PC-phonetics: A help or a strain fo r the philologist?
Anna K. Lysne
University of Bergen
T h e title is a n EITH ER - O R q u e stio n . T h e p a p e r w ill p ro b a b ly rev e a l th a t th e a n s w e r m u s t b e BO TH
- A N D .
I n th is p a p e r a re p o rt w ill b e g iv e n o f th e w o rk w ith th e p ro je c t ‘N o rw e g ia n le a r n e r s ’ p ro b le m s w ith E n g lis h p ro so d y . N o rw e g ia n -E n g lis h i n t o n a t i o n T h e fo c u s w ill b e o n h in d ra n c e s m e t w ith , w h e n c h a n g in g fro m a n a u d itiv e to a n a c o u stic a n a ly sis o f in to n a tio n , a t th e s a m e tim e a s th e re w ill b e a n a tte m p t to s h o w h o w m o d e m re s e a rc h c a n b e a h e lp to o v e rc o m e d iffic u ltie s. F in a lly , re s u lts a rriv ed at h n m a d e ta ile d stu d y o f th e u se o f p itc h ra n g e b y W e ste rn N o rw e g ia n s w ill b e p re s e n te d a n d c o m p a red w ith o th e r stu d ie s.
A n a u d itiv e p h o n e tic e rro r a n a ly s is o f th e in to n a tio n o f N o rw e g ia n stu d e n ts o f E n g lis h w a s sta rte d so m e y e a rs ago. T h e m a te ria l u se d w a s a se le c tio n o f re a d in g s , c o n s is tin g o f a 3 -m in u te s ’ d ia g n o s tic te s t fo r 1st term stu d e n ts, c o lle c te d at E n g e lsk in stitu tt, U n iv e rs ite te t i B e rg e n , fro m 1 9 7 7 to 1989.
R e su lts from th e a u d itiv e a n a ly sis ( o f 160 s a m p le s, re p re s e n tin g re a d e rs fro m a ll p a rts o f th e c o u n try ) h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d e a rlie r (cf. L y s n e 1 9 8 5 ,1 9 8 8 ). A s it is g e n e ra lly a c k n o w le d g e d th a t to rely o n ly o n a u d ito ry a n a ly sis o f sp e e c h is n o t s a tisfa c to ry , it w a s te m p tin g to te s t th e a u d itiv e re su lts in stru m e n ta lly . H o w e v e r, in th e lite ra tu re , f o r in sta n c e in th e w o rk s o f th e ‘D u tc h School* (cf. W ille m s 1982; d e P ijp e r 1983; C o llie r 1989; a n d t ’H a rt e t al. 1990) it is e m p h a s iz e d th a t in stru m e n ta l a n a ly sis o f in to n a tio n is fa r fro m sa tisfa c to ry , to o .^ In b rie f, th e ‘D u tc h ’ m e th o d o f a n a ly sin g in to n a tio n a m o u n ts to s ta rtin g w ith a d e ta ile d a c o u stic a n a ly s is o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l to n e (F o ), th e p h y sic a l c o rre la te o f PITCH , w h ic h is w h a t w e h e a r a s s p e e c h m e lo d y o r INTO NA TIO N. B y th e a id o f a u ral c o n tro l and sty lize d re sy n th e siz e d c u rv e s C o llie r an d T e rk e n (1 9 8 7 ) a rriv e a t a ‘clo se c o p y ’ o f th e F o c u rv e b y e lim in a tin g e x c u rs io n s in th e o rig in a l c u rv e w h ic h c a n b e d e le te d w ith o u t a ffe c tin g th e a u d ito ry im p re ss io n o f ‘s a m e n e s s ’^ a tu r a ln e s s . T h e ir ‘c lo s e c o p y ’ v a ria n t ‘m a in ly elim in a te s th e M ic ro -in to n a tio n a l m o d u la tio n s fro m th e F o c u rv e (cf. b e lo w ) a n d re s p e c ts w h a te v e r v a ria tio n th e re is in th e o v e ra ll sh a p e o f th e in d iv id u al p itc h m o v e m e n ts ...’ (ib id . p . 166).
T h is k in d o f re se a rc h re v e a ls th a t th e re is a g re a t a m o u n t o f irre le v a n t in fo rm a tio n in a n a c o u stic re p re se n ta tio n o f in to n a tio n , s o m e th in g a lso u n d e rlin e d b y C ry sta l (1 9 6 9 ) a n d G ib b o n (1 9 7 6 ) a m o n g o th ers. T h u s fac e d w ith in stru m e n ta l a n a ly sis, th e in e x p e rie n c e d p e rf o r m e r c a n e a s ily b e c o n fu se d . H o w e v e r, c o n so la tio n is fo u n d in e .g . C o llie r (1 9 8 9 ). C o llie r a d v o c a te s th e ‘p e rc e p tu a l d e to u r ’, u n d e rlin in g s tro n g ly th a t ‘p e rc e p tu a l v e rific a to n ’ is o f m a jo r im p o rta n c e in th e a n a ly s is o f
in to n a tio n . It is a p p a re n t th a t s o m e o f th e in fo rm a tio n in th e s o u n d c u rv e th a t m a y b e la b e lle d irre le v a n t m a y lie ab o v e th e fre q u e n c y th re sh o ld o f h e a rin g , b u t o u r p e rc e p tio n a p p a ra tu s se e m s to
e x p e rie n c e in s tu d y in g so u n d c u rv e s o n th e P C is n e e d e d in o r d e r to u n d e rsta n d w a rn in g s o r re c o m m e n d a tio n s lik e ‘Y o u m u s t rely o n y o u r e a r a n d n o t o n w h a t y o u see o n th e s c re e n ’ (C o llier, p e ts o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ), an d T r u s t y o u r e a r ’ (D ic k so n , p e rso n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ).
