YOUTH VIOLENCE: WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW

YOUTH VIOLENCE:

WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW

Report of the Subcommittee on Youth Violence of the

Advisory Committee to the Social, Behavioral and Economic

Sciences Directorate, National Science Foundation

YOUTH VIOLENCE: WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW 5HSRUWRIWKH6XEFRPPLWWHHRQ<RXWK9LROHQFHRIWKH$GYLVRU\&RPPLWWHHWRWKH6RFLDO%HKDYLRUDODQG(FRQRPLF 6FLHQFHV'LUHFWRUDWH1DWLRQDO6FLHQFH)RXQGDWLRQ1 INTRODUCTION 5DPSDJHVKRRWLQJVLQVFKRROVGLIIHULQGUDPDWLFZD\VIURP´VWUHHWYLROHQFHµFRPPRQO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKXUEDQ DUHDV6FKRROUDPSDJHVW\SLFDOO\RFFXULQVWDEOHFORVHNQLWORZFULPHDQGYHU\VPDOOUXUDOWRZQVDQGOHVVRIWHQLQ H[XUEV7KHVKRRWHUJHQHUDOO\LVDZKLWHDGROHVFHQWPDOHZLWKQRUHFRUGHGKLVWRU\RIGLVFLSOLQDU\SUREOHPVDQGQR GRFXPHQWHGKLVWRU\RIPHGLFDOWUHDWPHQWIRUPHQWDOGLVRUGHUV7KHVKRRWHULVRIWHQDWWKHKLJKHQGRIWKHLQWHOOL -JHQFHDQGDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWVSHFWUXPEXWODFNLQJLQWKHEDGJHVRIDWKOHWLFDELOLW\DQGRWKHUVRFLDODWWULEXWHV WKDWDUHKLJKO\YDOXHGE\SHHUV 8UEDQ´VWUHHWVKRRWHUVµ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´WKH FDXVHµ$OWKRXJKWUDJLFHYHQWVOLNHWKH1HZWRZQVKRRWLQJDUHFDXVHGE\PXOWLSOHULVNIDFWRUVWKUHHPDLQIDFWRUVKDYH EHHQGLVFXVVHG³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´VRFLDOORVHUVµVHHDVROXWLRQLQHQDFWLQJ GDQJHURXVDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRUEHFDXVHWKH\ZLOOEHDEOHWRUHSODFHDGDPDJHGLGHQWLW\ZLWKDQHZDQGPRUH VDWLVI\LQJRQHWKHQRWRULRXVGDQJHURXVK\SHUPDVFXOLQHDQWLKHUR$GROHVFHQWVLQKLJKFULPHFRPPXQLWLHVDEVRUE WKH´FRGHRIWKHVWUHHWVµZKLFKUHTXLUHVLQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSVWRSURMHFW²DQGVRPHWLPHVWRHQDFW²DWRXJK YLROHQFHSURQHLPDJHLQRUGHUWRZDUGRIIWKUHDWVWKH\HQFRXQWHULQRUGLQDU\LQWHUDFWLRQ 7KRXJKZHNQRZDJUHDWGHDODERXWWKHHWLRORJ\RI\RXWKYLROHQFHWKHFKDQJLQJRQOLQHDQGJDPLQJODQG -VFDSHVWDWHOHYHOYDULDWLRQLQDFFHVVWRZHDSRQVDQGHYROYLQJQDWXUHRIIDPLO\VWUXFWXUHDPRQJRWKHUFKDQJHV UHTXLUHDIRUZDUGORRNLQJUHVHDUFKDJHQGDWRH[DPLQHWKHVHFKDQJHVDQGQHZFKDOOHQJHV2XUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ RIWKHVRFLDOUHODWLRQVZLWKLQVFKRROVWKDWFDQKHOS\RXWKWRDYRLGYLROHQFHDVWKH\FRQWHQGZLWKSHHUFRQÁLFWWR GHYHORSVRFLDOWUXVWWKDWJRYHUQVOHYHOVRILQWHUSHUVRQDOFRQÁLFWDQGWRFRPHIRUZDUGLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKUHDWV LVXQGHUGHYHORSHG$GYDQFHVLQWKHVWXG\RIODUJHVFDOHGDWDVHWVRIIHUWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIOHDUQLQJDERXW\RXWK FXOWXUHDQG´F\EHUEXOO\LQJµIURPSXEOLFDOO\DYDLODEOHVRFLDOPHGLDWKDWKDYHEHFRPHLPSRUWDQWIRUPVRI\RXWKWR \RXWKFRPPXQLFDWLRQ$GGLWLRQDOO\ZKLOHFLYLOOLEHUWLHVLPSOLFDWLRQVZLOOUHTXLUHIXUWKHUVWXG\WKHSRWHQWLDOIRURQOLQH

YOUTH VIOLENCE AND EXPOSURE TO MEDIAVIOLENCE 3XEOLFGHEDWHRQWKHOLQNEHWZHHQYLROHQWPHGLDDQGDJJUHVVLYHDQGYLROHQWEHKDYLRUFDQEHFRQWHQWLRXV HVSHFLDOO\LQWKHZDNHRIDVKRRWLQJUDPSDJH$QGHUV%UHLYLNZKRPXUGHUHG\RXWKLQ1RUZD\FODLPVKHXVHG WKHYLGHRJDPH´0RGHUQ:DUIDUHµDVDPLOLWDU\VLPXODWRUWRKHOSKLPSUDFWLFHVKRRWLQJSHRSOH6LPLODUO\(ULF +DUULVDQG'\ODQ.OHEROGZKRPXUGHUHGIHOORZVWXGHQWVLQ&RORUDGRFODLPHGWKH\XVHGWKHYLROHQWYLGHRJDPH ´'RRPµWRSUDFWLFHWKHLUVKRRWLQJUDPSDJH9LROHQWYLGHRJDPHVKDYHDOVREHHQLPSOLFDWHGLQRWKHUVFKRROVKRRW -LQJVHJ%HWKHO$ODVND3DGXFDK.\-RQHVERUR$UN

,WLVQRWSRVVLEOHWRNQRZZKHWKHUSOD\LQJYLROHQWJDPHVcaused%UHLYLN+DUULVDQG.OHEROGRUDQ\RWKHUNLOOHU WRVKRRWWKHLUYLFWLPV+RZHYHUDFRPSUHKHQVLYHUHYLHZRIPRUHWKDQHIIHFWVIURPVWXGLHVLQYROYLQJPRUHWKDQ SDUWLFLSDQWVDURXQGWKHZRUOGVKRZVWKDWYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHVLQFUHDVHVDJJUHVVLYHWKRXJKWVDQJU\IHHO -LQJVSK\VLRORJLFDODURXVDOHJKHDUWUDWHEORRGSUHVVXUHDQGDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU9LROHQWJDPHVDOVRGHFUHDVH KHOSLQJEHKDYLRUDQGIHHOLQJVRIHPSDWK\IRURWKHUV$PHWDDQDO\VLVRIVWXGLHVLQYROYLQJSDUWLFLSDQWV IRXQGWKDWYLROHQWPHGLDH[SRVXUHLVDOVRVLJQLÀFDQWO\OLQNHGWRYLROHQWEHKDYLRUHJSXQFKLQJEHDWLQJFKRNLQJ RWKHUVDOWKRXJKWKHHIIHFWVDUHVPDOOHUWKDQIRUDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU<HWDGGLWLRQDOUHVHDUFKLVVWLOOQHHGHGWR DGGUHVVVRPHLPSRUWDQWTXHVWLRQVDERXWPHGLDLPSDFWVSDUWLFXODUO\JLYHQWKHUDSLGHYROXWLRQRIWKHWHFKQRORJ\ WKDWLVÁRRGLQJ\RXQJFRQVXPHUVZLWKHYHUPRUHUHDOLVWLFGHSLFWLRQVRIYLROHQWEHKDYLRURQVFUHHQ

At-risk Individuals6RPHLQGLYLGXDOVDUHPRUHDWULVNIRUWKHHIIHFWVRIYLROHQWPHGLDWKDQDUHRWKHUV:HNQRZ YHU\OLWWOHDERXWWKHGLIIHUHQWLDOLPSDFWRIYLROHQWPHGLDRQFHUWDLQVXESRSXODWLRQV ‡ $UH\RXWKZLWKFHUWDLQPHQWDOLOOQHVVHVPRUHRUOHVVVHQVLWLYHWRYLROHQWPHGLD" ‡ $UHPDOHVZLWKH[WUHPHO\WUDGLWLRQDOO\PDVFXOLQHJHQGHUUROHVSDUWLFXODUO\DWULVNIRUYLROHQWPHGLDHIIHFWV" ‡ 9HU\\RXQJFKLOGUHQPD\EHHVSHFLDOO\DWULVNIRUQHJDWLYHRXWFRPHVDIWHUYLROHQWPHGLDH[SRVXUH+RZ PXFKDQGZKDWNLQGVRIYLROHQWPHGLDGR\RXQJFKLOGUHQ\HDUVFRQVXPHDQGKRZGRHVWKDWH[SRVXUH LPSDFWWKHLUGHYHORSPHQW" ‡ +RZGRHVSOD\LQJQHZHUNLQGVRIDJJUHVVLYHJDPHVRQDSSVLQÁXHQFHFKLOGUHQ·VDJJUHVVLYHWKRXJKWVDQG EHKDYLRUV" ‡ 7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQJDPLQJDQGGHSUHVVLRQDPRQJDGROHVFHQWVLVSRRUO\XQGHUVWRRG$UH\RXWKEH -FRPLQJGHSUHVVHGEHFDXVHWKHLUHQJDJHPHQWLQJDPLQJLVUHPRYLQJWKHPIURPVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQDQGLQWHQ -VLI\LQJWKHIHHOLQJRILVRODWLRQ"2UDUH\RXWKZKRDUHDOUHDG\VRFLDOO\LVRODWHGPRUHDWWUDFWHGWRJDPLQJ WREHJLQZLWK"'RYLUWXDOUHODWLRQV´FURZGRXWµDFWXDOVRFLDOERQGV"

