Saunders et al. (2013:43)

reinforces the fact that all research subjects have ethical rights. These rights include the right to be

consulted, to give or withhold consent, and the right to confidentiality. As a researcher, you may

investigate subjects in some depth and often access individuals' and/or organisations' personal

information. It may happen that you elicit information that could potentially compromise either a

person or an organisation. The implication is that there should be mutual trust between the

researcher and the participants.

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7.2.2 Ethical Considerations for Researchers

In every research endeavour, the researcher must take cognisance that the research process should abide by ethical principles. It is essential that as a researcher, you make yourself aware of and are sensitive to these issues and identify their impact on the nature and design of your research.

You must be aware that the research philosophy you adopt in your dissertation will drive the research design you choose, be it principally quantitative or qualitative in nature. This choice will determine the appropriateness of your research process. This will need to be approved by the Regenesys Academic Department.

Because the course focuses on people and their behaviour, ethical factors need to be considered.

The student, organisations and the Regenesys Academic Department should comply with ethical issues by completing ethical clearance documents. This is a prerequisite to conduct your research.

You should be as concerned with producing an ethical mini-dissertation as you will be to produce an intellectually coherent and compelling one.

This means attempting not only to carry out data generation and analysis in an ethical manner, but also to begin by framing research questions ethically. Saunders et al. (2013:52) discusses the need for an ‘Ethics Committee’ and also suggests that, because of the complexities of research ethics, and because there is unlikely ever to be one clear ethical solution; that a practical approach to ethics is particularly appropriate. Such an approach may involve asking yourself to review the ethical and moral issues around your dissertation, relying on your learning from your other modules, such as Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence.

Dr Sam Fiala. 2012, 'Research ethics’, [video clip], http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir3VvYNzHeM (accessed 16 January 2014).

The diagram below illustrates the essential considerations in research ethics. Participants should

be voluntarily and knowingly involved in the study. You have to make sure that participants do it

voluntarily and have not perhaps been instructed by a superior to participate. The most important

aspects related to ethics in research are indicated in Figure 1 below.

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Figure 1: Ethical Considerations in Research

(Smith, 2008)

Go to the following site to expand your understanding on ethical issues in research.

Smith, L. 2008, Ethical principles in practice, Kairaranga — Special ed., NZ:

Volume 9, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ908179.pdf (accessed 2 December 2013).

Ethical considerations

in research Informed

consent

Deception

Participant's right to privacy

Disclosure of findings/

results Confidentiality

Codes of ethics

Cultural

sensitivity

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Task Questions

Read through the case study below and summarise two key learning’s.

Academia strives for relevance. Are business schools relevant? Given the expansion of management education in recent years, the question may seem moot. But, with critics continuing to query the real-world value of research and teaching, relevance has remained an issue for school administrators.

This month, David Willetts, the UK universities minister, criticised business schools for focusing on peer reviewed research at the expense of applied studies.

‘I am very aware we have inherited a structure of rewarding research excellence in particular that can have a very damaging practical effect on the work of a business school,’ he said. British academics, he added, should concentrate more on teaching rather than publishing research in US journals. ‘We have created a system in which research has much greater incentives and rewards than teaching, which I think is very bad for our universities.’ Though it is rare for a minister to question the role of business schools, the comments were familiar to deans and other academic staff.

Dan LeClair, senior vice president at the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), which accredits more than 500 institutions world-wide, says deans are under more pressure than ever to justify what they do.

‘The deans have been telling us that major donors are asking tough questions like “you have all these faculty members who you are very proud of, but can you tell me how this research has made a difference?”’, he says. ‘It’s also the alumni and even the provosts and presidents of the institutions.

They are all asking schools to not only describe what they are trying to achieve, but also to demonstrate it.’

Business schools are frequently criticised for over-emphasising academic rigour over relevance to practice. And many believe the structures of the business school world feed the tendency: that promotion is based on articles few managers read; and that accreditation bodies and rankings providers count journal entries, and citations, to assess worthiness.

Mr LeClair says the Florida-based AACSB has sometimes encouraged research that is ‘narrow and theoretical and more mathematical’ because it is easier to quantify. ‘By focusing on that, it takes some of the uncertainty away about whether a school is accreditable. It gives us something to count. Applied research is more difficult to measure.’

Following a 2008 report calling for schools to have greater contact with business, the AACSB has been studying how to measure the impact of ‘faculty intellectual contributions on targeted audiences’. Ten schools are taking part in a study where they self-assess their work against five criteria — each taken from mission statements. Saint Joseph’s University in Philadelphia, for example, is assessing whether it meets the needs of ‘key industries and strategic niches’, contributes to the practice of management and teaching and upholds its Jesuit values. Although the exercise is not finished, Mr LeClair said it has helped to develop measures for impact in areas such as executive education and the work of research centres. In future, it may be possible to assess how customised teaching programmes, for example, help companies reach their objectives.

Other schools are framing similar exercises. The Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM) in Rotterdam is introducing a ‘dual impact’ system where it measures both academic influence (through journal articles and citations) and managerial relevance (consultancy requests and advisory board memberships). ERIM is also beginning to collect

‘stakeholder’ data from government agencies and even the general public.

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Scientific director Ale Smidts estimates that ERIM faculty are now appraised 80 per cent by standard academic criteria and 20 per cent by managerial relevance.

He notes the influence of the national funding agency, the Netherlands Organisation of Scientific Research. ‘It used to be that you only had to focus on originality and rigour, and if you had a relevant aspect it counted as a plus. Now it [relevance] is more of a necessity. If you can’t show relevance, you get a negative on that aspect,’ he says.

Robin Wensley, director of the UK’s Advanced Institute of Management and professor of policy and marketing at Warwick Business School, says it is vital that academics become ‘more engaged’ with business, seeing businesspeople as ‘knowledgeable actors in situations, as much as thinking we have all the answers’. He is also in favour of changing incentive structures to promote more relevant research. But he cautions against academics becoming the ‘the same people’ as the subjects they are trying to analyse.

Mr LeClair stresses that the AASCB’s relevance initiative is designed for schools to meet their own criteria for relevance, rather than a general standard. And Esade dean Professor Alfons Sauquet argues that it is vital for schools to have a mixture of practice-focused and more theoretically minded staff. ‘As deans we cannot fall too much into either camp. If we follow the business side position we would end up as consultants. If we followed just the academic research, we would be ivory tower people. I think we have to play both roles, and that’s the tricky thing.’