TIHE;
sec
m Z\
8
[ C l
STATISTICS
LENGTH: 2.943s
FRAHES; 118
VOICED! 83
A.nEAN! 221 Hz
e.NEANi 228 Hz
nEDIANi 221 Hz
ST.DEU! 34 Hz
Figure 1: M SLPITCH curve representing "William went to bed very early that evening' (not cleane or repaired).
Extralinguistic and practical problems
B e fo re lo o k in g a t w h a t is p e rc e iv e d o f th e s p e e c h s ig n a l ( o r h o w w e p e rc e iv e ), it m ig h t b e u sefu l
to lo o k a t e x tra lin g u is tic a n d p ra c tic a l h in d ra n c e s e n c o u n te re d in d ig itiz in g s p e e c h (an d in a c o u stic a n a ly sis):
A t th e w o rs t, s ig n a ls d ig itiz e d a n d ^ )p e a r in g o n th e s c re e n m ig h t re p re s e n t n o ise fro m th e e q u ip m e n t u se d . F u rth e r, u n s a tis fa c to ry q u a lity o f th e o rig in a l ta p e re c o rd in g m ig h t b e a p ro b le m in c a se th e m a te ria l w a s n o t m e a n t to b e u s e d f o r a c o u stic a n a ly sis.^ W ro n g c lo c k ^ )e e d o f th e PC in re la tio n to sp e e c h te m p o m ig h t b e a n o th e r p ro b le m .^ In th is la s t c a se c a u tio u s a d ju stm e n t is
e s s e n tia l in o r d e r to se c u re c o rre c t a n d id e n tic a l p ro c e s s in g o f all th e m a te ria l. It is th e d ig itiz in g - p r o c e s s w h ic h is s e n sitiv e to c o rre c t clo c k sp e e d , th e p ro c e s s o f a n a ly sis o f d a ta is n o t a ffected .
T h e F o lim its o f th e n o rm a l h u m a n v o ic e a re w ell k n o w n , a s a re a lso th e p e rc e p tu a l lim its o f tcmal fre q u e n c y (cf. L a d e fo g e d 19 7 2 ). H o w e v e r, in re la tio n to th e p e rc e p tio n o f r u n n i n g s p e e c h G a r k a n d Y a llo p (1 9 9 0 ) s tro n g ly u n d e rlin e th a t p e rc e p tio n is rela tiv e . T h is a lso ap p lie s to ‘th e p e rc e p tio n o f s o u n d , s tu d ie d u n d e r th e h e a d in g o f PSY CH OA COU STICS’ (ib id . p .2 0 8 ). C o n c e rn in g th is
[image:2.595.65.537.167.479.2]a c c o u n t fo r th e se le c tiv e s e n sitiv ity o f th e lis te n e r w h e n e x tra c tin g p itc h in fo rm a tio n fro m th e s p e e c h s ig n a l .... th e lis te n e r a p p lie s se le c tiv e a tte n tio n in th e p e rc e p tio n o f p itc h in s p e e c h ’.
F ro m w h a t h a s b e e n sa id a b o v e o n e m ig h t c o n c lu d e th a t th e c o m p u te r w ith its a c o u stic a n a ly sis b rin g s fo rth a n d s h o w s d e ta ils in a n F o c u rv e w h ic h a re lin g u is tic a lly irre le v a n t a n d w h ic h w e a re lia b le to ig n o re a s liste n e rs.