Fantasy-reality Distinctions and Transfer to Real-life Settings7KHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQIDQWDV\DQGUHDOLW\LV EOXUU\IRUYHU\\RXQJFKLOGUHQ2OGHU\RXWKFRXOGEHVXVFHSWLEOHWRVXFKSUREOHPVDVZHOO ‡ :KDWNLQGVRIUHODWLRQVKLSVGR\RXWKIRUPZLWKRQVFUHHQFKDUDFWHUV"'R\RXWKSHUFHLYHWKHVHIDQWDV\ÀJ -XUHVDVIULHQGVUROHPRGHOVKHURHVDQGDQWLKHURHVRUDVHPERG\LQJWKHPVHOYHV"'RWKHVHGLIIHUHQWNLQGV RIUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKPHGLDFKDUDFWHUVGLIIHUHQWLDOO\DIIHFWWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIDJJUHVVLYHRXWFRPHVDIWHU PHGLDH[SRVXUH" ‡ 7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQIDQWDV\EHKDYLRUVKRRWLQJRQVFUHHQDQGDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRULVZHOOXQGHU -VWRRG,QZKDWFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKRXJKGRHVWKLVIDQWDV\EHKDYLRUWUDQVIHUWRYLROHQWFULPLQDOEHKDYLRU DPRQJ\RXWK")RUH[DPSOHZKDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQYLROHQWPHGLDFRQVXPSWLRQDQGDFFHVVWRRU RZQHUVKLSRIJXQV"$UHWKHSHRSOHZKRKDYHOHWKDOZHDSRQVDOVRWKRVHZKRDUHIDQWDVL]LQJDERXWWKHLU XVHWKURXJKRQOLQHZRUOGV" ‡ 9LROHQWPHGLDDUHEHFRPLQJSURJUHVVLYHO\PRUHLPPHUVLYHDVWKHWHFKQRORJ\DGYDQFHVHJKLJKGHÀQL -WLRQ'VXUURXQGVRXQGODUJHUVFUHHQVYLUWXDOUHDOLW\'RPRUHUHDOLVWLFPHGLDLQWHUIDFHVPDNHLWPRUH GLIÀFXOWIRU\RXWKWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQIDQWDV\DQGUHDOLW\DQGPDNHLWPRUHOLNHO\WKDWWKH\ZLOODFWRQ ZKDWWKH\GRRUVHHLQPHGLDH[SHULHQFHV" ‡ +RZGRHVWKHFRQVXPSWLRQRIYLROHQWPHGLDLPSDFWWKHIRUPDWLRQDQGVXVWHQDQFHRIWUXVW"'RFKLOGUHQDQG \RXWKZKRSOD\DJJUHVVLYHJDPHVFRPHWRVHHWKHZRUOGDV´PHDQDQGVFDU\"µ2UDUHWKRVHZKRDUH

DOUHDG\GLVWUXVWIXOGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\DWWUDFWHGWRYLROHQWPHGLD"2ULVWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSELGLUHFWLRQDO" Group Processes<RXWKRIWHQSOD\DJJUHVVLYHJDPHVLQJURXSVVRPHWLPHVLQWKHVDPHVHWWLQJ/LWWOHLVNQRZQ DERXWKRZLQWHUJURXSSURFHVVHVLQRQOLQHDQGRIÁLQHVHWWLQJVYHUVXVVROLWDU\SOD\LQÁXHQFHDJJUHVVLYHRXWFRPHV ‡ +RZGRHVWKHLPSDFWRIYLROHQWPHGLDGLIIHUZKHQRQOLQHJDPHVDUHSOD\HGLQJURXSVZKHUHWKHSOD\HUV DUH´ZRUNLQJµVLGHE\VLGHDVGLVWULEXWHGDOOLHVZKHUHSOD\HUVDUHLQWHDPVEXWQRWFRORFDWHGRUDV G\DGVYHUVXVSOD\LQJDORQH" ‡ +RZGRHVFRPSHWLWLRQDQGFROODERUDWLRQEHWZHHQJDPHSOD\HUVLQÁXHQFHDJJUHVVLYHRXWFRPHV"'RVROL -WDU\SOD\HUVWHDPXSZLWKRWKHURQOLQHSOD\HUVSRWHQWLDOO\FUHDWLQJDOOLHVDQGIULHQGVRUGRWKH\FRPSHWH DJDLQVWWKHPPDNLQJWKHPPRUHOLNHO\WREHSHUFHLYHGDVHQHPLHV" ‡ 'RHVJURXSYHUVXVVROLWDU\LQWHUDFWLRQDURXQGYLROHQWPHGLDDPSOLI\WKHSUREOHPVWKDWPD\EHH[SHULHQFHG E\LQGLYLGXDOVZKRVXIIHUIURPPHQWDOLOOQHVVHV"

Environmental Factors7KHPHGLDHQYLURQPHQWVRIFKLOGUHQDQG\RXWKKDYHLQFUHDVLQJDPRXQWVRIDJJUHVVLYHFRQ

-WHQWGHOLYHUHGE\QXPHURXVSODWIRUPV ‡ +RZPXFKDJJUHVVLYHFRQWHQWLVLQFXUUHQWWHOHYLVLRQSURJUDPVÀOPVYLGHRJDPHVDSSVDQGPXVLF" ‡ 'RFRQVXPSWLRQSDWWHUQVRIYLROHQWPHGLDYDU\E\JHRJUDSK\UXUDOVXEXUEDQXUEDQVRFLRHFRQRPLFVWD -WXV6(6JHQGHUHWKQLFLW\RUKRXVHKROGFRPSRVLWLRQ" ‡ <RXWKYLROHQFHLVGHFUHDVLQJZKLOHYLROHQWYLGHRFRQVXPSWLRQLVLQFUHDVLQJ$UH\RXWKZKROLYHLQULVN\HQ -YLURQPHQWVDFWXDOO\PRUHSURWHFWHGIURPDFWXDOYLROHQFHEHFDXVHWKH\DUHLQGRRUVFRQVXPLQJPHGLDDQG WKHUHIRUHRXWRIKDUP·VZD\" ‡ 5DWLQJV\VWHPVKDYHQRWNHSWXSZLWKWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\YLROHQWFRQWHQWRISRSXODUPHGLDHJ3*ÀOPV FRQWDLQDVPXFKYLROHQFHWRGD\DV5UDWHGÀOPVLQWKHSDVW5DWLQJVV\VWHPVYDU\DFURVVPHGLDSODWIRUPV DQGKDYHLQFOXGHGDJHDQGRUFRQWHQWPDUNHUV%HFDXVHWKHUHDUHQRWVWDQGDUGUDWLQJVDFURVVSODWIRUPV HJ5IRUPRYLHV790$IRU797IRU7HHQLQYLGHRJDPHVWKH\DUHGLIÀFXOWIRUSDUHQWVWRXQGHUVWDQG :HQHHGWRHYDOXDWHWKHSRWHQWLDOEHQHÀWVRIDXQLYHUVDOUDWLQJV\VWHPIRUDOOPHGLD79ÀOPVYLGHR JDPHVPXVLFDSSVZLWKV\PEROVWKDWDUHPRUHWUDQVSDUHQW7KH3(*,3DQ(XURSHDQ*DPH,QIRUPDWLRQ V\VWHPIRUH[DPSOHKDVÀYHDJHEDVHGUDWLQJVDQGVL[ZHOOUHFRJQL]HGV\P -EROVIRUSRWHQWLDOO\REMHFWLRQDEOHPDWHULDOYLROHQFHVH[GUXJVGLVFULPLQDWLRQIHDUJDPEOLQJ

Biological Factors5HVHDUFKHUVDUHEHJLQQLQJWRH[SORUHWKHDGGLFWLYHQDWXUHRIYLGHRJDPHVEXWPRUHUHVHDUFK LVQHHGHG ‡ 'RYLGHRJDPHVWDSLQWRELRORJLFDOUHZDUGV\VWHPVOLNHRWKHUDGGLFWLQJVXEVWDQFHVVXFKDVGUXJVDQGDO -FRKRO"'RHVJURXSVKDUHGIXQZKLOHSOD\LQJYLGHRJDPHVHQKDQFHUHZDUGHIIHFWV"6HOIFRQWUROLVLPSRU -WDQWLQRWKHUDGGLFWLRQV:KDWUROHGRHVVHOIFRQWUROSOD\LQWKHXVHRIYLGHRJDPHV" ‡ :KDWLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQHQJDJHPHQWZKLFKFDQLQFUHDVHOHDUQLQJDQGDGGLFWLRQ" ‡ +RZGRYLROHQWPHGLDLPSDFWEUDLQGHYHORSPHQWDQGIXQFWLRQ"

