CIVILISATION

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1. The Harappan Civilisation 1—14

2. The Vedic Period 15—35

3. Jainism and Buddhism 36—61

4. The Mauryan Empire 62—79

5. The Sangam Age 80—91

6. The Age of the Guptas 92—117

7. Medieval India 118—131

(A) The Cholas

8. Medieval India 132—147

(B) The Delhi Sultanate

9. Medieval India – 148—178

(C) The Mughal Empire

10. Medieval India – 179—203

(D) Composite Culture

11. The Modern Age in Europe 204—224 (A) Renaissance

C O N T E N T S

12. The Modern Age in Europe 225-247

(B) Reformation

13. The Modern Age in Europe 248—267

(C) Industrial Revolution

C I V I C S

1. Our Constitution 268—285

2. Salient Features of the Constitution — I 286—308 3. Salient Features of the Constitution — II 309—324

4. Elections 325—340

5. Local Self-Government–Rural 341—348 6. Local Self-Government–Urban 349—358

H I S T O R Y

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Arundeep’s Total History & Civics 9th 1

T H E H A R A P P A N CIVILISATION

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EXERCISES I. Short Answer Questions :

1. Name two important sources of information on the Harappan Civilisation.

Ans. The discovery of Indus Valley Civilization by 2500 BC, the evidences of Harappan Civilisation were obtained, because Harappan site was first to be discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the province of west in Punjab in Pakistan.

Due to the bronze things of that time, it is also called the Bronze Age Civilisation. Such knowledge and skills enabled people to advance to a new stage in the progress of civilisation.

2. Name one important public building of Indus Valley Civilisation and its importance.

Ans. Citadel : The raised area of each city was called the

‘Citadel’. The platform was built of mud-bricks. All important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and workshops were located on the Citadel.

3. Give any two characteristic features of the citadel.

Ans. It owed its height to the buildings constructed on mud brick platforms. The citadel had the houses of the ruling class and important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and the workshops.

4. How were seals used ? What information do they give about Harappan trade ?

Ans. The seals were used by traders to stamp their goods. After a bag with goods was tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it. These seals were found in different regions. This indicates that the Harappan trade had spread over a vast area.

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Ans. The elaborate social structure and standard of living confirmed the presence of Trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation, e.g., the cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal were important centres of metallurgy.

Balakot and Chanhudaro were centres for shell-working and bangle-making.

10. State any two evidences that show the Harappans also had trade relations with foreign countries.

Ans. The Harappan people had commercial relations with southern and eastern. India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia.

They imported various metals, precious stones and other articles. They also carried on their trade with Egypt and Crete. Objects of Sumerian origin found at the ruins of the Indus cities indicate that their trade relations between these countries were actively practised into. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The seal bearing a mastless ship holds the evidence of the popularity of the sea-routes.

11. Name any four animals depicted on the Pashupati seal.

Ans. Seals of Pashupati shows a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo- horned head dress, seated cross-legged on a throne and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet.

12. State any two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.

Ans. (a) Deforestation : Enormous quantity of wood was used in the first civilisation to produce bronze. Jewellery was also made by wood. Wood was needed to bake bricks, pottery, stoneware and to make boats and furniture. These activities lead to deforestation resulting in changes in the climate.

(b) Earthquake : Earthquakes caused changes in the course of the Indus river which led to the inundation of the hinterland of Mohenjo-daro.

13. What types of weights and measures did the Indus people use ?

Ans. The Indus people used sets of Cubical Stone weights. The basic unit was 16 (equal to modern 14 grams). The larger Harappan seals provide useful information about the script,

trade, religion and beliefs of the Harappans. Seals of Pashupati show that people believed in Shiva. It shows a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo-horned head dress, seated cross-legged on a throne and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet.

This deity has been identified as Pashupati Mahadeva. The unicorn seal shows their mythical beliefs. The seals bear some kind of script which was not yet been deciphered.

5. Briefly describe granaries at Harappa.

Ans. In Harappa there were two rows of six granaries each. To the south of the granaries at Harappa working floors consisting of rows of circula brick platforms were discovered. It is believed that these floors were meant for threshing grain because wheat and barley grains were found in the crevices of the floors.

6. Briefly describe the ornaments worn by the Harappans.

Ans. Ornaments were worn by both men and women. Some of the common ornaments were necklaces, finger-rings, bangles, armlets, anklets, nose rings, fan-shaped head-dress and earrings. They were made of gold, silver, precious stones and ivory.

7. Briefly describe the statue of the dancing girl.

Ans. The brone statue of a dancing girl, found at Mohenjo-daro, is a masterpiece of art and it shows a high degree of development in the art of sculpture. The figurine shows vigour, variety and ingenuity. The right arm of the dancing girl rests on the hip and the left arm is heavily bangled. It holds a small bowl against her left leg.

8. Mention the types of dress worn by the Indus Valley people.

Ans. Most people used cotton clothes. Rich people also used woollen clothes in winter. The women’s dress included skirts, cloaks and scarfs and the men’s dress was dhoti and shawl.

Spinning wheels and needles of that time prove the art of spinning was practised by the people.

9. State two features of the trade in the Indus Valley Civilisation.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

21. Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people had trade relations with other countries.

Ans. The Harappan people had commercial relations with southern and eastern. India, Kashmir and with other countries of Asia.

They imported various metals, precious stones and other articles. They also carried on their trade with Egypt and Crete.

Objects of Sumerian origin found at the ruins of the Indus cities indicate that their trade relations between these countries were actively practised into. Trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The seal bearing a mastless ship holds the evidence of the popularity of the sea-routes.

22. Describe the famous sculpture in metal which was found among the ruins of the city of Mohenjo-daro.

Ans. The most outstanding work in metal is the bronze figure of a dancing girl with her right hand on her hip in a dancing posture.

She is shown, wearing necklaces and her left arm is covered with bangles, made of ivory or bone. Her hair is neatly fashioned in the form of a bun and her head is tilted slightly backward.

23. Give one evidence to show that the Harappan people excelled in the art of sculpture in the following :

(a) in metal (b) in stone

(c) in terracotta

Ans. Evidence of Harappan people’s excellent artistry regarding the mentioned heads are as follows :

(a) The figure of the dancing girl carved out of bronze metal.