W h a t w e p e rc e iv e o f to n e in s p e e c h d e p e n d s o n se v e ra l fa c to rs. Q u a n tity /tim in g is
a
d e c is iv e facto r.^ A c c o rd in g to F a y (1 9 6 6 :1 6 ) ‘T im e ... is e x te n s iv e ly in v o lv e d in th e m a n y p h a s e s o f th e to ta l a u d ito ry p ro ce ss. ’ G ib b o n (1 9 7 6 :5 2 ) sa y s ‘P ro s o d ic f e a tu r e s ... a re g e n e ra lly d efiried w ith re fe re n c eto th e tim e d i m e n s io n ,... w h ic h le a d s to th e v e x e d q u e s tio n o f th e lin g u is tic re le v a n c e o f sta tic tra je c to rie s o r p o in ts in tra je c to rie s c o m p a re d w ith d y n a m ic tra je c to rie s '. G ib b o n (ila d . p . 5 5 ) a lso s a y s ‘p itc h p e rc e p tio n req u ires a t le a s t 2 0 - 2 5 m s e c s e v e n fo r s ta tic tr a je c to r ie s .... a n d th u s c a n n o t b e a b stra c te d fro m th e tim e d im e n s io n ’. G ib b o n ’s ‘v e x e d q u e s tio n ’ re fe rs to th e fa c t th a t i f
a
m o v in g to n e ( ‘d y n a m ic tra je c to ry ’) o c c u rs im m e d ia te ly b e fo re o r a fte ra
le v e l to n e ( ‘s ta tic tra je c to ry ’) it is th e re la tiv e d u ra tio n o f th e tra je c to rie s w h ic h d e te rm in e s w h e th e r w e h e a r a m o v in g to n e o ra
le v e l to n e (cf. B ra n d t 1976). A su d d e n p e a k o f sh o rt d u ra tio n is n o t h e a rd in a s m o o th se q u e n c e .In th e p re s e n t s tu d y it h a s b e e n n e c e s s a ry to ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e tim e d im e n s io n e s p e c ia lly w h e n c le a n in g F o c u rv e s. T h is is n e c e s s a ry in c a se s w h e re th e sh a p e o f d ie c u rv e d o e s n o t c o rre s p o n d
w ith w h a t w e h e a r o f TO N E w h e n lis te n in g to th e sig n al. F ro m w h a t h a s b e e n sta te d so f a r it sh o u ld b e c le a r th a t it m ig h t b e n e c e s s a ry fa irly o fte n to re p a ir o r c le a n th e a c o u stic c u rv e , w h ic h c a n c o n ta in s u c h a lo t o f fau lty in fo rm a tio n , in o rd e r to m a k e it a p p e a r m o re lik e w h a t it so u n d s . O b v io u s n o ise is e a sily d e te c te d a n d d e le te d , an d so is s tro n g a sp ira tio n an d b r e a th w rcxigly c o m p u te d a s v o ic e d (cf. figs. 1 a n d 2 ). F u rth e r, w e fin d th e s o -c a lle d O CTA V E JUM PS: I f F o la c k s in te n s ity o n e o f th e HARM ONICS m ig h t sh o w u p in stead ^ (cf. e n d o f f ig .l ) . T h e p itc h p e rc e iv e d w ill still b e th a t o f th e fim d a m e n ta l, w h ic h m e a n s th a t w e h e a r a lo w e r to n e th a n th e o n e a p p e a rin g in th e F o c u rv e , an d re p a ra tio n is n e c e s s a ry (cf. fig .
1)P
T h is is o fte n th e c a se in w e a k ly p r o n o u n c e d e n d in g s : A lo w to n e is h e a rd and th e sig n a l is re g iste re d to h a v e a h ig h e r H z -v a lu e , (so m e tim e s s h o w in g a s h a rp rise w h ic h is n o t th e re - an d ‘w h ic h w e c a n n o t m a k e o r h e a r ’ (H e n n in g R e e tz , p e rs o n a l c o m m u n i cation).*W EAK ENDINGS p o se d a g re a t u n fo re s e e n p ro b le m in th e p itc h -ra n g e a n a ly sis. H e re o n e h a s to fin d th e h ig h e s t a n d th e lo w e s t H z -v a lu e in th e u n it, an d th e lo w e s t v a lu e w ill o c c u r a t th e e n d o f a lo n g u n it, e sp e c ia lly so in a s ta te m e n t c o n v e y in g n e w in fo rm a tio n . S ø re n se n a n d C o o p e r (1 9 8 0 :4 0 7 )
affirm th a t ‘T h e g e n e ra l d ire c tio n o f F o in a se n te n c e is d o w n w a rd . ...T h is g e n e ra l fa ll h a s b e e n te rm e d F o d e c lin a tio n .’ G a r k an d Y a llo p ( 1 9 9 0 :2 8 5 ,2 8 6 ) sa y th a t th e re ‘^ q ie a r s to b e a n a lm o s t u n iv ersa l te n d e n c y in la n g u a g e , n a m e ly a m o d e ra te p ro g re ssiv e fall in p itc h fro m th e b e g in n in g to th e en d o f a n y s e q u e n c e o f s p e e c h o f a p p re c ia b le l e n g t h .... T h e re h a s b e e n c o n s id e ra b le d e b a te a b o u t th e sta tu s a n d c a u se s o f d e c lin a tio a I t h a s a lso b e e n su g g e ste d th a t d e c lin a tio n e ffe c ts a re o b se rv e d m a in ly in re a d in g a lo u d ,... a n d th a t th e y a re m u c h le s s n o tic e a b le in th e p a tte rn s o f in fo rm a l s p e e c h ’.^ A n im p o rta n t p o in t in th is d isc u s s io n w o u ld b e th a t th e lin g u is tic u n its in in fo rm a l sp e e c h w ill b e s h o rte r th a n s e n te n c e s (cf. B ro w n a n d Y u le 1983). T h u s it is re a s o n a b le th a t w e w ill g e t lo n g e r u n its in re a d in g , w h ic h is b a s e d o n w ritte n te x t c o n ta in in g c o m p le te s e n te n c e s . T h is w o u ld
m a k e th e d o w n d rift m o re n o tic e a b le in rea d in g . A c c o rd in g to L e h is te (p erso ru d c o m m u n ic a tio n ) ’T h e lo n g e r th e u n it th e h ig h e r th e o n s e t h a s to b e .’ S ø re n se n a n d C o o p e r (1 9 8 0 ) v e rif y th a t th e re is a te n d e n c y fo r F o to sta rt h ig h e r a t th e b e g in n in g o f a lo n g e r c o n s titu e n t C f. a ls o B ro w n e t al. (1 9 8 0 :1 3 2 ): ’... it d o e s se e m th a t w h e n th e s p e a k e r h a s m o te g ro u n d to c o v e r s h e b e g in s h ig h e r ’.