SOCIAL REJECTION AND PEER HIERARCHIES

-LQFOXGLQJJDQJVWKDWPD\HQFRXUDJHWKHXVHRIYLROHQFHWRVHWWOHGLVSXWHV ,QVFKRROVKRZ\RXWKGHÀQHDQGUHVSRQGWREHKDYLRUZLWKSHHUVDQGDGXOWVWKH\ÀQGWURXEOLQJQHHGVWREH VWXGLHGKROLVWLFDOO\LQFRUSRUDWLQJYLROHQWEHKDYLRUDVDVXEVHWRISRWHQWLDOUHVSRQVHVDQGDVVHVVLQJKRZDGXOWVLQ -FOXGLQJVHFXULW\JXDUGVKHOSWRSURPRWHDVZHOODVLPSHGHQRQYLROHQWUHVROXWLRQRIFRQÁLFWV3DUWLFXODUO\LPSRUWDQW LQWKHVHG\QDPLFVDUHSHHUUHSXWDWLRQDOKLHUDUFKLHVWKHTXDOLW\RILQWHUSHUVRQDODQGJURXSUHODWLRQVHJVWURQJ DVFRPSDUHGZLWKZHDNWLHVLQGLIIHUHQWIDFHWRIDFHDQGRQOLQHVSDFHVDQGVH[GLIIHUHQFHVLQUHJDUGWRSHHU FRQÁLFW7KHUHQHHGVWREHPRUHNQRZQDERXWKRZWKHVHIDFWRUVYDU\GHPRJUDSKLFDOO\DFURVVVFKRROVDQGEURDGHU FRQWH[WVHJXUEDQFRPSDUHGZLWKUXUDOVHWWLQJV 7KHUHLVVLJQLÀFDQWOLWHUDWXUHRQVFKRROFOLPDWHVDQGFXOWXUHVRIVRFLDOWUXVWDVXQGHUJLUGLQJSURWHFWLYHIDFWRUV DJDLQVWYLROHQFHDQGFRQÁLFW0XFKRIWKLVOLWHUDWXUHLVEDVHGRQVHOIUHSRUWHGEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRUVEXWZHNQRZ OHVVDERXWKRZWUXVWLVDFWXDOO\HVWDEOLVKHGDQGVXVWDLQHGRYHUWLPHFRQWULEXWLQJWRFRQVWUXFWLYHFRQÁLFWPDQDJHPHQW WKDWFDQVWHPWKHWLGHRIDJJUHVVLRQRUYLROHQFH (VSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWLQWKHVHSURFHVVHVPD\EHWKHTXDOLW\RIDGXOW\RXWKLQWHUDFWLRQDQGWKHIDFLOLWDWLYHLPSDFW RIHIIHFWLYHOHDGHUVKLS:HQHHGWRNQRZPRUHDERXWKRZVHFXULW\DQGH[FOXVLRQDU\GLVFLSOLQDU\UHJLPHVUHODWH WRVRFLDOWUXVWDQGDGXOW\RXWKLQWHUDFWLRQSDUWLFXODUO\ZLWKUHVSHFWWRSHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDQG\RXWKFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHV $OVRLPSRUWDQWLVJUHDWHUNQRZOHGJHDERXWKRZRIIFDPSXVWKLUGSDUWLHVHJDOXPQLFRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVFDQ IDFLOLWDWHRULQKLELWWKHSURGXFWLRQRIVRFLDOWUXVWLQVFKRROV :HNQRZUHODWLYHO\OLWWOHDERXWKRZ\RXWKVHHNRXWKHOSDQGVXSSRUWIURPDGXOWVZKHQGHDOLQJZLWKWURXEOLQJ VLWXDWLRQVHLWKHUIDFHWRIDFHRURQOLQH7RVWXG\WKHVHG\QDPLFVZHQHHGWRH[SDQGRXUPHWKRGRORJLFDOWRRONLWWR LQFOXGHFRPSDUDWLYHVWXGLHVDFURVVLQVWLWXWLRQDOW\SHVIURPGLIIHUHQWFRXQWULHVHWFDQGPXOWLPHWKRGVWXGLHVWKDW LQFRUSRUDWHÀHOGZRUNVXUYH\VIRFXVJURXSVDQGH[SHULPHQWDOGHVLJQV ‡ $FURVVXUEDQDQGUXUDOFRQWH[WVLWZLOOEHLPSRUWDQWWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZKHLJKWHQHGVHQVLWLYLW\WRUHMHFWLRQ GHYHORSVDQGLVVXVWDLQHGLQ\RXWK+RZGRIDPLOLHVSHHUVVFKRROVDQGVRFLHWDOVWHUHRW\SHVIRVWHURU PRGHUDWHVHQVLWLYLW\WRUHMHFWLRQ":KDWJRDOVGRWKHXVHRIYLROHQFHDQGHVSHFLDOO\OHWKDOJXQYLROHQFH VHUYHDPRQJWKRVHZKRXVHLWRUSODQWRXVHLWLQUHVSRQVHWRUHMHFWLRQ"'RHVYLROHQFHSURYLGHDVHQVHRI HVFDSHIURPIHHOLQJVRISRZHUOHVVQHVV" ‡ +RZGRLQGLYLGXDOFKLOGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVQRWDEO\VHOIUHJXODWRU\FRPSHWHQF\PRGHUDWHUHDFWLRQVWRUHMHF -WLRQDQGSURPRWHPRUHDGDSWLYHUHVSRQVHVWRVRFLDOWKUHDW" ‡ $GROHVFHQFHLVDWLPHRIUDSLGEUDLQGHYHORSPHQW8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHQHXUDOEDVLVRIVRFLDOWKUHDW DQGUHDFWLRQVWRLWLVLPSRUWDQWDQGQHHGVWREHVWXGLHGSRWHQWLDOO\YLDIXQFWLRQDODQGVWUXFWXUDOEUDLQ LPDJLQJ ‡ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJUHMHFWLRQE\SHHUVDQGDGXOWVLQLPSRUWDQWVHWWLQJVVXFKDVVFKRROV³WKHIRUPLWWDNHVLQ GDLO\OLIHZKHUHZKHQDQGZK\DQGE\ZKRP³DQGKRZLWLQWHUDFWVZLWKWKHVHQVLWLYLW\WRUHMHFWLRQRIWKH WDUJHWLVLPSRUWDQW ‡ $PRQJPDUJLQDOL]HG\RXWKZKDWNLQGVRIUHODWLRQVKLSVPLJKWUHGXFHULVNRIH[WUHPHUHDFWLRQVWRUHMHFWLRQ SURPRWHKHOSVHHNLQJDQGLQWHUUXSWSODQVIRUUHYHQJHWKDWPLJKWLQYROYHOHWKDOYLROHQFH"+RZGR\RXWK OHDUQWRVHHNKHOS" ‡ ,VHYLGHQFHRIVHQVLWLYLW\WRUHMHFWLRQDXVHIXOLQGLFDWRURIKHLJKWHQHGULVNIRUH[WUHPHEHKDYLRUJLYHQWKDW LWLVLPSOLFDWHGLQPDQ\W\SHVRIGLVRUGHUVDQGKDVOLQNVZLWKVXLFLGDOULVNDVZHOODVWRYLROHQFH" ‡ +RZGR\RXWKKDQGOHSHHUFRQÁLFWDFURVVGLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WV":KDWVRFLDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOFRQGLWLRQVVWURQJ DQGZHDNWLHVIDFLOLWDWHQRQYLROHQWDVFRPSDUHGWRYLROHQWUHVSRQVHV" ‡ +RZLVVRFLDOWUXVWSURGXFHGLQVFKRROVDQGZKDWHIIHFWVGRGLIIHUHQWVHFXULW\UHJLPHVKDYHRQLW" ‡ $QXPEHURIUDPSDJHVKRRWHUVKDYHEHHQFROOHJHVWXGHQWVRUGURSRXWV8QGHUVWDQGLQJZKDWFRQWULEXWHVWR ULVNRIOHWKDOYLROHQFHDPRQJFROOHJHDJHVWXGHQWVLVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHWKH\KDYHDJHGRXWRIDGROHVFHQW SHHUJURXSVDQGPD\EHHYHQPRUHGLIÀFXOWWRLGHQWLI\DVDUHVXOW

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ÁXHQFHWKRXJKWVRILPLWDWLRQDPRQJ\RXWKZKRDOUHDG\KDYHWKRXJKWVRIVXLFLGHDQGKRPLFLGH"7KHUHLV HYLGHQFHWKDWVFKRROVKRRWLQJVHQFRXUDJHPDLQO\IDOVHUHSRUWVRIVFKRROERPELQJVEXWGRVRPH\RXWKXVHVXFK HYHQWVDVDZD\WRDFKLHYHQRWRULHW\DVKDVEHHQVXJJHVWHGLQVHQVDWLRQDOFRYHUDJHRIVXLFLGHV" *LYHQWKHHVWDEOLVKHGUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDJHDQGYLROHQFHZLWKWKHSHDNDJHIDOOLQJDWODWHDGROHVFHQFHRU HDUO\DGXOWKRRGWKHUHLVDQHHGWRNQRZPRUHDERXW ‡ WKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVXLFLGHDQGKRPLFLGHDQGWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZR ‡ ZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHGLIIHUHQWLDOHIIHFWVRIVHOIFRQWURORUVHOIUHJXODWLRQIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVXLFLGDODQG KRPLFLGDOLGHDWLRQDQG ‡ KRZVFKRRODQGRWKHUVRFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVFDQFUHDWHHQKDQFHGVRFLDOHIÀFDF\DQGERQGLQJHIIHFWVIRUVWX -GHQWVDQGKRZGLIIHUHQFHVLQVFKRROFOLPDWHFDQUHGXFHOHYHOVRIFULPHDQGYLROHQFHSDUWLFXODUO\GXULQJ DGROHVFHQFH

FAMILY INFLUENCES ON VIOLENT BEHAVIOR

7KHUHLVDODUJHERG\RIUHVHDUFKVXJJHVWLQJWKDWIDPLOLHVDUHLQYROYHGLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VLQWKHGHYHORSPHQW DQGSUHYHQWLRQRIDQWLVRFLDODQGYLROHQWEHKDYLRU(YLGHQFHDOVRLQGLFDWHVWKDWQXPHURXVDVSHFWVRIIDPLO\LQÁ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

EHJOHDQHGIURPH[LVWLQJORQJLWXGLQDOGDWDVHWV ‡ +RZGRSUHQDWDORUHDUO\SRVWQDWDOH[SRVXUHVWRVWUHVVRUWUDXPDDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOWR[LQVDOWHUWKHULVN IRUYLROHQFHODWHULQGHYHORSPHQW" ‡ 'RLQWHUYHQWLRQVWKDWLPSURYHVHOIFRQWUROVNLOOVUHGXFH\RXWKYLROHQFH":KDWDUHWKHPRVWFRVWHIIHFWLYH VWUDWHJLHVDQGWLPLQJIRUWKHVHLQWHUYHQWLRQV" ‡ :KDWDUHWKHPRVWHIIHFWLYHLQWHUYHQWLRQVIRUHGXFDWLQJSDUHQWVDERXWHIIHFWLYHDQGDJHDSSURSULDWH ZD\VWRPRQLWRUFKLOGEHKDYLRULQFOXGLQJWKHLUPHGLDXVHSHHULQWHUDFWLRQVDQGVFKRROLQYROYHPHQW" ‡ +LJKULVNIDPLOLHVHJXQVWDEOHKRPHOHVVZLWKLQFDUFHUDWHGSDUHQWVRUYLROHQFHLQWKHKRPHFRQWULEXWH GLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\WRYLROHQFHLQLQQHUFLW\QHLJKERUKRRGV:KDWLQWHUYHQWLRQVPDNHDGLIIHUHQFHLQLQWHU -UXSWLQJWKLVF\FOH" ‡ ,VWKHIRVWHUFDUHV\VWHPD´YLROHQFHIHHGHUV\VWHPµLQWKDW\RXQJSHRSOHZKRDJHRXWDUHSDUWLFXODUO\ YXOQHUDEOHWRFULPHGRPHVWLFYLROHQFHDQGKRPHOHVVQHVV":KDWFDQEHGRQHWRDGGUHVVWKHVSHFLDOQHHGV RIFKLOGUHQLQIRVWHUFDUH" ‡ :KDWNLQGRIPHQWDOKHDOWKDQGFRPPXQLW\UHVRXUFHVDUHQHHGHGIRUIDPLOLHVFRQFHUQHGDERXWDFKLOGZKR GHPRQVWUDWHVVLJQVRISUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKYLROHQFHYLROHQWPHGLDRUYLROHQWEHKDYLRU" ‡ 'RODUJHVFDOHLQWHUYHQWLRQVWKDWDLPWRLQFUHDVHDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWHJ5DFHWRWKH7RSDOVRPLWL -JDWH\RXWKYLROHQFH"