(b) The two stone-status, one that of a nobleman or a priest and the other that of a Male Torso in red stone stand sufficient evidence of skill of the Harappan people’s sculpture in stone.

(c) The terracotta figurine of the Mother-Goddess and other terracotta figures of a bull, dogs, sheep, birds, men and women.

24. What evidence has been found to suggest that the Harappan people were familiar with the art of writing?

Ans. The seals discovered at Harappan and Mohenjo-daro are engraved with some sort of pictorial writing. Similar inscriptions weights were multiples of 16 like 32, 48, 64, 128 and so on.

The smaller ones were all fractions of 16.

14. State any two ways to show the value of Indus Script as a source of historical information.

Ans. The Harappans used a script which is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and varieties of the human form. The number of signs of Harappan script is known to be between 375 and 400. The script is found inscribed on a number of seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery and on an ancient signboard.

15. In what two respects is Harappan Civilisation our greatest heritage ?

Ans. The Harappan Civilisation present a basic ground of indispensable heritage which imparts a solid imprint on the later civilsations, e.g. the way of making baked pottery, bricks, beads, jewellery etc. The cultivation of cotton was adopted by the Egyptians after several centuries.

16. How do we say that the Harappan people had certain religious beliefs ?

Ans. Although no remains of temples or worship-places have been found except the fire-altars at Kalibangan ; but the seals and figurines etc. reveal many features of Hinduism such as the worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Shiva, sacred animals and trees etc.

17. How do we know that the Harappans believed in animal worship ?

Ans. The Harappans worshiped the animals. Animal worship as a part of religious beliefs is indicated by the representation of animals on the seals and in terracotta and stone figurines.

18. Name the process by which sculpture in metal was done.

Ans. The sculpture in metal was done through the special lost wax process. In this process wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. Then the wax was melted by heating and the hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.

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Also, they worshipped the bull, the rhinoceros, the tiger and the crocodile. The figure of a deity with a hooded cobra over its head and a worshipper on either side signifies that some form of Naga-worship was in fashion.

28. What is the evidence to suggest that the Harappan people worshipped trees and animals?

Ans. The seals are valuable source of information regarding the physical features of the people, their religious beliefs etc. The designs on certain religious seals show that people worshipped trees and animals.

29. Mention any two probable causes for the decline and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization.

Ans. Floods or earthquakes might have caused the destruction of the cities.

30. What is meant by the word ‘Mesopotamia’?

Ans. The word ‘Mesopotamia’ means the region between the two rivers.

31. Mention any two features to suggest that the Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amentities than those Mesopotamia.

Ans. Harappan people enjoyed a higher standard of civic amentities than those of Mesopotamia. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro and also its many houses with their own water supply, bathrooms and excellent drainage system, all go to say that

“the masses enjoyed a degree of comfort and luxury unknown in other parts of the civilized world.”

32. What evidences are found for us to know about the following:

(a) Food of the Indus Valley people.

(b) Dress and Ornaments worn by the people.

Ans. In context of the mentioned headlines in the questions evidences that are found are described below :

(a) The principal diet of the Indus Valley people consisted of wheat and barley which were regularly cultivated. Rice and dates were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also eaten. Milk, vegetables and fruits were also there. Beef, mutton, poultry, turtle, tortoise, river-fish and shell-fish were have been found engraved on copper tables with figures of

men and animals.

25. Mention any two features of the Harappan script.

Ans. Two features of the Harappan script are : (i) The Harappan script is pictorial.

(ii) The script has been engraved on the seals and on copper tables.

26. Mention three different kinds of Seals discovered of the varioius sites of the Harappan Valley Civilization.

Ans. Three different kinds of Seals discovered are : (i) The Animal Seals. (ii) The Unicorn Seal.

(iii) The Shiva Pashupati Seal.

27. Mention the evidences which suggest that the Harappan people worshipped :

(a) the Mother Goddess, (b) the Shiva Pashupati, and (c) the trees and animals.

Ans. On the basis of the following evidences we can say that the Harappan people worshipped different deities and objects : (a) Many terracotta figuriness and seals discovered, bear the

picture of a female deity, identified as the Mother Goddess.

The female figures are seminude, they wear elaborate head dresses and ornaments. Some of the figures are smoke-stained which may mean that the poeple burnt incense before the deity at the time of worship. People worshipped this Goddess believing in the female energy as the source of all creation.

(b) A particular seal discovered, bears remarkable figure of a male deity, identified as Lord Shiva. The figure is tri-faced with horns one either side of his head dress, is seated in a yogic posture on a throne surrounded by animals.

The discovery of a large number of conical and cylindrical stones that resemble the Shiva Linga, suggest that the Harappan people worshipped Lord Shiva.

(c) A certain religious seals discovered are found to bear designs, which means that they worshipped trees and animals. They considered Pipal tree sacred as it was a source of wisdom as they believed.

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been used for religious purposes. This indicates the importance attached to ceremonial bathing in sacred tanks, pools and rivers since time immemorial.

(iv) The design of the Great Bath portrays the efficient planning in the structural features relating to water supply and sewage disposal.

(b) The Citadel points to the elaborate planning that went into the development of cities and justifies that the Harappan civilisation was an urban civilisation, building like Great Bath, the Granary, the assembly hall and the workshops. The presence of specific buildings and houses of the ruling class, indicate some sort of social classification.

(c) The information about the religious beliefs mostly comes from the seals, seal impressions, terracotta and metal figurines, cemeteries, etc. On the basis of the knowledge obtained from the seals, figurines it has been inferred that the Harappan people had many features of later Hinduism. Religion and beliefs of the Harappans.

Seals of Pashupati show that people believed in Shiva. It shows a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo-horned head dress, seated cross-legged on a throne and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet. This deity has been identified as Pashupati Mahadeva.

2. With reference to Harappan Culture, answer the following questions :

(a) Discuss briefly the indigenous origin of the Harappan Civilisation.

(b) Describe the extent of civilisation.

(c) Name any four cities of the Harappan Civilisation and a significant feature of each city.

Ans. (a) Harappan culture was only an outgrowth of the extensive local village cultures and not of foreign origin. These cultures probably contributed to the growth of the Harappan Civilisation, together with the external stimulus provided by trade contacts with Mesopotamia. These historians found some marked similarities between the pre-Harappan and proto-Harappan cultures at Kot Diji, Amri and Kalibangan in terms of granary, defensive walls and long distance trade in these settlements.