L e h iste (ib id .) in trin sic p itc h a p p e a rs to b e a p h y s io lo g ic a lly c o n d itio n e d u n iv e rsa l. T h e p itc h o f a v o w e l w ill in a d d itio n b e in c re a se d b y a p re c e d in g v o ic e le ss c o n so n a n t an d lo w e re d b y a v o ice d c o n s o n a n t in th e sa m e p o sitio n . T h is ty p e is refe rre d to as ‘c o n te x tu al F o ‘ (S c h effers, ib id .), and ‘c o a rd c u la to ry F o flu c tu a tio n s ’ (R e in h o lt P e te rse n , ib id .). Q a r k a n d Y a llo p (1 9 9 0 :2 8 2 ) sta te th at ‘T h e re a s o n s f o r th is c o n d itio n in g o f p itc h a re n o t fu lly u n d e rs to o d .’ A n d t ’H a rt e t aL (1 9 9 0 :1 4 -1 5 ) c o n te n d th a t m ic ro in to n a tio n ‘c a u se s p e rtu rb a tio n s , n o t in te n d e d b y th e s p e a k e r. E v id e n tly , su c h p e r tu r b a tio n s ... c a n n o t b e c o n s id e re d a s c o n s titu e n ts o f th e p itc h c o n to u r a s a lin g u istic e n tity ; b u t th e y m a k e th e in te rp re ta tio n o f F o c u rv e s in te rm s o f u n d e rly in g in to n a tio n p a tte rn s all th e m o te d ifflc u lL ’
T1HE: 2.98819 sec VALUE:
0
C C ]
S M IIS IIC S
'R8I1E; 104 ( 2.569 - 2.594 sec)
PITCH: 0 Hz LEVEL: 34
LEN6TH! 2.943s
FRAHES
i
118
WICED;
59
[image:4.595.68.538.247.539.2]R.HEAN! 213 Hz
6.HEAN: 212 Hz
HEDIAN: 229 Hz
ST.DEU: 33 Hz
Figure 2: M SLPITCH curve representing 'W illiam went to bed very early that evening' after being cleaned and repaired.
In e x p e rie n c e d in th e fie ld o f a c o u stic s I w e lc o m e d th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts o n m ic ro in to n a tio n b y M S c h e ffe rs (ib id .), ‘T h e s e e ffe c ts a re re la tiv e ly s m a ll in siz e (so m e p e rc e n t) and d iffic u lt to
d is tin g u is h in th e F o c o n to u r o f a p h ra s e b e c a u s e th e y a re o f th e sa m e o r d e r o f m a g n itu d e a s th e in a c c u ra c y o f th e F o a n a ly s is m e t h o d .... n o a n a ly sis m e th o d is p e rf e c t’ a n d ‘y o u h a v e to le a rn to d e te c t e n o r s in F o m e a s u r e m e n ts .... In te a c h in g in to n a tio n in a fo re ig n la n g u a g e , h o w e v e r, y o u
c a n s a fe ly ig n o re th e s e m in o r F o e x c u rs io n s sin c e it is g e n e ra lly a g re e d th a t th e y a re in v o lu n ta ry a n d p h y s io lo g ic a lly d r iv e n ’. O b v io u sly , in a le a rn in g situ a tio n a n y th in g p h y s io lo g ic a lly d riv e n w ill c o m e n a tu ra lly . In m y a n a ly s is I h a v e fo llo w e d C o llie r an d T e rk e n (1 9 8 7 ) d e le tin g sig n a ls w h ic h
a re im p o s s ib le to d e te c t a u d itiv e ly (cf. fig . 1). (H o w e v e r, in o n e o f m y se n te n c e s ( m 7 ) it se e m s a s i f in trin s ic p itc h a n d c o -a rtic u la to ry F o m ig h t h a v e a n im p a c t to b e c o u n te d w ith (cf. b e lo w ).
in fo rm a n ts). A s sta te d a b o v e , fin d in g s fro m th e e a rlie r a u d itiv e a n a ly s is w e re to b e co rttro lle d b y
lo o k in g a t th e a c o u stic fea tu re s o f p ro b le m s o b s e rv e d an d listed . T h e re a s o n s f o r lo o k in g in to PR first w e re m a in ly p ra c tic a l. In to n a tio n stu d ie s d e m a n d u n its c o v e rin g a c e rta in stre tc h o f sp e e c h . A n d th u s th e first se n te n c e o f th e sto ry rea d w a s d ig itiz e d , re p re s e n tin g a n ‘in to n a tio n u n i t ’ in m o st o f th e readings.^ ^ In to n a tio n a l ‘e r r o r s ’ lis te d (cf. n o te 10) w e re e x p e c te d to a p p e a r w ith in th e u n i t (T o sta rt w ith d ig itiz in g th is s e n te n c e w a s a p a rt o f le a rn in g to u s e th e M SL p ro g ra m m e . I n a d d itio n it w a s a w a y o f b e c o m in g f a m ilia r w ith th e u n k n o w n a c tiv itie s o f d ig itiz in g s p e e c h a n d a n a ly s in g a c o u stic s o ^ c u rv e s).