DATA MINING FOR PREDICTION AND INTERDICTION OF SHOOTINGS

2QOLQHGDWDVRXUFHVPD\KDYHPXOWLSOHSRWHQWLDOXVHVIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJSUHGLFWLQJDQGSUHYHQWLQJYLROHQFH 7KHVHLQFOXGHEXWDUHQRWOLPLWHGWRDWUDFNLQJSRSXODWLRQOHYHOGHPRJUDSKLFDQGJHRJUDSKLFWUHQGVLQULVN EHKDYLRUVEJHRJUDSKLF´KRWVSRWµSUHGLFWLRQIRUXUEDQYLROHQFHF´ULVNVWUDWLÀFDWLRQµWRLGHQWLI\²ZLWKDSSUR -SULDWHVDIHJXDUGV²WKRVHZKRDUHVLJQDOLQJYLROHQWLQWHQWLRQVDQGZKRZRXOGEHQHÀWIURPHDUO\LQWHUYHQWLRQG IDFLOLWDWLQJWKHUHSRUWLQJRISODQQHGRUSRWHQWLDODWWDFNVE\RWKHUVHJIULHQGVDQGFODVVPDWHVZLWKNQRZOHGJHRI LPSHQGLQJHYHQWVDQGHXQGHUVWDQGLQJEXOO\LQJEHKDYLRUDQGLWVUROHLQLQÁXHQFLQJYLROHQFH(DFKRIWKHVHSR -WHQWLDODSSOLFDWLRQVVKRXOGEHH[SORUHGIXUWKHUWRDQDO\]HLWVSRWHQWLDOLPSDFWEHQHÀWVDQGULVNVDQGIHDVLELOLW\RI LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ7REHVXFFHVVIXOUHVHDUFKLQDQ\RIWKHVHGRPDLQVPXVWDGGUHVVWKHSRWHQWLDOELDVHVDQGOLPLWDWLRQV RIWKHVHRQOLQHGDWDVRXUFHV&OHDUO\LWZLOODOVREHQHFHVVDU\WRDGGUHVVDQGPLWLJDWHVHULRXVULVNVWRSULYDF\ 0DQ\RIWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDOWRROVQHHGHGIRUWKHVHDQDO\VHVVXFKDVDQRPDORXVSDWWHUQGHWHFWLRQSUHGLFWLYH PRGHOLQJVHQWLPHQWDQDO\VLVDQGVRFLDOQHWZRUNDQDO\VLVKDYHDOUHDG\EHHQGHYHORSHGLQWKHÀHOGVRIPDFKLQH OHDUQLQJGDWDPLQLQJFRPSXWDWLRQDOOLQJXLVWLFVDQGVWDWLVWLFV7KHVHH[LVWLQJWRROVVKRXOGEHLQWHJUDWHGLQWRV\VWHPV ZKLFKFDQDGGUHVVWKHFKDOOHQJHVOLVWHGDERYH $GGLWLRQDOO\DQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\DSSURDFKLVQHHGHGWRXQGHUVWDQGDQGDGGUHVVWKHJDSVEHWZHHQWKHFXU -UHQWPHWKRGRORJLFDOVWDWHRIWKHDUWDQGZKDWPHWKRGVDUHDFWXDOO\QHHGHGWRIXOO\DGGUHVVWKHVHSUREOHPV)RU H[DPSOHZHPD\QHHGPRUHZRUNRQ´GHHSHUµ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‡ &DQ7ZLWWHUDQGRWKHURQOLQHGDWDVRXUFHVHJJDPLQJIRUXPVEHXVHGWRWUDFNWKHGHPRJUDSKLFDQG JHRJUDSKLFWUHQGVLQFRQVXPSWLRQRIYLROHQWPHGLDDQGFRUUHODWHWKHVHZLWKRWKHULQGLFDWRUVHJXVHRI YLROHQWODQJXDJHDFFRXQWLQJIRUGHPRJUDSKLFDQGRWKHUELDVHVLQWKHVHGDWDVRXUFHV" ‡ &DQQHZGDWDVRXUFHVHJRQOLQHGDWDVXFKDV7ZLWWHURUVSHFLDOL]HGV\VWHPVWRPRQLWRULGHQWLI\DQG

WUDFNJUDIÀWLEHLQWHJUDWHGZLWKFXUUHQWO\XVHGODZHQIRUFHPHQWDQGFDOOGDWDWRHQKDQFHWKHWLPHOL -QHVVDQGDFFXUDF\RISUHGLFWLRQ´ZKHUHµDQG´ZKHQµVWUHHWVKRRWLQJVDUHOLNHO\WRRFFXUDVZHOODVSUH -GLFWLQJ´ZKRµPD\EHWKHSHUSHWUDWRUVDQGYLFWLPV²HJZKLFKJDQJVDUHOLNHO\WREHLQYROYHG" ‡ &DQZHLGHQWLI\´ULVNIDFWRUVµIRULQGLYLGXDOPDVVVKRRWHUVZKLFKDUHERWKDSUHGLFWLYHDQGEFDQEH UHOLDEO\H[WUDFWHGIURPRQOLQHGDWDVXFKDVODWHQWXVHUDWWULEXWHVORFDWLRQDJHJHQGHUVRFLRHFRQRPLFV SRYHUW\IDPLO\GLYRUFHVLQJOHSDUHQWVDFFHVVWRJXQVH[SUHVVLRQVRIYLROHQWVHQWLPHQWVLQWHQWLRQVDQG SODQVVLJQVRIFHUWDLQPHQWDOLOOQHVVHVDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGYLROHQFHVRFLDOUHODWLRQVKLSVPDUJLQDOLW\VRFLDO UHMHFWLRQHQFRXUDJHPHQWE\SHHUJURXSVHWF"&DQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHGDWDEHLQWHJUDWHGZLWKRQOLQHGDWD IRUPRUHDFFXUDWHULVNSUHGLFWLRQV" ‡ &DQZHDFFXUDWHO\PRGHOERWKWKHSUREDELOLW\WKDWWKHVHULVNIDFWRUVDUHSUHVHQWJLYHQQRLV\XQVWUXFWXUHG RQOLQHGDWDDQGHVWLPDWHWKHRYHUDOOULVNRIYLROHQWDFWLRQJLYHQWKHVHIDFWRUV"*LYHQWKDWWKHVHDUHYHU\ UDUHHYHQWVDQGWKDWWKHGDWDDUHERWKOLPLWHGDQGQRLV\LWLVOLNHO\WKDWDQDSSURSULDWHUROHRIVXFKPRQL -WRULQJZRXOGEHWRHQDEOHVXESRSXODWLRQOHYHOHDUO\LQWHUYHQWLRQVDPRQJKLJKULVNJURXSVHJDYDLODELOLW\ RIPHQWDOKHDOWKFRXQVHOLQJ ‡ ,VWKHUHDUROHIRUPRQLWRULQJRQOLQHGDWDLQHDUO\ZDUQLQJDQGUDSLGUHVSRQVHWRPDVVVKRRWLQJVVLPLODUWR LWVUROHLQGLVDVWHUUHVSRQVHPRUHJHQHUDOO\WRLQIRUPODZHQIRUFHPHQWDQGSRWHQWLDOYLFWLPV" ‡ &DQZHXQGHUVWDQGDQGGHYHORSDIUDPHZRUNWRLQIRUPDQGHQFRXUDJHEHVWSUDFWLFHVRIRQOLQHLQWHUYHQ -WLRQVDWYDULRXVVWDJHVOHDGLQJXSWRDSRWHQWLDOPDVVVKRRWLQJWHDFKHUVSURYLGLQJRQOLQHSRVLWLYHLQÁX -HQFHVDYDLODELOLW\RIPHQWDOKHDOWKFRXQVHOLQJPLWLJDWLQJQHJDWLYHLPSDFWVRIVRFLDOUHMHFWLRQIDFLOLWDWLQJ UHSRUWLQJRISRWHQWLDOWKUHDWVDQGDWULVNLQGLYLGXDOVLQQHHGRIKHOS" ‡ &DQRQOLQHGDWDIURPRFFXUUHQFHVRI´F\EHUEXOO\LQJµEHFDSWXUHGDQGDQDO\]HGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHFDXVHV SURFHVVHVDQGLPSDFWVRIEXOO\LQJEHKDYLRUPRUHJHQHUDOO\":KDWDUHWKHVLPLODULWLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQRQOLQHDQGRIÁLQHEXOO\LQJEHKDYLRUHJRQOLQHDQRQ\PLW\DQGJUHDWHUVSUHDGRIHPEDUUDVVLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQDQGKRZGRWKHVHFKDQJHWKHLPSDFWVRQYLFWLPVRIEXOO\LQJ" ‡ :KDWDUHWKHULVNVRIPLQLQJRQOLQHGDWDWRLQGLYLGXDOSULYDF\DQGKRZFDQWKHVHULVNVEHPLWLJDWHG RUHOLPLQDWHG")RUH[DPSOHZKHQDUHDJJUHJDWHGFRXQWVDQGGHLGHQWLÀHGGDWDVXIÀFLHQWWRVWXG\ YLROHQWEHKDYLRU"2QWKHRWKHUKDQGXQGHUZKDWFRQGLWLRQVLVLWDFFHSWDEOHWRXVHRQOLQHGDWDWRLQWHU -YHQHDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHOZKLFKPD\QRWEHSRVVLEOHZLWKRXWLGHQWLI\LQJDWULVNLQGLYLGXDOV"+RZDUH WKHVHSULYDF\FKDOOHQJHVDIIHFWHGE\DGDWDIURPFKLOGUHQEWKHUROHRISDUHQWVDQGVFKRROVDQGF SXEOLFSHUFHSWLRQVHJLWPD\QRWEHFRQVLGHUHGDFFHSWDEOHWRPLQHFHUWDLQGDWDHYHQLIWKRVHGDWD DUHSXEOLFO\DYDLODEOH"

GUN POLICY AND YOUTH

0RUHWKDQSHUFHQWRIKRPLFLGHVLQYROYLQJYLFWLPVRUSHUSHWUDWRUVDJHVZHUHFRPPLWWHGZLWKÀUHDUPV DVZHUHYLUWXDOO\DOOPDVVNLOOLQJVFRPPLWWHGE\\RXWKIXOSHUSHWUDWRUV'XHWRGHYHORSPHQWDODQGVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQV PHQWLRQHGHOVHZKHUHLWLVFULWLFDOWRUHGXFHDFFHVVWRÀUHDUPVWR\RXWKHVSHFLDOO\WKRVHZLWKDKLVWRU\RIGHOLQTXHQ -F\FULPHLQYROYHPHQWDQGFHUWDLQPHQWDOLOOQHVVHV 7KHYDVWPDMRULW\RI\RXWKIXOKDQGJXQRIIHQGHUVDFTXLUHGWKHLUKDQGJXQVIURP´VWUHHWRUEODFNPDUNHWµVRXUFHV RUIURPIULHQGVRUIDPLO\%XWOLWWOHLVNQRZQDERXWKRZWKHXQGHUJURXQGJXQPDUNHWIXQFWLRQVIRU\RXWK:KHUHDV VRFLDOQHWZRUNVPD\EHNH\WRJXQDFTXLVLWLRQIRUXUEDQ\RXWKLQGLVDGYDQWDJHGQHLJKERUKRRGV\RXWKZKRXVH