(b) The entire area of the Harappan Civilisation is triangular in shape covering an area of about 1, 299, 600 sq. km, extending from Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west to Alamgirpur, in commonly used.

(b) The various sculptured figures show that people used to wear simple dress. Men used two pieces of cloth i.e., the upper garment, that was a shawl which was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right arm; the lower garment resembled a modern dhoti. Female dress did not differ much from that of the male. Women used a loin cloth bound by a girdle. Common fabrics were commonly used, perhaps wool was also used.

Male and female both were fond of wearing ornaments.

Gold, silver, coppe, other metals and precious stones were used for making various ornaments of different designs. Men and women used to wear necklaces, finger-rings and armlets.

Women decorated themselves with a head-dress, earrings, bangles, bracelets, girdles and anklets.

33. Why did the Indus Valley Civilization come to be known as Harappan Civilization?

Ans. The archaeologists made various excavations in the north- western region of India which led to the discovery of the ruins of the pre-historic cities of Harappan in West Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sind. The sites of early excavations were found on the river Indus and its tributaries. Therefore, Indus Valley Civilization came to be known as Harappan Civilization.

II. Structured Questions :

1. With reference to the sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation, answer the following :

(a) Three significant features of the Great Bath

(b) Social classification of Harappans as pointed out by the Citadel.

(c) Religion of the Harappans as depicted by the Seals.

Ans. (a) The Great Bath : The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a massive structure which throws light on the life of the people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation :

(i) The construction of the Great Bath indicates that the art of building had reached a high degree of perfection at that time.

(ii) The massive structure points out that there might have existed a ruling class that could mobilise labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure for the public.

(iii) Most of the scholars agree that the Great Bath might have

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Ans. A large number of stone images have been found ; out of these the statue of a yogi drapped with a shawl is well-known. Bronze statues of a dancing girl, animals and carts etc. are noteworthy.

(b) How did Indus pottery reflect the potter’s artistic skill?

Ans. Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery which was made glossy and shining. Earthen vessels and pottery, crafted on the potter’s wheel, were decorated with black geometrical designs. The large jars with narrow necks and red pots with black decoration bear evidence of their artistic skill.

(c) Name and briefly describe the process by which sculpture in metal done.

Ans. The sculpture in metal was done through the special lost wax process. In this process wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. Then the wax was melted by heating and the hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.

5. Study the picture of the seal and answer the questions that follow : (a) Identify the seal in the given

picture. Why were the seals used ? (b) Of what material were these seals made ? Name any four animals whose pictures were inscribed on the seals.

(c) What do the seals reveal about the Harappans ?

Ans. (a) The seal given in the picture is Pashupati Seal.

The seals were used for trade in vast area of Indus valley, as these have been found from various spots spread over the civilisation sites. The seals with short inscriptions give some messages which cannot be deciphered yet.

(b) The seals were made of terra-cotta, steatite, agate etc. An elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet. This deity has been identified as Pashupati Mahadeva.

(c) The seals reveal the mythical and religious beliefs. The figures carved in the seals depict the worship of Mother Goddess and Pashupatinath and various animals, trees etc.

Ganga Yamuna Doab and from Manda in Jammu in north to Bhagatrav in Narmada estuary in the south.

(c) The four most important Harappan cities are :

Harappa in Montgomery district of Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Larkana district of Sindh (now both in Pakistan). These two cities are linked by the river Indus and hence the name of the civilisation is the Indus Valley Civilisation. A third city lies at Chanhundaro, about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro. The fourth city is at Lothal in Gujarat, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.

3. With reference to the chief features of the Harappan Civilisation, answer the following :

(a) Any three characteristic features of town planning.

(b) Three special features of the houses of the people.

(c) Mention any two common elements between Mohenjo- daro and Harappan.

Ans. (a) Town planning : It is the most remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation. The Indus cities were set up on a grid- pattern, consisting of regular planning with divisions, alignment of streets, planning of the houses and public buildings with the provision of thoroughfares.

(b) Special features of the houses of the people : The houses at street corners were rounded to allow carts to pass easily and the house drains emptied all waste water into the street drains. Doors and windows open on side of the streets not on the main roads.

(c) Common elements between Mohenjo-daro and Harappan Civilisations : Common elements between Mohenjo-daro and Harappan Civilisation are as follows:

(i) Both are located on the banks of the Indus river i.e. Mohenjo- daro on the right and Harappa on the left banks.

(ii) Both acquire a circuit of 5.0 km.

(iii) Ground plans of construction were the same.

(iv) Water supply, drainage, granaries were common in management.

(v) Some of the unique features were common, e.g. indoor plumbing, brick-lined drain pipes and sewage channels.

4. With reference to art and sculpture of the Indus Valley people answer the following questions :

(a) Describe any important objects of sculpture made by the Harappans.

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building had reached a high degree of perfection at that time.

(ii) The massive structure points out that there might have existed a ruling class that could mobilise labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure for the public.

(iii) Most of the scholars agree that the Great Bath might have been used for religious purposes. This indicates the importance attached to ceremonial bathing in sacred tanks, pools and rivers since time immemorial.

(iv) The design of the Great Bath portrays the efficient planning in the structural features relating to water supply and sewage disposal.

(c) The Citadel : The raised area of each city was called the Citadel. It owed its height to the buildings constructed on mud brick platforms. The citadel had the houses of the ruling class and important buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and the workshops.

7. With reference to the emergence of civilisation, answer the following questions :

(a) What is meant by Civilisation ?

(b) What are the main traits which mark a civilisation ? (c) Explain briefly man’s progress from the stone age to

Bronze Age civilisation.

Ans. (a) Civilisation is defined as an advanced stage of human cultural development. It implies the use of superior technology and complex economic relationships.

(b) There are a number of traits which mark a civilisation. Some of these are :

(i) Evolution of cities (ii) Surplus food (iii) Division of labour (iv) System of writing

(v) Monumental public buildings 6. Study the picture and answer the questions that follow:

(a) Identify the structure. List any two of its characteristic features.

(b) State the importance of this structure as a source of information about Harappan Civilisation.

(c) Name another architectural structure of this period.

How does this structure show that Harrappan Civilisation was highly developed civilisation ?

Ans. (a) The Great Bath : The Great Bath is one of the largest public buildings at Mohenjo-daro. It has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.