E v e n a t a v e ry e a rly s ta g e I h a d a n o tio n th a t a n a ly s in g o n ly th e firs t se n te n c e w o u ld b e u n s a tis fa c to ry a s a b a s is fo r P R -stu d ies. T h e re fo re , f o r so m e in fo rm a n ts tw o s im ila r s e n te n c e s (4 a n d 6) w e re d ig itiz e d as w ell. T h e s e h a v e n o t b e e n s y s te m a tic a lly a n a ly s e d y e t P r o fe s s o r L e h is te (p erso n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ) su g g e ste d th a t lo o k in g a t tw o m o re s e n te n c e s (7 a n d 12) m ig h t b e in te restin g . T h e re a so n s g iv e n w e re th a t s e n te n c e 7 r q rr e s e n ts a y e s -n o q u e s tio n , a n d s e n te n c e 12 w o u ld g iv e th e lo w e s t p o s s ib le F o v a lu e , m a rk in g fin ality .^^ A c tu a lly , a s f o r s e n te n c e 7 a n e x tra h ig h o n s e t m ig h t b e e x p e c te d , c a u se d b y a m a x im u m e ffe c t o f m ic ro in to n a tio n : a v o ic e le s s fric a tiv e ill p re c e d in g th e c lo s e v o w e l M . B u t, se e n in re la tio n to se n te n c e 1, th e P R -v a lu e o f s e n te n c e 7 v a rie s from in fo rm a n t to in fo rm a n t a s ‘T h e e ffe c t o f v o w e l in trin sic p itc h is n e g lig ib le in u n a c c e n te d s y lla b le s ’ (L a d d a n d S ilv e rm a n 1 9 8 4 :3 1 ). A n d s o m e re a d e rs h a v e stre sse d sh e w h e re a s o th e rs h a v e
noL^^
It is w o rth n o tin g th a t th e re a d in g s u s e d f o r th e a u d itiv e a n a ly sis (fiv e fro m e a c h a re a ) w e re n o t a ll s u ita b le fo r in stru m e n ta l a n a ly sis. In sp ite o f th e fa c t th a t th e s e h a d b e e n c a re fu lly se le c te d a s ‘g o o d re a d in g s ’ an d fit fo r a u d itiv e a n a ly sis, v e ry few c o u ld b e u se d fo r a c o u stic a n a ly s is. T h e re fo re , th e fin a l re su lts re p o rte d h e re c o v e r q u ite a few o th e r in fo rm a n ts , an d m a n y m o re in fo rm a n ts fro m e a c h area. A c c o rd in g to P ro fe s s o r V ic to r Z u e , M IT , O ectu re, E d in b u rg h , 1 9 8 8 ) o n e n e e d s a g re a t a m o u n t o f d a ta in o rd e r to d ra w c o n c lu sio n s fro m a c o u stic m e a su rem e n ts.^ ^ T h u s th e p la n o f u s in g rea d in g s b y n a tiv e R P sp e a k e rs a m o n g o u r stu d e n ts f o r c o m p a ris o n h a d to b e d ro p p e d fo r la c k o f e n o u g h d ata. T h e U C L stu d y (B a rry e t al. 1989; cf. fig . 3 ) w a s w e lc o m e d fo r c o m p a riso n .^ ^
R e su lts o f th e stu d y re p o rte d h e re co m p a re d w ith th o se o f th e U ( X - s tu d y a te illu s tra te d in fig .4 . T h e h isto g rarru n es illu stra te a m a rk e d d iffe re n c e in th e u s e o f p itc h ran g e o f th e N o rw e g ia n s tu d e n ts fro m H o rd a la n d an d R P sp e ak e rs.
T a b le 2a. 9 0 % ra n g e in o c ta v e s fro m 1 s t-o rd e r D x a n a ly sis fo r 2 m a le an d 2 fe m a le n a tiv e sp e a k e rs in 6 lan g u a g e s
S p e a k e r s
F.1 F 2 M.1 M .2
Danish 0.67 0.59 0.51 0.47
Dutch* 0.71 0.67 0.47
English 1.30 1.15 1.03 1.03
French 0.47 0.99 0.55 0.79
G etm an 0.71 0.55 0.59 O J l
[image:5.595.166.343.534.623.2]Italian 0.83 0.67 0.71
DISTRIBUTION OF OCTAVES
W estern Norwegian female students
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[image:6.595.116.477.462.695.2]number of informants
It is also in te re s tin g to s e e th a t th e o c ta v e v a lu e s fo r D a n is h in fig. 3 c o m e v e ry c lo s e to th e m e a n P R v a lu e s o f th e p re s e n t stu d y o f N o rw e g ia n sp e ak e rs.
T h e v a lid ity an d v a lu e o f th e w o rk refe rre d to c a n b e d isc u sse d . T h e p ro b le m o f th e u s e o f o n ly th e 1s t se n te n c e (so fa r) is o n e p o in t in q u e s tio n (cf. n o te s 1 1 an d 13).
P itc h ran g e w ill v a ry in th e u se o f o n e an d th e sa m e s p e a k e r a t th e s a m e tim e a s it is o b v io u sly la n g u a g e sp e cific . H all (1 9 7 2 ) sta te s th a t th e u s e o f a w id e P R is o n e o f th e m o s t c h a ra c te ris tic fea tu re s o f B ritis h E n g lish . F u rth e r d e P ijp e r (1 9 8 3 :9 1 ) p o in ts to th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n B ritis h E n g lish and D u tc h in th e to ta l P R c o v e re d , in d ic a tin g a ra tio o f 1 2:6 se m ito n e s , i.e . 1 :1 /2 o c ta v e .