FLHV:HQHHGVWXGLHVRIWKLVNLQGWRHVWDEOLVKFDXVDOLQIHUHQFHLQWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRISROLFLHV ‡ +RZGRIDFWRUVVXFKDVSULFHWUXVWLQJXQVHOOHUVJXQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVQHZXVHGDQGSHUFHLYHGULVNVRI SURVHFXWLRQDIIHFW\RXWKLOOHJDODFTXLVLWLRQE\\RXWKRIÀUHDUPV"+RZHDVLO\GR\RXWKDGDSWWRLQWHUGLFWLRQ VWUDWHJLHVHJDFFHVVVRXUFHVRXWVLGHRIVWDWHLIVWDWHJXQODZVUHGXFHJXQGLYHUVLRQV" ‡ 'R\RXWKVWHDOJXQVRSSRUWXQLVWLFDOO\RUWDUJHWKRPHVVWRUHVRULQGLYLGXDOVIRUJXQWKHIW"+RZLPSRUWDQW DUHVWROHQJXQVWRWKHXQGHUJURXQGJXQPDUNHWZKHUH\RXWKDFTXLUHJXQV"+RZFRPPRQO\GR\RXWKGLV -FDUGJXQVORVHWKHPWRWKHIWVHOOWKHPRUKDYHWKHPFRQÀVFDWHGE\SDUHQWVSROLFHRUVFKRRODXWKRULWLHV" ‡ +RZGR\RXWKDFFHVVDPPXQLWLRQ" ‡ +RZPXFKGRFRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVNQRZDERXWKRZ\RXWKDUHLOOHJDOO\DFTXLULQJJXQVVWDVKLQJDQGFDUU\ -LQJJXQV"+RZZLOOLQJZRXOGFRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVEHWRVKDUHWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQRQDQDQRQ\PRXVEDVLVZLWK SROLFH" ‡ 7RZKDWGHJUHHDQGXQGHUZKDWFRQGLWLRQVGR\RXWKVKDUHJXQV":KDWDUHWKHSHUFHLYHGQRUPVDQGULVNV DVVRFLDWHGZLWKJXQVKDULQJ" ‡ &DQYLROHQFHLQWHUUXSWLRQDQGFRQÁLFWPHGLDWLRQE\VWUHHWRXWUHDFKZRUNHUVXVHGWRFRPEDWXUEDQ\RXWK YLROHQFHLQFRUSRUDWHHIIRUWVWRGLVDUPRUNHHSJXQVIURP\RXWKHQJDJHGLQWKHFRQÁLFW" ‡ 6LPLODUO\FDQIULHQGVDWWHPSWWRNHHSJXQVIURP\RXWKSODQQLQJUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJV" ‡ :KDWLVWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUQHZWHFKQRORJLHVSHUVRQDOL]HGJXQVWRLQWHUUXSWYLROHQWEHKDYLRUDPRQJ\RXWK" +RZZLOOFRQVXPHUVUHDFWWRWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHVHQHZWHFKQRORJLHV" CONCLUSION ,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWWKHVRFLDOFRVWRIJXQYLROHQFHLVURXJKO\ELOOLRQD\HDU_{%H\RQGWKLVHQRUPRXVÀQDQ} -FLDOWROOZHUHFRJQL]HWKHGHYDVWDWLQJHPRWLRQDOLPSDFWRIORVWOLYHVQHLJKERUKRRGGHVWDELOL]DWLRQDQGIHDURI DWWDFN)RUFKLOGUHQLQSDUWLFXODUH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQFHHURGHVFRQÀGHQFHLQVRFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKHVRFLHW\WKH\ OLYHLQ7KHVHFRVWVDORQHMXVWLI\WKHGHGLFDWLRQRIRXUIHGHUDOUHVHDUFKDJHQFLHVDQGWKHVFLHQWLÀFFRPPXQLW\WR XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSUREOHPRI\RXWKYLROHQFH 5HVHDUFKHUVDUHUHDG\WRVSHDNWRWKHFRQFHUQVRIFLWL]HQVDQGSROLF\PDNHUVEXLOGLQJRQPDQ\GHFDGHVRI ZRUNWKDWLQIRUPVWKHVXJJHVWLRQVLQWKLVUHSRUW7RGRVRFROODERUDWLRQZLOOEHQHFHVVDU\DFURVVGLUHFWRUDWHVRIWKH 1DWLRQDO6FLHQFH)RXQGDWLRQVLQFHWKHEDVLFVFLHQWLÀ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{)LUHDUPLQMXULHVFRVWELOOLRQLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLQDQGWKHJRYHUQPHQW·VÀUHDUPLQMXU\ELOODORQHH[FHHGHGELOOLRQ7KHFRVWV} LQFOXGHPHGLFDODQGPHQWDOKHDOWKFDUHFRVWVFULPLQDOMXVWLFHFRVWVZDJHORVVHVDQGWKHYDOXHRISDLQVXIIHULQJDQGORVWTXDOLW\RIOLIH KWWSZZZFKLOGUHQVVDIHW\QHWZRUNRUJFRVWJXQYLROHQFH

APPENDIX A: SUMMARIES FROM SUBCOMMITTEE PARTICIPANTS Table of Contents

Adolescent Pecking Orders, Failed Joiners and the Logic of Signaling Behavior Among Rampage Shoot Shooters, .DWKHULQH61HZPDQ3K''HDQRI$UWVDQG6FLHQFHV3URIHVVRURI6RFLRORJ\-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\S Media Violence and Youth Violence%UDG-%XVKPDQ3K'3URIHVVRURI&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG3V\FKRORJ\

0DUJDUHW+DOODQG5REHUW5DQGDO5LQHKDUW&KDLURI0DVV&RPPXQLFDWLRQ7KH2KLR6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\DQG3URIHVVRU RI&RPPXQLFDWLRQ6FLHQFH988QLYHUVLW\$PVWHUGDPWKH1HWKHUODQGVS

<RXWK9LROHQFH,QÁXHQFHVRI([SRVXUHWR9LROHQW0HGLD&RQWHQW6DQGUD/&DOYHUW3K'3URIHVVRURI 3V\FKRORJ\DQG'LUHFWRURIWKH&KLOGUHQ·V'LJLWDO0HGLD&HQWHU*HRUJHWRZQ8QLYHUVLW\S

Rejection and Lethal Violence, *HUDOGLQH'RZQH\3K'3URIHVVRURI3V\FKRORJ\DQG'HDQRI6RFLDO6FLHQFHV,

&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\S

(IIHFWVRI2QOLQH,QÁXHQFHVRQ([SHULHQFHVRI5HMHFWLRQDQG5LVNVIRU6XLFLGHDQG+RPLFLGH'DQ5RPHU3K'

'LUHFWRU$GROHVFHQW&RPPXQLFDWLRQ,QVWLWXWH$QQHQEHUJ3XEOLF3ROLF\&HQWHU8QLYHUVLW\RI3HQQV\OYDQLDS A Brief Look at Sociological Perspectives on Peer Hierarchies, Organizational Conditions in Schools, and Youth 9LROHQFHDQG&RQÁLFW&DOYLQ0RUULOO3K'3URIHVVRURI/DZDQG6RFLRORJ\DQG'LUHFWRU&HQWHUIRUWKH6WXG\RI /DZDQG6RFLHW\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD%HUNHOH\S

Some Key Facts About Criminal Violence Pertinent to the Relation of Self-Control to Violence0LFKDHO *RWWIUHGVRQ3K'3UHVLGHQWDQG3URIHVVRURI6RFLRORJ\8QLYHUVLW\RI2UHJRQS

Family Roles in Youth Violence, $QQ60DVWHQ3K',UYLQJ%+DUULV3URIHVVRURI&KLOG'HYHORSPHQW,QVWLWXWHRI &KLOG'HYHORSPHQW8QLYHUVLW\RI0LQQHVRWDS

Understanding Factors of Youth Violence Through the Study of Cyberbullying, 0DUN'UHG]H3K'$VVLVWDQW 5HVHDUFK3URIHVVRURI&RPSXWHU6FLHQFH-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\S

Data Mining for Prediction of Youth Violence: Methods, Challenges, Open Questions, 'DQLHO%1HLOO3K'

$VVRFLDWH3URIHVVRURI,QIRUPDWLRQ6\VWHPV'LUHFWRU(YHQWDQG3DWWHUQ'HWHFWLRQ/DERUDWRU\+-+HLQ],,,&ROOHJH &DUQHJLH0HOORQ8QLYHUVLW\S

Patterns of Access to Guns Among Adolescents/Young Adults, Recent Advances in Interdiction, Public Opinion Toward Assault Weapons, 'DQLHO::HEVWHU6F'03+3URIHVVRUDQG'LUHFWRU-RKQV+RSNLQV&HQWHUIRU*XQ

3ROLF\DQG5HVHDUFKS

An Evolutionary Perspective on Youth Violence, 1LQD*-DEORQVNL3K''LVWLQJXLVKHG3URIHVVRURI $QWKURSRORJ\3HQQV\OYDQLD6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\S

Adolescent Pecking Orders, Failed Joiners and the Logic of Signaling Behavior Among Rampage Shoot Shooters .DWKHULQH61HZPDQ3K''HDQRI$UWVDQG6FLHQFHV3URIHVVRURI6RFLRORJ\-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\ 5DPSDJHVKRRWLQJVLQVFKRROVGLIIHULQGUDPDWLFZD\VIURPZKDWZHPLJKWFDOO´VWUHHWYLROHQFHµFRPPRQO\ DVVRFLDWHGZLWKXUEDQDUHD7KH\W\SLFDOO\RFFXULQVWDEOHFORVHNQLWORZFULPHDQGYHU\VPDOOUXUDOWRZQVWKH GRPLQDQWSDWWHUQRUH[XUEVWKHPLQRULW\SDWWHUQ7KHVKRRWHUJHQHUDOO\LVDZKLWHDGROHVFHQWER\JHQHUDOO\ZLWK QRUHFRUGHGKLVWRU\RIGLVFLSOLQDU\SUREOHPV$OWKRXJKWKHVPDOOVDPSOHVL]HPDNHVLWGLIÀFXOWWRJHQHUDOL]HLWLV QRWXQFRPPRQWRÀQGWKDWWKHVKRRWHULVDWWKHKLJKHQGRIWKHLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHPHQWVSHFWUXP EXWODFNLQJLQWKHEDGJHVRIDWKOHWLFDELOLW\WKDWDUHKLJKO\YDOXHGDPRQJKLVSHHUV8UEDQ´VWUHHWVKRRWHUVµE\ FRQWUDVWDUHIRXQGLQGHQVHO\SRSXODWHGDUHDVZLWKKLJKFULPHOHYHOVORZOHYHOVRI´VRFLDOHIÀFDF\µDQGDUHUDUHO\ KLJKDFDGHPLFSHUIRUPHUV 7KHUDPSDJHVKRRWHULQVFKRROVSDUWLFXODUO\WKHFODVVLFFDVHVRIER\VZKRDUHSUHVHQWRUSDVWPHPEHUV RIWKHVFKRROFRPPXQLW\VKDUHVRFLRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFV7KRXJKFRPPRQO\SUHVXSSRVHGWREHORQHUVZKR DFWRXWRIDQJHUHWKQRJUDSKLFDQGDUFKLYDOUHVHDUFKRQWKHVHYHU\UDUHHYHQWVLQGLFDWHVWKHWUXWKLVRWKHUZLVH 7\SLFDOO\UDPSDJHVKRRWHUVLQVFKRROVDUHDGROHVFHQWER\VZKRKDYHDORQJKLVWRU\RIWU\LQJWRMRLQSHHU JURXSVEXWÀ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ÀQGIULJKWHQLQJ EXWVXIÀFLHQWDZDUHQHVVRIWKHVWLJPDWKDWIROORZVWKH\RIWHQJRHQWLUHO\XQGLDJQRVHGDQGXQWUHDWHG7KRVHZKR VXUYLYHLQWRWKHLUWZHQWLHVRIWHQGHYHORSIXOOEORZQPHQWDOGLVRUGHUVWKDWDUHLPPHGLDWHO\UHFRJQL]HGEXWDWWKH DJHVRIWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVDUHRIWHQMXVWEHJLQQLQJEXWOHDGWKHVKRRWHUWRPDJQLI\VOLJKWVDQGIHHOVHYHUHO\ GHSUHVVHGE\UHMHFWLRQWKDWWURXEOHVPLOOLRQVRIDGROHVFHQWV 7KHEHKDYLRUDOUHSHUWRLUHRIWKHVRFLDOO\PDUJLQDOER\LQFOXGHVDWWHQWLRQJHWWLQJEHKDYLRUUDQJLQJIURP ´FORZQLQJDURXQGµWRVZDJJHULQJRUDJJUHVVLYHVHOISURPRWLRQ2YHUWLPHWKHZRXOGEHVKRRWHUJDLQVD UHSXWDWLRQIRUFRQVWDQWO\VD\LQJ´FUD]\WKLQJVµEXWLVLJQRUHGE\SHHUV,QVKRUWEHKDYLRUGHVLJQHGWRJHW DWWHQWLRQHQGVXSKDUYHVWLQJUHMHFWLRQEXWDOVRWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDVRFLDOSHUVRQDDVVRPHRQHZKREURDGFDVWV EL]DUUHFRPPHQWDU\7KHGD\WKLVPDUJLQDOFKDUDFWHUODQGVRQWKHQRZVDGO\IDPLOLDUVFULSWRIVKRRWLQJSHRSOH WKHVRFLDOODQGVFDSHFKDQJHV1RZSHHUVareSD\LQJDWWHQWLRQ:KDWHYHUDPELYDOHQFHVKRRWHUVIHHODERXWWKH FRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKHLUDFWLRQVWKH\DUHQRZFRPPLWWHGWRWKHPEHFDXVHWRGRRWKHUZLVHLVWRULVNDFDWDVWURSKLF VRFLDOIDLOXUHDQGSXEOLFKXPLOLDWLRQ ,IVRPXFKEURDGFDVWLQJLVJRLQJRQDWWKHJDWHZD\WRSHHUJURXSVZK\GRQ·WNLGVFRPHIRUZDUGZLWKWKH LQIRUPDWLRQWKDWVRPHWKLQJWHUULEOHLVJRLQJWRKDSSHQ")LUVWWKH\RIWHQÀ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·WEHOLHYHZKDWWKH\KDYHWRVD\ZLOOEHWDNHQVHULRXVO\RUKDQGOHGFRQÀGHQWLDOO\DQGFDQJLYHPDQ\H[DPSOHV LQZKLFKQHLWKHUZDVWKHFDVH$FFRUGLQJO\WKHEHVW²DQGSRVVLEO\WKHRQO\²FUHGLEOHVRXUFHRILQIRUPDWLRQDERXW ZKDWLVWRFRPHLVORVW