There are two flights of steps one in the north and the other in the south leading into the tank. To make the pool watertight, burnt bricks and mortar lined with bitumen and gypsum were used for construction. The water for the bath was provided by a well in an adjacent room. Surrounding the bath, were porticos and sets of rooms, and a stairway which led to an upper storey. Some scholars believe that these rooms were provided for the members of some kind of priesthood, whereas others think that the rooms were provided for changing clothes. This structure with several distinctive features, has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a ritual bath.

(b) The Great Bath is an important source of information that throws light on the life of the people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation :

(i) The construction of the Great Bath indicates that the art of

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(c) The period between 4000 and 3000 BC saw remarkable progress. Man acquired greater knowledge and skill in mastering the forces of nature. He took to agriculture and began to make more efficient tools and started living more or less a settled life on the banks of rivers. So a number of dispersed farming villages evolved first into towns and then into cities. The river valleys had the agricultural potential needed to support a dense population and produce surplus food. The surplus food freed some people from the task of producing their own food. Such individuals gradually became specialists and developed a substantial range of new skills such as writing, using metals and making their alloys, seal- making and large-scale construction. Such knowledge and skills enabled people to advance to a new stage in the progress of civilisation.

8. With reference to the religious belief of the Harappans, state the following :

(a) The sources of information about the religious beliefs of the Harappans.

Ans. The information about the religious beliefs mostly comes from the seals, seal impressions, terracotta and metal figurines, cemeteries, etc. On the basis of the knowledge obtained from the seals, figurines it has been inferred that the Harappan people had many features of later Hinduism.

(b) Their belief in Mother Goddess.

Ans. They worshipped the Mother Goddess who bears some resemblance to the one that was worshipped in the Middle East and Europe. The Harappans looked upon the earth as the Goddess of Fertility. A plant is shown growing out of the body of a woman resembling the Goddess of earth.

(c) Worship of Nature.

Ans. The Harappans worship the elements of nature. They worship trees, fire and water. Besides, animal worship was also a part of religious beliefs. It is indicated by the representation of animals on the seals and in terracotta and stone figurines.

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Arundeep’s Total History & Civics 9th 1 5

THE VEDIC PERIOD

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EXERCISES I. Short Answer Questions.

1. Name the two categories of Early Vedic Literature. Why was the Early Vedic Literature known as Shruti ? Ans. Vedic literature is divided into two parts, namely the Shruti

and the Smriti. The Early Vedic Literature was known as

‘Shruti’, because it was conveyed by the God to the great sages by hearing (by ‘Shravan’) and so it was called ‘Shruti’.

2. Name the four Vedas.

Ans. (a) The Rig Veda : It is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas.

(b) The Sama Veda : It contains 1875 hymns, some of which are borrowed from the Rig Veda.

(c) The Yajur Veda : It deals with rituals.

(d) The Atharva Veda : It contains 731 hymns dealing with magic and charm.

3. State what the hymns in each Veda deal with.

Ans. (a) The Rig Veda : The hymns are dedicated by the sages to the Gods. Much of the Indian philosophy is based on the Rig Veda. It also contains the famous ‘Gayatri Mantra’.

(b) The Sama Veda : These hymns were sung at the time of the sacrifice by the priests. These are sweet song or ‘the melody’.

(c) The Yajur Veda : The hymns recited during the performance of Yajnas. These are 2086 hymns.

(d) The Atharva Veda : The hymns deals with the power of ghosts, spirits, gyan, karma and upasana.

4. What are the Upanishads ? Name any two Upanishads.

Ans. The Upanishads are philosophical commentaries on the Vedas.

These form the basic source of Indian philosophy. These were composed between 1000 BC–800 BC by different sages, they

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as the ‘Mahabharata’.

The Mahabharata war lasted for 18 days.

10. State the role of iron in the development of agriculture during the Vedic Age.

Ans. The Aryans with their agricultural background discovered the use of iron in India, which gradually gave rise of economic development. Discovery of iron gave them new implements like axes to clear the forest and cultivate the land. With the use of iron plough-heads, sickles and hoes, they could bring vast tracts of land under cultivation.

11. Give two features of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Pottery.

Ans. The PGW is a very fine, smooth and even-coloured pottery.

It was made out of well-worked, high quality clay with geometric patterns painted on it in black colour. Floral patterns and Sun symbols are seen in some cases. The pottery includes open-mouthed bowls and dishes.

12. Name the four Varnas that existed during the Vedic Age.

Ans. The Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Shudras.

13. How did trade become a pivot around which the life of the people revolved ?

Ans. During the Later Vedic Age, trade became quite prominent;

so the settlement or the towns and cities developed around the main trade centres. Thus, the city life moved according to the activities associated with the trade.

14. State the difference in the position of women between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic Age.

Ans. During the Early Vedic Period women were respected. The institution of marriage had become sacred. The daughters were given freedom to choose their husbands.

In the Later Vedic Period, there was significant decline in the status of women. Their participation in Yajnas was not considered necessary. They did not enjoy the right to property.

Man’s opinion were respected. As a result the freedom to choose the husbands by women was curtailed.

are said to form the foundation on which later additions to Vedic Literature rest.

The most famous of Upanishads are Chandogya Upanishad, Kena Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Taittiriya Upanishad.

5. What are the Dharmashastra ?

Ans. The law-books are called the Dharmasutras and the Samritis together with their commentaries are called Dharamashastras.

Manusmriti, which gives the description of Hindu code of law is a Dharmashastra.

6. Name the epics written during the later Vedic period.

Ans. The two Epics written during the later Vedic period are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana was written by the Maharishi Valmiki and the Mahabharata is believed to be the work of Sage Ved Vyasa.

7. What is known as Bhagwad Gita ?

Ans. ‘Bhagwad Gita’ is the compilation of the text, teachings imparted by Lord Krishna to Arjun explaining the importance of ‘Karma’ or duty, immortal soul, the right way of life. It also includes the glimpse of Mahabharata battle. It is a sacred book of Hindus.

8. Mention the importance of the Epics as a source of information about the Aryans.

Ans. (i) The Epics serve as the main source of information on the political institutions and the social and cultural organisation of the Epic Age.

(ii) They provide information on the various Aryan Kingdoms, about their army and the weapons they used during the period.

(iii) Epics reveal the high ideals of family life of the Aryans.