P R is re c o g n iz e d a s a p a r a lin g u is U c f e a tu r e ; n e v e rth e le s s, a c c o rd in g to E s lin g an d W o n g (1 9 8 3 ) it c a n in flu e n c e in te llig ib ility . A to o n a rro w ra n g e g iv e s a n im p re ss io n o f w e a rin e s s (cf. A b e 1980). T h u s lac k o f in te re st, w h ic h m ig h t a m o u n t to im p o lite n e ss, c o u ld b e d e m o n s tra te d u n in te n tio n a lly b y a N o rw e g ia n sp e a k in g E n g lis h . A c c o rd in g to C ry sta l (1 9 6 9 ) P R is a re g u la r a n d im p o rta n t m e a n s o f e m o tio n a l e x p re ssio n . In sp ite o f P ro fe s s o r L e h is te ’s c o n te n tio n th a t P R is is o f n o in te re s t lin g u istic a lly (p e rso n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ), it m u s t b e sa id to b e o f in te rst c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly . In a sy m p o siu m o n ‘In to n a tio n : m o d e ls an d p aram eters* a t d ie X II In te rn a tio n a l C o n g re s s o f th e P h o n e tic S c ien c e s. A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e , A u g u st, 19 9 1 , P ro fe s s o r N o o te b o o m c la im e d th a t p h o n e tic i an s still k n o w to o little a b o u t th e s o -c a lle d p a ra lin g u is tic fe a tu re s. T h e p o in t is th a t sy n th e tic sp e e c h re v e a ls w h a t fea tu re s a re v ita l f o r ‘n a tu ra ln e s s ’. T h u s k n o w le d g e a b o u t P R d iffe re n c e s m u s t a lso b e o f in te re st p e d a g o g ic a lly .
F in a lly , a fe w c o n c lu d in g re m a rk s a re in o rd er.
T h e P C h a s m a d e p h o n e tic re s e a rc h m o re a c c e ssib le , a s s u c h s tu d ie s c a n b e p u rs u e d w ith o u t a ssista n c e an d a c ce ss to a la b o ra to ry . H o w d e m a n d in g th is is w ill d e p e n d o n th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e a n a ly s t It is d iffic u lt to b e a m u lti-sp e c ia list. I w o u ld lik e to c o n te n d th a t th o ro u g h lin g u is tic a n d p h o n e tic k n o w le d g e o f th e la n g u a g e to b e stu d ie d is a m u s t a s th is ta k e s a lo n g tim e to a c q u ire . T h e a c o u stics o f s p e e c h m u st b e sa id to b e a m o re lim ite d area. It se e m s a le s s tim e -c o n s u m in g task to a cq u ire th e k n o w le d g e o f a c o u stic s n e e d e d to b e a b le to u s e th e p ro g ra m m e s a v a ila b le to d a y fo r th is k in d o f rese a rc h . N e v e rth e le s s , a v isit to a p h o n e tic la b o ra to ry w o u ld n o d o u b t b e u s e fu l. T o b e a c q u ain te d w ith s tu d ie s in s p e e c h p e rc e p tio n is a n e c e s s ity . H e re h e lp is to b e fo u n d in re c e n t lite ra tu re o n th e su b je c t.
Notes
1. P rosody c o m p rise s su p ra se g m e n ta l fea tu re s o f s p e e c h su c h a s stre ss, to n e, a n d qu a n tity. T h e te rm iruonation re fe rs to th e to n a l m o v e m e n t o f a n u tte ra n c e , i.e . v a ria tio n s in p itc h , o f w h ic h th e fu n d a m e n ta l to n e (F o ) is th e p h y sic a l c o rre la te. T h e F o c u rv e p ic tu re s th e fre q u e n c y o f th e v ib ra tio n s o f th e v o c a l c o rd s. F o r th is p ro je c t s o u n d c u rv e s h a v e b e e n p ro d u c e d o n th e P C sc re e n b y th e aid o f th e d ig itiz in g p ro g ra m m e M SL (cf. D ic k so n 1985; L y s n e 19 8 9 ). T h e so u n d sig n a l w a s tra n sfe rre d fro m a JV C c a ss e tte re c o rd e r/p la y e r. D e ta ile d F o a n a ly s is h a s b e e n p e rfo rm e d b y th e a d d itio n a l p ro g ra m m e M SLPITCH (cf. D ic k s o n 1987).
S e n te n c e s d ig itiz e d fo r a n a ly sis:
1. W illia m w e n t to b e d v e ry e a rly th a t e v e n in g .
4 . H e h a d n ’t h e a rd Iro m Ja n e sin c e h e s e n t h e r th e w ire.
6. H e h a d sa id so m e th in g a b o u t a m is s in g co at. 7 . C o u ld sh e h a v e fo u n d o u t so so o n ?
12. A fte r all it d id n ’t m atte r.
3.
7.
8
.th e fa c t th a t th e fin e r th e p e rfo n n a n c e o f th e te c h n iq u e s a p p lie d , th e m o re it b e c o m e s appraient h o w irre g u la rly th e v o cal fo ld s v ib ra te ’.