What We Need to Know

%HFDXVHUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJVDUHLQWLPDWHO\FRQQHFWHGWRDGROHVFHQWSHFNLQJRUGHUVWKHH[SHULHQFHRI IULFWLRQDOVRFLDOUHODWLRQVDQGWKHFRQVHTXHQWORJLFRIEURDGFDVWLQJZDUQLQJVLWLVKHUHWKDWZHQHHGWRLQWHUYHQH DQGPDNHLWPRUHOLNHO\WKDWSHHUVZLOOFRPHIRUZDUGZLWKZKDWWKH\NQRZDQGWKDWDGXOWVZLOOUHDFWSURPSWO\ EXWSULYDWHO\7KHLQWHUGLFWLRQRIVLJQDOLQJLVHVVHQWLDO:KDWGRZHQHHGWRXQGHUVWDQGEHWWHUWRPDNHWKLVD PRUHFRPPRQRXWFRPH"

‡ The role of social media in signaling behavior6LQFHWKHODWHVDQGWKHHDUO\VVRFLDOPHGLD )DFHERRN7ZLWWHUHWFKDVEHFRPHDSULPDU\PHWKRGRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQDPRQJDGROHVFHQWSHHUV:KLOH IDFHWRIDFHEHKDYLRUVWLOOFRXQWVHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHFRQWDLQHGZRUOGRIKLJKVFKRROLQFUHDVLQJO\LWLVYLD WKH,QWHUQHWWKDWZHVHHWKHLQWHQVLÀFDWLRQRIWKHNLQGVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQEXOO\LQJKLQWLQJZDUQLQJHWF WKDWFRXQWLQWKHOHDGXSWRUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJV:HQHHGVRFLRORJLFDODQGDQWKURSRORJLFDOVWXGLHVRI VRFLDOPHGLDDQGLWVUROHLQDGROHVFHQWVRFLDOOLIHOLQJXLVWLFVWXGLHVRIWKLVNLQGRIFRPPXQLFDWLYHUHSHUWRLUH ZKDWDUHLWVFRQYHQWLRQVDPSOLÀFDWLRQVHWFDQGLQWHUSUHWLYHVWXGLHVWKDWZLOOWHOOXVVRPHWKLQJDERXWKRZ PHDQLQJLVGUDZQIURPDQGSURMHFWHGWKURXJKVRFLDOPHGLD

‡ 6WXGLHVRIinstitutional trust. :HKDYHLQVWDQFHVRI´IRLOHGSORWVµLQZKLFK\RXQJSHRSOH´EHWUD\µWKHLU FRQÀGDQWVDQGFRPHIRUZDUGWRDGXOWVDVZHOODVFRPSOHWHGVKRRWLQJVLQZKLFKWKRVHZKRPLJKWKDYHEHHQ DEOHWRVWRSLWE\ZDUQLQJDXWKRULWLHVGLGQRWGRVR:KDWPDNHVWKHGLIIHUHQFH"$UHWKHUHLQVWLWXWLRQDO SUDFWLFHVWKDWSURPRWHWUXVW"

‡ :HKDYHDIDLUDPRXQWRIUHVHDUFKRQDGROHVFHQWVRFLDOJURXSVEXWQRWDVPXFKDVZHVKRXOGKDYHRQ WKHintersection betweenadolescents and adults,IZHZDQWWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZ\RXQJSHRSOHYLHZWKH DGXOWVDURXQGWKHPZK\WKH\WUXVWWKHPRUGRQ·WZLWKVRFLDOO\FRPSURPLVLQJLQIRUPDWLRQZHQHHGDEHWWHU EDVHOLQHWKDQWKHRQHZHKDYH7KLVGRPDLQIDOOVLQEHWZHHQWKHFUDFNVRIVWXGLHVRIDGROHVFHQWEHKDYLRU RUDGXOWVRFLDOZRUOGV

‡ The relationship between institutional structure and the detection of deviant behavior3LFNLQJXS SDWWHUQVRIEHKDYLRUWKDWVKRXOGOHDGWRJUHDWHUDWWHQWLRQRUWUHDWPHQWLVPRUHGLIÀFXOWLQLQVWLWXWLRQVZKHUH WKHFDSDFLW\RIWHDFKHUVWRSXWWRJHWKHUDFRPSUHKHQVLYHYLHZRIDVWXGHQWLVKDPSHUHGE\WKHVKRUWWLPH LQWKHGD\ZKHQWKH\DUHWRJHWKHUOLPLWHGLQWHULQVWUXFWRUFRPPXQLFDWLRQWKHFRPPLWPHQWWR´FOHDQVODWHVµ WRDYRLGSUHMXGLFLQJQH[W\HDU·VWHDFKHUVZLWKWKLV\HDU·VEDGEHKDYLRU$UHWKHUHEHWWHUDQGZRUVHZD\V WRFRQVROLGDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWVWXGHQWEHKDYLRUWKDWZLOOPDNHSDWWHUQVPRUHYLVLEOH"

‡ Perceptions of masculinity<RXQJPHQDUHLQDSDUWLFXODUO\VHQVLWLYHSDUWRIWKHOLIHF\FOHLQZKLFKWKHLU VHQVHRIPDVFXOLQLW\LVGHYHORSLQJDJDLQVWSRSXODUPHGLDWKDWJORULÀHVYLROHQFHDQGGRPLQDWLRQ ,WLVRIWHQWKHOHDVWSK\VLFDOO\GHYHORSHG\RXQJER\VZKRORVHRXWLQSHFNLQJRUGHUVWKDWYDOXHKHLJKW PDVFXOLQLW\DWKOHWLFSURZHVVDQGPDWXUHORRNV<HWWKHIDWKHUVWHDFKHUVFRXQVHORUVDQGRWKHUPHQLQ WKHUHDOZRUOGDURXQGWKHPUDUHO\ORRNOLNH5DPERDQGDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\VNLOOHGDWKOHWHV,WLVWKLVJDS EHWZHHQWKHFXOWXUDOLFRQVRIPDVFXOLQLW\DQGWKHDFWXDOPDOHPRGHOVEHIRUHWKHPZKRVHPHDQLQJDQGUROH LQDGROHVFHQWSHFNLQJRUGHUVZHQHHGWRXQGHUVWDQG7KLVLVWKHURRWRIWKHVFKRROVKRRWHU·VPDUJLQDOLW\ DQGLWLVZKDWLVGULYLQJKLPWRWDNHDFWLRQVWKDWVHHPFORVHUWRWKHSRSXODUFXOWXUHPRGHO

Media Violence and Youth Violence

%UDG-%XVKPDQ3K'3URIHVVRURI&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG3V\FKRORJ\0DUJDUHW+DOODQG5REHUW5DQGDO 5LQHKDUW&KDLURI0DVV&RPPXQLFDWLRQ7KH2KLR6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\ 3URIHVVRURI&RPPXQLFDWLRQ6FLHQFH98