(iv) The Bhagwad Gita one of the Great Epics of the world elaborates the Karma philosophy and the immortality of the soul.

9. Which battle is known as the Mahabharata ? For how long was this battle fought ?

Ans. The battle fought between ‘Kurus’ or ‘Kauravas’ and ‘Pandus’

or ‘Pandavas’ along the battlefield of ‘Kurukshetra’ is known

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15. Name the four ashrams into which the human life span was divided, indicating the time span for each.

Ans. The four ashrams are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa.

(i) Brahmacharya Ashrama : It lasted upto the age of 25 years.

During this period, the pupil was expected to acquire knowledge in the gurukul and observe strict discipline.

(ii) Grihastha Ashrama : During this period, man was supposed to marry and raise a family. This period lasted from the age of 25 to 50 years.

(iii) Vanaprastha Ashrama : It lasted from the age of 50 to 75 years. During this period man was expected to retire from worldly life and acquire spiritual and philosophical knowledge.

(iv) Sanyasa Ashrama : The last stage lasts from the age of 75 to 100 years. This was the period of renunciation.

16. State briefly the change that occurred in the position of the Brahmins in the Later Vedic Age.

Ans. In the Later Vedic period, Brahamins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras became four distinct castes or Varnas. The Brahmins or the priests performed religious rituals. During the Later Vedic Age, the caste system become rigid. The Brahmins enjoyed more privileges. The priests came to be considered as Gods on earth.

17. State two important changes that took place in the society in the process of its transition from the Early Vedic Period to the Later Vedic Period.

Ans. Three important changes that take place in the society are:

(i) Single family system converted to Joint family system.

(ii) Equal rights enjoyed by women changed to declination in the status of women.

(iii) General caste system converted to rigid caste system.

18. Name the important officers appointed by the King to carry on his administration.

Ans. The important officers appointed by the King were Gramins (officer in charge of village affairs), Purohita (performing

religious ceremonies) and Senani (Commander of army).

1 9. Name the two yajnas performed by the King.

Ans. Two main yajnas performed by the King were ‘Rajsuya Yajna’ (at the time of coronation) and ‘Ashvamedha Yajna’

(to improve the power of the realm).

2 0. What is known as the ‘Battle of Ten Kings’ ?

Ans. The period between 1000 BC and 600 BC is marked by the

‘Battle of Ten Kings’, fought between Sudas, a Bharata King of the Tritsu family and a confederacy of ten tribal chiefs led by Vishvamitra.

2 1. Name the important gods of the early Aryans.

Ans. Worship of natural phenomena prevailed in early Aryans, e.g.

Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Surya etc.

2 2. Name the Nature Gods of the Later Vedic Period.

Ans. Nature Gods of the Later Vedic Age were Prajapati Brahma, Rama, Krishna (incarnation of Vishnu) and Shiva etc.

2 3. Name the God to which the famous Gayatri mantra is addressed.

Ans. The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to the Sun, the god of light and creation.

24. Name any two early Aryan settlements.

Ans. The early Aryans settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region which comprised the five rivers of Punjab namely—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and the river Indus (Sindhu) and the river Sarasvati.

25. Which is the oldest Vedic Literature.

Ans. The Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic literature.

26. What does the Rig Veda contain?

Ans. It contains hymns in praise of different Gods and Goddesses like - Indra, Varuna and Agni.

27. Mention any of the Vedic hymans that enables us to reconstruct the Early Vedic Civilization.

Ans. Agni. Agni was the personification of the ‘sacrificial fire’.

Sacrifies or yanjas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic religion. Agni was thought of a messenger or a bearer

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35. State the importance of Sacrifices in the early Vedic ritual.

Ans. The Aryans propitiated their Gods by performing sacrifices.

The common items of offerings for the sacrifice included ghee, milk, grain, flesh and soma juice. Every householder performed the sacrifice by kindling the sacred fire and reciting hymns. All the members of the family participated in these ceremonies.

36. Mention the important changes that took place in their religion of the later Vedic period.

Ans. In the later Vedic period, Vajpeya sacrifice was performed by a new king at the time of his coronation. The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to appease Gods in order to ensure the material well-being of the kingdom. The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed for a powerful king to proclaim that he was the ‘King of Kings’.

37. Name any two newer regions occupied by the Aryans during the later Vedic period.

Ans. During the later Vedic period, the Aryans occupied the region along the course of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna—Bihar, vast regions to the eash such as Kosala (each Utter Pradesh).

38. Mention the monumental evidence to suggest that Southern India had also become familiar with Iron in the later Vedic Age.

Ans. Megalithic Monuments such as dolmens and cromlechs have been found all over South India. The word ‘megalith’ means large stone (mega + lith). A dolmen or a cromlech is a megalithic tomb with a large flat stone laid on upright ones.

Iron tools, arrows and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. This is enough to show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

39. Mention any two of the Ashrams in the life of a man in Aryan society.

Ans. The Brahmacharya Ashram and the Grihastha Ashram.

of offerings (of milk, grain, ghee, etc.) from men to Gods.

28. How can you say that the Rig Vedic Age was the Non- Iron using phase of Vedic history?

Ans. The copper and the bronze were available in abundance, while the use of iron was not known to the Rig Vedic Age.

29. Name any two of the four Varnas.

Ans. The Brahmins and the Kshtriyas.

30. What was the position of women in the Rig Vedic age?

Ans. Women were treated as being equal with men. They took part in all religious rites. Women were given education. Girls had freedom in the choice of husbands. Monogamy any polygamy both were popular. Child-marriage the sati system and purdah did not exist among the Aryans. The women attended all the social functions and gatherings. People prayed for the birth of sons in particular, but there are no clues of prayers for the birth of a daughter.

31. What were the two main occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans?

Ans. Domesticiation of the animals and agriculture.

32. Name the two political institutions which exercised check on the powers of the King in the Rig Vedic period.

Ans. The Samiti and the Sabha.

33. What form of worship did the Aryans follow during the early Vedic period?

Ans. The early Vedic period comparised worshipping of several gods. The Aryans used to worship Gods of the Sky or Heaven, Gods of the Atmosphere Gods of the Earth, Sacrifices or the Yajnas.