T h e re c o rd in g s u s e d a s m a te ria l h e re (a b y -p ro d u c t o f a d ia g n o s tic te s t) w e re a c tu a lly reco rd ed in a sp e e c h -la b (c la ss ro o m ) w ith 2 0 b o o t h ^ e a d e r s ) . T h e e q u ip m e n t w a s th e c a sse tte re c o rd e r o f T a n d b e rg IS8, ty p e : TC R 5 5 0 0 ,2 tra c k s , w ith a tta ch e d h e a d p h o n e.
I n d ie M S L -p ro g ra m m e th is is c o rre c te d b y a d ju stin g th e " co n fig u ra tio n file " a s o n e liste n s in w h ile c h a n g in g A e c d fy in g th e a p p ro p ria te v a lu e s. In o u r c a se th is w a s n e c e s s a ry w h e n ch an g in g to a c o m p u te r w ith g re a te r c a p a c ity th a n th e o n e first a p p lie d .
C f. c o m m e n t h e a rd in a N o rw e g ia n ra d io (N RK ) p ro g ra m m e o n m u sic : ‘T ld e r m u sik k e n s v e r k tø y ’ ( = tim e is th e to o l o f m u sic ). T h is m ig h t also a p p ly to ^ le e c h an d h ea rin g .
V e ry o f te n th is w ill b e th e s e c o n d h a rm o n ic (w ith a fre q u e n c y lik e F o m u ltip lie d b y 2 , w h ic h w ill b e th e sa m e a s th e O CTA V E VALUE o f th e fim d a m e n ta l (cf. Q a i k a n d Y a llo p 1990:210: ’(jo m p le x s o u n d s p o s e a c u rio u s p ro b le m . ...It d o e s n o t m a tte r w h a t th e a m p litu d e o f th a t fu n d a m e n ta l is in re la tio n to th e o th e r h a rm o n ic c o m p o n e n ts o f th e so u n d . ... e v e n i f th e fu n d a m e n ta l is re m o v e d b y so m e fo rm o f e le c tro n ic p ro c e s s in g ..., a p itc h c o rre sp o n d in g to th e fu n d a m e n ta l, k n o w n a s th e ’p h a n to m fu n d a m e n ta l,’ w ill still b e p e r c e iv e d . . . .
W h a t is o rig in a lly d ig itiz e d b y th e M SL p ro g ra m m e w ill still b e in th e file. G e a n in g /te p a irin g a n F o c u rv e in M SLPITCH affe c ts o n ly th e v isu a l cu rv e , an d th e sta tistic s c o n fo rm s to th is. (T h e o rig in a l s ig n a l c a n a lw a y s b e re lo a d e d an d a n a ly se a g a in e.g . w ith c h a n g e d p a ra m ete rs).
A t a n e a rly s ta g e in m y w o rk I b la m e d th is ’e n d -p ro b le m ’ o n p o o r re c o rd in g s. H o w e v e r, th e fa c t s e e m s to b e th a t th is is a g e n e ra l p ro b le m in a c c o u stic re s e a rc h o f sp e e c h , a s en d in g s, e s p e c ia lly in lo n g e r u n its , a re v e ry o fte n w e a k b e c a u s e o f la c k o f in ten sity .
9 . A c c o rd in g to C o llie r (1 9 8 9 ) th is d o w n d rift w a s n a m e d DECLINA TIO N b y C o h e n an d t ’H a rt (1 9 6 5 ): cf. a ls o T h o rs e n (1 9 8 0 ); C o h e n , C o llie r, an d t ’H a rt (1 9 8 2 ); d e P ijp e r (1 9 8 3 ); t ’H art, C o llie r, a n d C o h e n (1 9 9 0 ).
10. T h e m o s t fre q u e n t p ro b le m s d e te c te d an d liste d a s in te re s tin g w ere:
1. T h e u n -E n g lis h fin is h in g olT o f a n in to n a tio n u n it. W h a t c a n b e w ro n g w ith th e fa ll/rise o f a N o rw e g ia n s p e a k in g E n g lish ?
2. T h e s ta rtin g -p o in t/’o n s e t’ is n o t h ig h e n o u g h (as v e rifie d b y te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e ).
3. Is th e re a la c k o f u s e o f ’p itc h ra n g e ’ in ’N o rw e g ia n E n g lis h ’? (a p h e n o m e n o n c lo se ly related to p o in t 2; a ls o v e rifie d b y te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e ).
4 . T h e o v e ra ll to n e p a tte rn in a u n it is n o t p a rtic u la rly E n g lish ; d o w e m o v e a b o u t/ju m p u p o n u n s tre s s e d s y lla b le s w h e re n a tiv e sp e a k e rs k e e p a ste a d y c o u rse ?