34. Mention the important features of the religion of the early Vedic period.

Ans. The religion of the early Vedic period was very simple. The people worshipped various forces of nature as manifestations of the Supreme God. Thus, they worshipped a number of Nature Gods. The Aryans did not build any temples of worshipped idols. They used to chant hymns in the open air.

Sacrifices or the Yajnas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic period.

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4 6. Name the period during which the Aryans began to settle in India.

Ans. The Aryans settled down in India between (1500-500 BC) i.e.

Along Indus valley in Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC) and Along Yamuna-Ganga basin in Later Vedic Period (1000-500 BC)

4 7. What is meant by Vedic culture ?

Ans. Vedic culture involves the culture of Aryans settlements along Indus, Yamuna and Ganga rivers. Early Vedic Period is concerned to the Indus Valley (1500 – 1000 BC). Later Vedic Period (1000 – 500 BC), is related to Yamuna-Ganga Doab culture. The early period was also known as iron age or tribal age and the later age is connected to the development of agriculture along Yamuna-Ganga basin.

II. Structured Questions :

1. With reference to the sources of information about the Vedic Age, write short notes on the following :

(a) The Vedas (b) The Epics

(c) Role of Iron Implements

Ans. The vedas (four) are a collection of hymns and other ancient religious text. They are :

(i) The Rig Veda : It contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas. These hymns are dedicated to the gods and natural gifts and the prayers, meant for the welfare of the whole humanity.

(ii) The Sama Veda : It contains 1875 hymns as the songs sung by the sages and gods at the time of holy ceremonies.

(iii) The Yajur Veda : There are 2086 hymns which were recited during ‘Yajnas’. There is also description of herbal medicines and their effects.

(iv) The Atharva Veda : With 731 hymns, this veda deals with magic and charm. It also contains scientific knowledge and medicines, too.

40. Mention the important subjects included in the courses of Gurukul education.

Ans. Logic, Ethics, Military Science, Astronomy and Astrology were included in the course of study/ Mathematics, Law and Grammar were also important subjects of study besides Vedic literature.

41. Name the sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.

Ans. The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.

42. Name any two newer crops produced by the later Vedic Aryans.

Ans. Virhi (rice) and wheat.

43. Name the important deities of the later Vedic period.

Ans. Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Lord Rama and Lord Krishna became popular deities duing the Epic period.

Durga, Kali and Parvati emerged as the important female deities.

44. Mention briefly the rituals and sacrifices of the later Vedic Aryans?

Ans. Sacrifice became the most important part of the religion of the later Vedic Aryans. The ceremonies could be performed only by professional priests, many superstitious beliefs in spritis, spells and charms became part of their religion. Practice of Tapasya or penance occupied an important place in the religion.

They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (salvation).

45. Mention the reasons for the importance of the Brahmins (priestly class) in the later Vedic society.

Ans. In the later Vedic period, the simple religious practices became complicated and ritualistic which were variedly handled by the priests themselves as they had a vast knowledge of enchanting mantras in a meaningful manner to perform the holy rituals for a purpose, wish or some other reason. Hence, the priestly class was always given a prominent position in society in the later Vedic period.

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(iii) Defence : Because of its durability and easy availability, iron was extensively used in making weapons of war like swords, armours, shields and slings.

2. With reference to Vedic Literature, answer the following questions :

(a) List the categories into which Vedic literature is divided.

(b) Give a brief account of the four Vedas.

(c) What are known as Brahamanas and Aranyakas ? Ans. (a) The vedic literature can be classified into the following

categories :

(i) The four Vedas, i.e., the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas and their Samhitas.

(ii) The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita (iii) The Aranyakas

(iv) The Upanishads.

The Upanishads are philosophical commentaries on the Vedas.

These form the basic source of Indian philosophy. These were composed between 1000 BC 800 BC by different sages, they are said to form the foundation on which later additions to Vedic Literature rest.

(b) (i) The Rig Veda : It contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas. These hymns are dedicated to the gods and natural gifts and the prayers and meant for the welfare of the whole humanity.

(ii) The Sama Veda : It contains 1875 hymns as the songs sung by the sages and gods at the time of holy ceremonies.

(iii) The Yajur Veda : There are 2086 hymns which were recited during ‘Yajnas’. There is also description of herbal medicines and their effects.

(iv) The Atharva Veda : With 731 hymns, this veda deals with magic and charm. It also contains scientific knowledge and medicines, too.

(c) The Brahamanas : These are the commentary in prose of the vedas, which explain the social and religious importance of rituals as well as the value of sacrifices.

(b) The Epics — The Epics provide following information about the Vedic age :

(i) The Epics serve as the main source of information on the political institutions and the social and cultural organisation of the Epic Age.

(ii) They provide information on the various Aryan Kingdoms, about their army and the weapons they used during the period. The Kshatriyas were entrusted with the defence of their kingdoms and they believed that death on the battlefield was the noblest act in the life of a warrior.

(iii) The Epics are considered as the finest literary works of the ancient period and are acclaimed for their literary and philosophical value.

(iv) They reveal the high ideals of family life of the Aryans.

(v) The great heroes, depicted in the Epics are the embodiment of high moral principles, and made a great impact on successive generations.

The Bhagwad Gita elaborates the Karma philosophy and the immortality of the soul.

(c) Role of Iron Implements — In India, the Iron Age began in 1000BC. The village farming communities gradually dispersed in large parts of India from the Gangetic plains to the peninsular south. Iron was a harder metal than copper and bronze. It was cheap and available in plenty Iron deposits were found over large areas ; so man could use iron to make livelihood. It was used in the following areas :

(i) Agriculture : The Aryans with their agricultural background discovered the use of iron in India, which gradually gave rise of economic development. Discovery of iron gave them new implements like axes to clear the forest and cultivate the land.

With the use of iron plough-heads, sickles and hoes, they could bring vast tracts of land under cultivation.

(ii) Occupation : The use of iron gave rise to new trades by providing durable implements like saws, chisels, hammers, nails and tongs. This gave rise to such occupations as weaving, spinning, carpentry, tanning and tool-making.

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This was the period of renunciation. Man had to leave everything forever and go into meditation in order to attain moksha or salvation.

(c) State the position of women in the Vedic period.

Ans. In the Early Vedic Period women enjoyed the equal rights and their educational talents were not less than men, e.g., Maitreyi and Gargi were two famous women of that age, who were highly respected for their extraordinary knowledge and preaching magic of conversation.

In the Later Vedic Period, there was significant decline in the status of women. Their participation in Yajnas was not considered necessary. They did not enjoy the right to property.

4. With reference to economic organisation of the people in the Vedic Period answer the following questions : (a) State the methods used by the Aryans in agriculture.

(b) Why was domestication of animals very important to the Aryans ?

(c) How was trade managed during this period ?

Ans. (a) Agriculture became quite prominent in Vedic Period.

The use of various agricultural implements like iron ploughshares, metal tools was in practice. The making of furrows for crops was evident with reference to Pusan in Rig Veda. Variety of crops were cultivated.

(b) Domestication of animals was very important for helping in agriculture and milk products.

(c) The trade became remarkable, as the growth of new towns and cities were developed linked with the trade activities e.g.

metal crafts, carpentry, pottery, fishery, spinning, weaving etc. Although the coins were used in the trade, but barter system was still dominant.

5. With reference to the picture given, answer the following questions :

(a) Identif y this ancient educati on sy stem. Pers ons belonging to which ashrama of life attended this ? (b) Describe briefly the life in this ancient education institution.

The Aranyakas These are ‘forest books’ written for the guidance of the hermits and the students living in the forests.

Their central theme is mysticism and philosophy.

3. With reference to the Society during the Vedic Age, answer the following questions :

(a) Explain briefly the class divisions that existed in the society.

Ans. In the Early Vedic Period, the society was divided into different classes based on their profession. A person could adopt any profession of his choice.

People followed different professions which became hereditary in course of time. This resulted in the division of society into occupational classes. However, later on class system became caste system.

In the Later Rig Vedic Period, caste system emerged. The four main castes were — Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.

The Brahmans or the priests performed religious rituals. The Kshatriyas participated in wars. The Vaishyas engaged in business and looked after agriculture as well as industry. The Shudras served the upper classes.

(b) Explain the four stages in the life of an Aryan.

Ans. In the Later Vedic Period, the whole life-span of an Aryan came to be divided into four periods. The four stages of life are known as four ashramas, each of 25 years duration. The four ashramas are Brahmacharya, Grithastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa.

The Brahmacharya Ashrama lasted upto the age of 25 years. During this period, the pupil was expected to acquire knowledge in the gurukul and observe strict discipline.

During the period of the Grithastha Ashrama, (25 to 50 years) man was supposed to marry and raise a family.

As a householder, he was to take responsibility of maintaining his family.

The third stage was Vanaprastha Ashrama. (50 to 75 years) During this period man was expected to retire from worldly life and acquire spiritual and philosophical knowledge.

The last stage (75 to 100 years) was the Sanyasa Ashrama.

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(c) What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of studying in this educational setup ?

Ans. (a) Education system is Gurukul. Pupil belonging to Brahmacharya Ashrama which lasted upto the age of 25 years was expected to acquire knowledge in the gurukul and observe strict discipline.

(b) The life in a Gurukul was very simple. The students got up early in the morning for bath and prayers and after that they had to do all household duties, gardening and serving of their teachers. They learned the actual way to be healthy and efficient. The life was quite hard and the total sacrifice was practised for obedience and duty.

(c) Advantages : The students lived in Gurukul with their teacher and carried on all the household duties, too. It was beneficial for their physical, mental and spiritual development.

They learned the basic rules of humanity and equality and the moral of simple living and high thinking.

Disadvantages : The students led a hard life without any personal choice or liking. The education was basically oral and the written tests were missing ; otherwise their ability would be better judged.

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7. With reference to the Vedic age, answer the questions that follow :

(a) How did the kingdoms expand during the Later Vedic period ?

(b) Compare the duties of a king during Early Vedic period with those during the Later Vedic period.

(c) What position did the priestly class hold in the Later Vedic period ?

Ans. (a) During the Later Vedic period, vast kingdoms were established, both through merger of villages and conquests. ‘Ashvamedha Yajna’ was performed for challenging the other kings to fight and transfer their realms to the winner king. In this way a king was to become from king to a ‘Chakravarti Samrat’, like the emperor Ashoka in later Mauryan perod.

(b) The main duty of the king was the welfare and security of his tribe. But during the Later Vedic period, the king was dependent on the advice and directions given by the priests. In this way the welfare of the people became uncertain.

(c) In the Later Vedic Period, the priests became very important persons, as they performed all the religious ceremonies. Their status was very high ; so much so that they were worshipped as Gods due to their knowledge and special qualities of mind.

8. Discuss the sources to reconstruct the Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) Past the with reference to the following : (a) Indra, the most favourite God of the Aryans (b) Agni, the personificatio of Sacrificial fire

(c) References to the Cow in the Rig Vedic hymns

Ans. (a) In the Rig Veda, Indra is the king of the gods and ruler of the heavens. Indra is the God of thunder and rain and a great warrior, a symbol of courage and strength. He leads the Deva (the gods who form and maintain Heaven) and the elements, such as Agni (Fire), Varuna (Water and Surya (Sun).

He thus fights in a timeless battle between good and evil. As the God of war, he is also regarded as one of the guardians of the directions, representing the East. As the favourite national go do the Vedic Indians, Indra has about 250 hymns dedicated to him in the Rigveda, more than those devoted to any other god and almost one fourth of the total number of hymns of the Rigveda.

(b) Agni, the Vedic god of fire who presides over the earth, has made transition into the Hindu pantheon of gods, without lossing his importance. With Vayu and Indra, who presided over the air and sky, he is one of the supreme gods in Rig Veda. The link between heaven and earth, he is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings to the other world in the fire. Agni is a deva, second only to Indra in the power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology. Agni stands for knowledge for it is seen by the learned people, covering all things that move and do not move and because it is summers the Devatas endowed with knowledge. The light Agni units is the light of knowledge, therefore it is known as illuminator of knowledge who lights up the path leading to truth.

(c) Cow has been a symbol of wealth since ancient Vedic times.

In the Rig Veda, the cows figure frequently as symbols of wealth, and also in comparison with river goddesses. The Vedic god Indra is often compared to a bull. River are often linked to cows in the Rigveda.

9. Describe the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans with reference to the following :

(a) The Family Structure (b) Position of Women (c) Varna System

Ans. With reference to the given heads the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is described below :

(a) The Family Structure : The basic unit of the social structure was the ‘family’. The joint family system was prevalent.