5 . W h a t a re th e re a s o n s fo r u n -E n g lis h ry th m in ’N o rw e g ia n E n g lis h ’? G s th is a q u e s tio n o f tim in g /Ia c k o f d e a c c e n tin g ? )
11. T h e c h o ic e o f th e firs t se n te n c e fo r P R -stu d ie s h a s b e e n q u e stio n e d b y e x p e rts , a s th e first s e n te n c e w ill n o rm a lly b e p ro n o u n c e d o n a h ig h e r p itc h th a n w h a t fo llo w s (N o v e n , S le th e i, an d L e h iste ) (p e rso n a l c o m m im ic a tio n ). B u t in th e re c o rd in g -s itu a tio n th e in fo rm a n ts h a d to read a s e n te n c e in N o rw e g ia n in tro d u c in g th e m s e lv e s a s a sta rt. (E x .: " D e tte e r s tu d e n t n r B 18 V 7 9 ." (1 0 -1 2 sy lls, s ta te m e n t, n e w in fo rm a tio n ; a s f o r th e c o d e s e e b e lo w ). H o w fa r th is in tro d u c tio n in N o rw e g ia n in flu e n c e d th e im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g p e rfo rm a n c e in E n g lish w ill b e le f t h e re a s a n o p e n q u e stio n ).
H o w e v e r, c o n s id e rin g th e fa c t o f th e h ig h e r p itc h o f th e first u n it, th is c a n n o t b e sa id to b e n e g a tiv e , o r m a k e th e w o rk p re s e n te d h e re p a rtic u la rly u n re lia b le , a s it d o e s n o t su p p o rt, b u t r a th e r re fu te th e u n d e rly in g h y p o th e s is an d fin d in g s o f th is stu d y : th a t N o rw e g ia n s, w e ste rn e rs in p a rtic u la r, d o n o t u s e e n o u g h P R w h e n s jo a k in g E n g lis h a s th e ir o n s e t is n o t h ig h errøugh.
a d d e d to th is: B 1 8 V 7 9 1 w ill b e d ie fU enam e o f th e se n te n c e ‘W illia m w e n t to b e d v e ry e a rly th a t e v e n in g ’ o f a rea d in g th a t c a n b e tra c e d b a c k to th e tap e .
12. S im ila rity h e re re fe rs to k in d o f in fo rm a tio n , le n g th , an d g ra m m a tic a l stru c tu re .
13. I t w o u ld b e e n o rm o u s ly tim e co n s u m in g an d d e m a n d in g a s fo r P C -c a p a c ity to g o in to a ll th e se s e n te n c e s in d e ta il. T h e re fo r, o n ly a fe w s p o t c h e c k s h a v e b e e n m a d e , re v e a lin g P R -v a lu e s slig h tly d iffe re n t fro m th o s e o f se n te n c e 1 a s e x p e c te d ; b u t so f a r th e h y p o th e s is b e h in d th is w o rk h a s n o t b e e n d isp ro v e d . O c ta v e v a lu e s o f o th e r u n its (se n te n c e s 4 ,6, 7 , a n d 12) a n a ly s e d s o f a r (a b o u t 2 0 in n u m b e r) h a v e b e e n b e lo w th o se re p o rte d f o r R P (cf. fig . 4 .)
14. ‘A s fo r v o w e l-in trin s ic p itc h , th e d iffe re n c e in F o b e tw e e n d o s e an d o p e n v o w e ls m a y a m o u n t to th re e s e m ito n e s (0 .2 5 o c ta v e ). T h u s , it is p la u s ib le th a t su c h a d iffe re n c e c a n b e p e rc e iv e d , e v e n in th e d y n a m ic situ a tio n o f sp e e c h m e lo d y , a n d e v e n th o u g h i t h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d ... th a t lis te n e rs te n d to a t le a s t p a rtia lly c o m p e n sa te f o r th e e ff e c t’ ( t ’H a it e t al. 19 9 0 ).
15. P ro fe s s o r F ry (U CL, 19 7 6 , p e rs o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ) su g g e ste d th re e in fo rm a n ts p e r a re a fo r a u ra l a n a ly sis o f sp eech . H e re o n e n e e d n o t d istin g u is h b e tw e e n m a le a n d fe m a le sp e a k e rs . In a n a c o u stic a n a ly sis, o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e s e h a v e to b e k e p t a p a rt, b e c a u s e o f p h y s io lo g ic a l d iffe re n c e s. In th is stu d y I a im e d at liv e m a le a n d fiv e fe m a le v o ic e s fro m e a c h area. F o r so m e a re a s th e n u m b e r is lo w e r b e c a u s e o f th e la c k o f a c c e p ta b le re c o rd in g s.
16. T h is stu d y w a s a p p ro v e d o f b y P ro fe s s o r L e h is te a s v a lid f o r c o m p a ris o n (p e rso n a l c o m m u n i c a tio n ). V e ry little is to b e fo u n d a b o u t P R in th e lite ra tu re . T h e re a s o n fo r th is is e a s y to se e, a s th is k in d w o rk w o u ld b e d iffic u lt to d o w ith o u t th e c o m p u te r. E x p e rts o n ly w o u ld b e a b le to a p p re c ia te th e a m o u n t o f w o rk b e h in d s u c h a stu d y . It is [>articulariy in te re s tin g th a t a t th e E u ro p e a n C o n fe re n c e o n S p e e c h T e c h n o lo g y , E d in b u rg h , S e p te m b e r 19 8 7 , m y in q u irie s a b o u t P R stu d ie s in E n g lis h y ield e d n o resu lts. T w o y e a rs la te r a t th e E u ro p e a n C o n fe re n c e o n S p e e c h C o m m u n ic a tio n an d T e c h n o lo g y , P a ris, S e p te m b e r 19 8 9 , th e U C L s tu d y w a s re p o rte d .
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