Houses in this age, were built of wood or reed. The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal in which Grihyapati (master of the house) dominated in family and social life.

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(b) Position of Women : Women were given equal status to that of men in society. They were permitted to participate in all the religious rites. Gaining of education had not been restricted to them. There were women scholars who composed hymns and were well-versed in the sacred scriptures. Girls could seek husbands of their own choice. Monogamy was in custom, but polygamy was also practised by many. Child-marriage, the Sati system and Purdah did not exist among the Aryans. The women attended all social functions and gatherings. The general tendency of people was to have male births rather than the females. They used to perform prayers seeking the birth of the male-child. But in case of females, people had a repulsive attitide they did not like to have female-baby.

(c) Varna System : One hymn in the last book of the Rig Veda refers to four orders of society — the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Shudras. The people who explained the Vedic texts and performed the religious ceremonies were called the Brahmins. Those who belonged to the ruling class, were the Kshatriyas. The common people, who were engaged in agriculture, trade and industry were the Vaisyas. The Shudras were the menial workers who did not have much to own.

Scholars are of the opinion that the term ‘Varna’ in the Rig Veda, refers to the racial difference between the Aryans and non-Aryans. It is in this context that the terms Arya Varna and Dosa Varna came into use. There was no ban on the taking of food cooked by Shudras and no restrictions on intermarriages or change of occupation.

10. With reference to the following explain the main features of the Riv Vedic Economy :

(a) Domestication of Animals (b) Agriculture

(c) Crafts and Trade Transactions

Ans. With reference to the given headings, the economic life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is explained as follows :

(a) Domestication of Animals : The Rig Vedic Aryans had

mainly a pastoral economy. Cattle formed an important item of dona (gifts) made to the priests. The word Gomat was used to signify a wealthy person. It meant the one who possessed many cattle, especially the cows and bulls. Other domesticated animals were the ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep.

(b) Agriculture : The Rig Vedic Aryans were mainly scattered in villages. They frequently prayed for plentiful rain and bountiful harvest, large herds of cattle and good health. It shows that agriculture was an important occupation of the village folk. However, the only grain referred to in the Rig Veda is Yava which could mean grain in general or barley in particular.

(c) Crafts and the Trade and Commerce : Men and women were engaged in weaving cloth. The metal-workers or the smiths were skilled in making weapons, implements and ornaments. The metal ayas mentioned in the Rig Veda is generally taken to mean copper or bronze, although it has been understood as iron also.

The people were engaged in trade, cloth and leather goods being the main items. The barter system practised for trade transactions. The cow was the standard unit of value.

They used horses and bullocks for carrying goods from place to place. They also transported goods through the inland rivers.

11. What information do we gather from the later Vedic literature in respect of :

(a) Spread of Vedic Civilization to many New Regions.

(b) Role of Iron in later Vedic Economy.

Ans. (a) Aryas-expansion during the later Vedic age : As the population increased, the Aryans moved along the course of the river Ganga and Yamuna. The scene shifted from Punjab to the land of the Kurus which was the region round modern Delhi. Further, they occupied vast regions to the east, such as Kosala (each Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (North Bihar) and Magadha (South Bihar). The name ‘Vangas’ occurs

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in one of the Aranyakas (forest texts), which refers to the people of Eastern Bengal. The Aitareya Brahmana mentioned the Andhras, who in moder times are the Telugu-speaking people of the sourthern India. Thus, the territories occupied by the later Vedic Aryans, comprised the whole of India to the north of the Narmada and some regions even to the south of that river.

(b) In context of the use of Iron extensively during the later Vedic Age, the given headlines are described as under :

The regions in which the use of Iron was fairly widespread during the later Vedic Age, they were the modern States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Iron weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads and tools like—

knives, axes and ploughshares have been discovered from various painted Grey Ware sites. But in some parts of the country, the Red Ware (pottery) were more common than the Polished Grey Ware.

12. Describe the social changes evident in the later Vedic period with reference to :

(a) Position of Women (b) Caste System

Ans. With reference to the given heads the social changes evident in the later Vedic period are described as under :

(a) Position of Women : The honour or respect that the women of the Rig Vedic age had enjoyed had been lessened towards the later Vedic age. Although they continued to be associated with all religious rites, the rules of marriage underwent a change. If monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was practised, atleast in higher sections of society. Widow-marriage, which was fairly common in the Rig Vedic age, was now regarded with disfavour. But the education which some women received, was of high order. The discourses of women philosophers are preserved in the Upanishads.

(b) Caste System : The Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed powers and privileges denied to the Vaisyas and the Shudras.

By this time, besides the four major Varnas, many other caste groups had come into being like—the merchants, the chariot-

makers, the smiths, the carpenters, the tanners, the fishermen etc. Membership of a caste had become hereditary and there was also a fixation of occupation on the basis of one’s caste- grouping. The so-called untouchables were forced to live in separate settlements outside the village or the town boundaries.

13. In the later Vedic Age there was a marked change in the economic life of the Aryans. In this context describe:

(a) The growing important of Agriculture (b) Variety of Crafts

(c) Changes in the field of Trade and Commerce

Ans. In context of the marked change in the economic life of the Aryans, the given headlines are described as follows:

(a) The growing important of Agriculture : Rearing of cattle and other domestic animals continued, but it was now less important than agriculture. In additioin to Yava or barley, a new crop Vrihi or rice had assumed greater significance.

Fragments of both barley and rice have been found at Hastinapur and other place. The later Vedic Aryans produced many other crops such as wheat millet and sugarcane.

(b) Variety of Crafts : Different kinds of crafts had been introduced. The main reason behind it, could be the use of iron in large quantities. Iron weapons and tools have been recovered from various Painted Grey Ware or Black and Red Ware Sites. Crafts, such as pottery, leather-working, carpentry, making of jewellery and the manufacutre of glass also flourished. Crafts specialisation had now become more common that, in early Vedic period. Thus, chariot-making developed as an occupation different from that of carpentry.

(c) Change in the field of Trade and Commerce : Important changes can be noticed in the field of trade and commerce.

Commerce was made easier by the use of such units of value as nishka and satmana. The reference to ships, indicates a flourishing in land maritime trade. A class of hereditary merchants (Vanija) existed now. Many of the professions were organised into guilds, which in later ages, controlled prices and ensured the quantity of the goods.