8QLYHUVLW\$PVWHUGDPWKH1HWKHUODQGV :KHQYLROHQWVKRRWLQJVSUHHVRFFXUSHRSOHZDQWWRLGHQWLI\´WKHµFDXVH9LROHQWEHKDYLRULVYHU\FRPSOH[DQG LVFDXVHGE\PXOWLSOHULVNIDFWRUVRIWHQDFWLQJWRJHWKHU2QHSRVVLEOHULVNIDFWRULVH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQWPHGLDHJ 79SURJUDPVÀOPVYLGHRJDPHV2IFRXUVHLWLVLPSRVVLEOHWRNQRZZKHWKHUH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQWPHGLDFDXVHV VKRRWLQJVSUHHVEHFDXVHUHVHDUFKHUVFDQ·WXVHJXQVLQWKHLUODERUDWRU\H[SHULPHQWV+RZHYHULQRQHH[SHULPHQWDO VWXG\1_{ZHPHDVXUHGZKDWFRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHGDVVDXOWLYHEHKDYLRU'XWFKER\VM} DJH SOD\HGDYLROHQWRU QRQYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHIRUPLQXWHVDQGUDWHGKRZPXFKWKH\LGHQWLÀHGZLWKWKHJDPHFKDUDFWHUHJ´,ZLVK ,ZHUHDFKDUDFWHUVXFKDVWKHRQHLQWKHJDPHµ$IWHUZDUGVWKH\FRPSHWHGRQDWDVNZLWKDQRWKHU´ER\µZKHUH WKHZLQQHUFRXOGEODVWWKHORVHUZLWKORXGQRLVHWKURXJKKHDGSKRQHV7KH\ZHUHWROGWKDWWKHKLJKHVWQRLVHOHYHOV LHRUFRXOGFDXVH´SHUPDQHQWKHDULQJGDPDJHµ%R\VZKRSOD\HGDYLROHQWJDPHDQGLGHQWLÀHGZLWK WKHYLROHQWFKDUDFWHULQWKDWJDPHGLGLQIDFWDGPLQLVWHUSRWHQWLDOO\GDPDJLQJQRLVHEODVWV'XULQJWKHGHEULHÀQJ RQHER\VDLG´,EODVWHGKLPZLWKOHYHOQRLVHEHFDXVHKHGHVHUYHGLW,NQRZKHFDQJHWKHDULQJGDPDJHEXW ,GRQ·WFDUHµ$QRWKHUER\VDLGKHOLNHGWKHYLROHQWJDPH´EHFDXVHLQWKLVJDPH\RXFDQNLOOSHRSOHDQGVKRRW SHRSOHDQG,ZDQWWRGRWKDWWRRµ$WKLUGER\VDLG´,OLNH*UDQG7KHIW$XWRDORWEHFDXVH\RXFDQVKRRWDW SHRSOHDQGGULYHIDVWLQFDUV:KHQ,DPROGHU,FDQGRVXFKWKLQJVWRR,ZRXOGORYHWRGRDOOWKHVHWKLQJVULJKW QRZµ $FRPSUHKHQVLYHPHWDDQDO\VLVRIYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHHIIHFWV_{ZKLFKLQFOXGHGHIIHFWVIURPVWXGLHV} LQYROYLQJSDUWLFLSDQWVIURPDOORYHUWKHZRUOGIRXQGWKDWYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHVLQFUHDVHGDJJUHVVLYH WKRXJKWVDQJU\IHHOLQJVSK\VLRORJLFDODURXVDODQGDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU9LROHQWJDPHVDOVRGHFUHDVHGSURVRFLDO EHKDYLRUHJKHOSLQJFRRSHUDWLRQDQGIHHOLQJVRIHPSDWK\IRURWKHUV7KHHIIHFWVRFFXUUHGIRUPDOHVDQG IHPDOHVRIDOODJHVUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHFRXQWU\WKH\OLYHLQ6LPLODUHIIHFWVKDYHEHHQIRXQGIRUDOOW\SHVRIYLROHQW PHGLDHJ79ÀOPPXVLFDQGPXVLFYLGHRVFRPLFERRNV_{$PHWDDQDO\VLVRIVWXGLHVLQYROYLQJ} SDUWLFLSDQWVIRXQGWKDWYLROHQWPHGLDH[SRVXUHLVDOVRVLJQLÀFDQWO\OLQNHGWRYLROHQWEHKDYLRUHJSXQFKLQJ EHDWLQJFKRNLQJRWKHUVDOWKRXJKWKHHIIHFWVDUHVPDOOHUWKDQIRUDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU7KLVPDNHVVHQVHEHFDXVH YLROHQWFULPLQDOEHKDYLRULVUDUHUDQGPRUHGLIÀFXOWWRSUHGLFWWKDQOHVVVHYHUHDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU$VRQH H[DPSOHDUHFHQW&'&IXQGHGFURVVVHFWLRQDOVWXG\_{LQYROYLQJLQFDUFHUDWHGGHOLQTXHQWVDQGDFRPSDULVRQJURXS} RIKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVSDUHQWVJXDUGLDQVDQGWHDFKHUVVWDIIIRXQGWKDWFRQVXPSWLRQRIYLROHQWPHGLDZDV UHODWHGWRVHULRXVYLROHQWEHKDYLRUVXFKDVXVLQJDZHDSRQDJDLQVWDQRWKHUFKLOG ,WLVZHOONQRZQWKDWSHRSOHZKRFRQVXPHDORWRIYLROHQWPHGLDFRPHWRYLHZWKHZRUOGDVDKRVWLOHSODFH 3HRSOHZKRFRQVXPHDORWRIYLROHQWPHGLDDOVRWKLQNYLROHQFHLV´QRUPDOµEHKDYLRUEHFDXVHPHGLDFKDUDFWHUV RIWHQXVHYLROHQFHWRVROYHWKHLUSUREOHPV ,WLVXVHIXOWRFRQVLGHUDFKLOG·VOLIHDVÀOOHGZLWKDVXFFHVVLRQRIVRFLDOSUREOHPVWKDWPXVWEHVROYHG7KHFKLOG XVHVDVHWRISURJUDPVFDOOHGscriptsIRUVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPV,QWKHDWHUVFULSWVWHOODFWRUVZKDWWRGRDQGVD\ ,QPHPRU\VFULSWVGHÀQHVLWXDWLRQVDQGJXLGHEHKDYLRU7KHSHUVRQÀ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·W H[SHULHQFHQHJDWLYHHPRWLRQVRUZKRVHHVXFKDFWVDVQRUPDWLYHRUIRUZKRPSHUIRUPLQJVXFKDQDFWPLJKWEH SHUFHLYHGDVDFKLHYLQJDVHQVHRIDFFRPSOLVKPHQWDQG´OHDYLQJWKHLUPDUNRQWKHZRUOGµ&RQVLGHUIRUH[DPSOH VWDWHPHQWVPDGHE\WKHWZRNLOOHUVDW&ROXPELQH+LJK6FKRRO'\ODQ.OHEROGVDLG´'LUHFWRUVZLOOEHÀJKWLQJRYHU WKLVVWRU\µ(ULF+DUULVDGGHG´7DUHQWLQR6SLHOEHUJµ 7KHUHLVDOVRDGRZQZDUGVSLUDO_{EHWZHHQDJJUHVVLRQUHMHFWLRQDQGFRQVXPSWLRQRIYLROHQWPHGLD$JJUHVVLYH} \RXWKWHQGWREHUHMHFWHGE\WKHLUSHHUV_{DQGWKHUHIRUHVSHQGWKHLUWLPHFRQVXPLQJPHGLDRIWHQYLROHQWPHGLD} DQGDVVRFLDWLQJZLWKRWKHUDJJUHVVLYH\RXWKZKRKDYHDOVREHHQUHMHFWHGE\RWKHUVZKLFKLQWXUQPDNHVWKHP HYHQPRUHDJJUHVVLYH

$JJUHVVLYH\RXWKRIWHQFRQVXPHYLROHQWPHGLDEHFDXVHLWDOORZVWKHPWRMXVWLI\WKHLURZQEHKDYLRUDVEHLQJ QRUPDO_{$FKLOG·VRZQDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRUQRUPDOO\VKRXOGHOLFLWJXLOWEXWWKLVJXLOWLVUHOLHYHGLIWKHFKLOGZKR} KDVEHKDYHGDJJUHVVLYHO\FRQVXPHVYLROHQWPHGLD7KHUHGXFWLRQLQJXLOWWKDWFRQVXPLQJYLROHQFHSURYLGHVPDNHV FRQWLQXHGDJJUHVVLYHDQGYLROHQWEHKDYLRUE\WKDWFKLOGHYHQPRUHOLNHO\ 9LROHQWPHGLDRIWHQFRQWDLQJXQVDQGUHVHDUFKKDVVKRZQWKDWWKHPHUHSUHVHQFHRIJXQVHYHQDWDVXEOLPLQDO OHYHOFDQLQFUHDVHDJJUHVVLRQ11_{,QVXPPDU\YLROHQWEHKDYLRULVYHU\FRPSOH[DQGLVFDXVHGE\PXOWLSOHULVNIDFWRUV} RIWHQDFWLQJWRJHWKHU2QHSRVVLEOHULVNIDFWRULVH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQWPHGLDHJ79SURJUDPVÀOPVYLGHRJDPHV $OWKRXJKLWLVQRWWKHRQO\ULVNIDFWRURUWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWULVNIDFWRULWLVRQHRIWKHHDVLHVWULVNIDFWRUVWRFKDQJH 2WKHUULVNIDFWRUVHJEHLQJPDOHVRFLDOUHMHFWLRQDUHGLIÀFXOWRULPSRVVLEOHWRFKDQJH3DUHQWVFDQKRZHYHU UHVWULFWWKHDPRXQWRIYLROHQWPHGLDWKHLUFKLOGUHQFRQVXPH 3DUHQWVDUHWKHNH\EXWSURGXFHUVRIYLROHQWPHGLDFDQKHOSSDUHQWVRXW)RUH[DPSOHWKHUHFRXOGEHD XQLYHUVDOUDWLQJV\VWHPRQDOOPHGLD79ÀOPVYLGHRJDPHVZLWKXQLYHUVDOV\PEROVWKDWDUHHDV\IRUSDUHQWVWR XQGHUVWDQG7KH3(*,3DQ(XURSHDQ*DPH,QIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPIRUH[DPSOHKDVÀYHDJHEDVHGUDWLQJV DQGVL[ZHOOUHFRJQL]HGV\PEROVIRUSRWHQWLDOO\REMHFWLRQDEOHPDWHULDOYLROHQFHVH[GUXJV GLVFULPLQDWLRQIHDUJDPEOLQJ7KHFXUUHQWUDWLQJV\VWHPLVOLNHDOSKDEHWVRXSDQGLVFRQIXVLQJWRSDUHQWVHJ 5IRUPRYLHV790$IRU79)9IRUIDQWDV\YLROHQFHLQYLGHRJDPHV_{$QRWKHUSRVVLEOHLGHDLVWRSXWZDUQLQJ} ODEHOVRQYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHV,QWKH86VXUJHRQJHQHUDOLVVXHGDZDUQLQJRQWREDFFRDQGWKDWZDUQLQJ DSSHDUVRQDOOWREDFFRSURGXFWV,QWKH86VXUJHRQJHQHUDOLVVXHGDZDUQLQJIRUYLROHQW79SURJUDPV´,WLV FOHDUWRPHWKDWWKHFDXVDOUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWHOHYLVHGYLROHQFHDQGDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRULVVXIÀFLHQWWRZDUUDQW DSSURSULDWHDQGLPPHGLDWHUHPHGLDODFWLRQ«7KHUHFRPHVDWLPHZKHQWKHGDWDDUHVXIÀFLHQWWRMXVWLI\DFWLRQ 7KDWWLPHKDVFRPHµ_{:DUQLQJODEHOVDUHOLNHDGRXEOHHGJHGVZRUG2QWKHRQHKDQGSDUHQWVÀQGZDUQLQJ} ODEHOVLQIRUPDWLYH_{2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKH\DUHOLNHPDJQHWVWRFKLOGUHQ} (GXFDWLQJSDUHQWVDERXWWKHUHVHDUFKRQYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHVLVDOVRLPSRUWDQW7KLVLVDQXSKLOOEDWWOHKRZHYHU EHFDXVHWKHVRXUFHRIQHZVDQGLQIRUPDWLRQIRUSDUHQWVLVWKHPDVVPHGLDDQGWKHPDVVPHGLDDUHUHOXFWDQWWR UHSRUWWKDWYLROHQWPHGLDDUHKDUPIXO $OPRVWDOORIWKHUHVHDUFKRQYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHVKDVEHHQFRQGXFWHGXVLQJVLQJOHSOD\HUYLGHRJDPHV %XWSOD\HUVRIWHQSOD\ZLWKRWKHUV,QDSDLURIVWXGLHVFRQGXFWHGLQRXUODE_{SDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHWHVWHGLQSDLUV}

ZLWKDQRVWHQVLEOHSDUWQHURIWKHVDPHVH[DFWXDOO\DFRQIHGHUDWH3DUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHcooperative condition

ZHUHLQVWUXFWHGWRZRUNWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHLUSDUWQHUWRJHWDVPDQ\SRLQWVDVSRVVLEOHE\NLOOLQJHQHPLHVDQG VWD\LQJDOLYH3DUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHcompetitive conditionZHUHLQVWUXFWHGWRWU\DQGNLOOWKHLUSDUWQHUPRUHWLPHVWKDQ WKHLUSDUWQHUNLOOHGWKHP3DUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHcontrol conditionSOD\HGWKHJDPHLQWKHVLQJOHSOD\HUPRGH$IWHU JDPHSOD\SDUWLFLSDQWVFRPSHWHGZLWKWKHLURVWHQVLEOHSDUWQHURQDWDVNLQZKLFKWKHZLQQHUFRXOGEODVWWKHORVHU ZLWKORXGXQSOHDVDQWQRLVHWKURXJKKHDGSKRQHV,QERWKVWXGLHVSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHFRRSHUDWLYHFRQGLWLRQZHUHOHVV DJJUHVVLYHWKDQSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHRWKHUFRQGLWLRQV0RUHUHVHDUFKRQPXOWLSOD\HUJDPHVLVFOHDUO\QHHGHG 0RUHUHVHDUFKLVDOVRQHHGHGRQZKDWW\SHVRILQGLYLGXDOVDUHPRVWVWURQJO\DIIHFWHGE\YLROHQWYLGHRJDPHV 0DQ\RIWKHVSUHHVKRRWHUVKDYHEHHQGHVFULEHGDV´VRFLDORXWFDVWVµ$UHVXFKLQGLYLGXDOVPRUHOLNHO\WREHKDYH DJJUHVVLYHO\DIWHUSOD\LQJDYLROHQWJDPH"$UHVXFKLQGLYLGXDOVPRUHOLNHO\WRSOD\YLROHQWJDPHVDORQH" 5HVHDUFKVKRXOGWHVWZKHWKHUDJJUHVVLRQLVHQKDQFHGE\SOD\LQJLQDÀUVWSHUVRQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKLUGSHUVRQ PRGHDQGE\ZKHWKHUWKHHQHPLHVDUHUHDOLVWLFKXPDQVYHUVXVDOLHQV6RPHUHVHDUFKKDVVKRZQWKDWWKHJRULHUWKH YLGHRJDPHWKHODUJHUWKHHIIHFWV_{EXWPRUHLVQHHGHG}

<RXWK9LROHQFH,QÁXHQFHVRI([SRVXUHWR9LROHQW0HGLD&RQWHQW 6DQGUD/&DOYHUW3K'3URIHVVRURI3V\FKRORJ\DQG'LUHFWRURIWKH&KLOGUHQ·V'LJLWDO0HGLD&HQWHU *HRUJHWRZQ8QLYHUVLW\ <RXWKKDYHFRQVLGHUDEOHDFFHVVWRYLROHQWPHGLDPHVVDJHVDVGRFXPHQWHGE\FRQWHQWDQDO\VHVRIWHOHYLVLRQ DQGYLGHRJDPHFRQWHQW%HWZHHQSHUFHQWRI86WHOHYLVLRQSURJUDPVFRQWDLQHGYLROHQWFRQWHQW _{ZLWKKHDYLHUFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQFKLOGUHQ·VSHUFHQWWKDQLQQRQFKLOGUHQ·VSURJUDPVSHUFHQW6LPLODUO\} YLROHQWFRQWHQWZDVIRXQGLQSHUFHQWRIDVDPSOHRI´7HHQµUDWHGYLGHRJDPHVWKDWHQWHUHGWKHPDUNHWSODFHLQ DQGLQSHUFHQWRIYLGHRJDPHVZLWKDQ´(YHU\RQHµUDWLQJWKDWHQWHUHGWKHPDUNHWSODFHEHWZHHQ DQG 7KHRUHWLFDO3UHGLFWLRQV$ERXWWKH(IIHFWVRI<RXWK([SRVXUHWR9LROHQW&RQWHQW

<RXWKZKRDUHH[SRVHGWRYLROHQWFRQWHQWFDQEHLPSDFWHGLQPXOWLSOHZD\V,Qarousal theoryYLROHQWFRQWHQW FDQFDXVHSK\VLRORJLFDOUHVSRQVHVWRWKHFRQWHQWVXFKDVLQFUHDVHVLQKHDUWUDWH:LWKKHDY\H[SRVXUHKDELWXDWLRQ WRWKHFRQWHQWRFFXUVZLWKGHVHQVLWL]DWLRQWRYLROHQFHWDNLQJSODFH_{7KHQKHDYLHUGRVHVRIH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQW}

FRQWHQWPXVWRFFXUWRREWDLQWKHLQLWLDOOHYHORISK\VLRORJLFDOUHVSRQVH+DELWXDWLRQWRWKHSOLJKWVRIRWKHUVFDQDOVR RFFXUUHVXOWLQJLQDODFNRIHPSDWK\IRUSHRSOHLQUHDOOLIHFRQWH[WV7KHGLUHFWLRQLQZKLFKWKHDURXVDOLVUHOHDVHG WKDWKDVDFFUXHGDIWHUH[SRVXUHWRDJJUHVVLYHFRQWHQWLVEDVHGRQHQYLURQPHQWDOFXHVVRWKHRUHWLFDOO\\RXWKFRXOG GHPRQVWUDWHDJJUHVVLYHRUSURVRFLDOEHKDYLRU_{,Qsocial cognitive theoryFKLOGUHQDQG\RXWKDUHPRUHOLNHO\}

WRLPLWDWHDJJUHVVLRQDIWHUREVHUYLQJPHGLDPRGHOVFRPPLWDFWVRIDJJUHVVLRQWKDWDUHHLWKHUUHZDUGHGRUWKDW KDYHQRFRQVHTXHQFHVEXWDJJUHVVLYHDFWVWKDWDUHSXQLVKHGOHDGWRGHFUHDVHGOHYHOVRIDJJUHVVLRQ_7KHUHIRUH LWLVQRWDEOHWKDWKHURHVDUHRIWHQUHZDUGHGIRUPRUDOO\MXVWLÀHGDJJUHVVLYHFRQGXFW_{,QJDPLQJ\RXWKEHFRPH} WKHFKDUDFWHUFRPPLWWLQJWKHDFWVRIDJJUHVVLRQUDWKHUWKDQREVHUYLQJLWZKLFKPHDQVWKDW\RXWKGLUHFWO\HQFRGH DJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRUHJWKH\NQRZKRZLWIHHOVWRSXOODWULJJHUWRVKRRWRWKHUV_{,QVRFLDOFRJQLWLYHWKHRU\} WKHEHKDYLRUVWKDW\RXWKDUHWDXJKWWRLQKLELWVXFKDVKDUPLQJRWKHUVFDQDOVREHGLVLQKLELWHGWKURXJKRQJRLQJ H[SRVXUHWRDJJUHVVLYHPHGLDH[SHULHQFHV

,Qschema theoryLQZKLFK\RXWKFUHDWHFRJQLWLYHVWUXFWXUHVWKDWDQWLFLSDWHHYHQWVH[SRVXUHWRDJJUHVVLYH

FRQWHQWFDQOHDGWRH[SHFWDWLRQVWKDWWKH\VKRXOGDFWDJJUHVVLYHO\SDUWLFXODUO\IRUPDOHVZKRKROGWUDGLWLRQDOYLHZV RIZKDWLWPHDQVWREHDPDQ*HQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDUHDVLPSOHNLQGRIJHQGHUVFKHPD_{([SRVXUHWRDJJUHVVLYH}

FRQWHQWFDQDOVROHDGWRWKHSULPLQJRIDJJUHVVLYHWKRXJKWVDQGDFWLRQVPDNLQJLWPRUHOLNHO\WKDWWKHVHEHKDYLRUV ZLOOEHDFWHGXSRQ_{,Qpsychoanalytic theoryDJJUHVVLRQLVDQLQQDWHGULYHLQKXPDQV7KURXJKFDWKDUVLVLQZKLFK}

\RXWKREVHUYHRWKHUVDFWDJJUHVVLYHO\RUHQJDJHLQV\PEROLFDFWVRIDJJUHVVLRQWKURXJKJDPHSOD\DJJUHVVLYH LPSXOVHVVKRXOGWKHRUHWLFDOO\EHKDUPOHVVO\GUDLQHGRIIWKURXJKIDQWDV\

The Evidence

7KHHYLGHQFHDERXWH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQWPHGLDGRFXPHQWVRXWFRPHVDERXWVWHUHRW\SHGEHOLHIVRIPDVFXOLQLW\ WKHPRWLYDWLRQWRSHUIRUPDJJUHVVLYHDFWVDQGDFWXDODJJUHVVLYHFRQGXFW

Stereotype formation7UDGLWLRQDOYLHZVRIPDVFXOLQLW\LQFOXGHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRISHUVRQDOLW\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV VXFKDVDJJUHVVLRQDVVHUWLYHQHVVIRUFHIXOQHVVGRPLQDQFHVHOIVXIÀFLHQF\LQGLYLGXDOLVPDQGFRPSHWLWLYHQHVV_0HGLD KHURHVDUHW\SLFDOO\GHSLFWHGDVPDOHVLQSDUWEHFDXVHKHURHVGLVSOD\DJJUHVVLRQDQGPXVWEHGDULQJLQWKHIDFH RIGDQJHUTXDOLWLHVWKDWDUHSDUWRIWKHPDVFXOLQHUROH_{5HSHDWHGH[SRVXUHWRDFRQVLVWHQWNLQGRIPHVVDJHFDQ} UHLQIRUFHDQGHQWUHQFKDSDUWLFXODUVFKHPD_{)RUH[DPSOHWKRVHZKRIROORZWUDGLWLRQDOJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVWHQGWR} KDYHPRUHULJLGJHQGHUVFKHPDVZKHUHDVWKRVHZKRDUHPRUHQRQWUDGLWLRQDOWHQGWREHPRUHÁH[LEOHLQWKHLUJHQGHU VFKHPDV_{0HGLDGHSLFWLRQVDOVRSURYLGHPDOHUROHPRGHOVWKDWGLVSOD\WKHNLQGVRIEHKDYLRUVWKDWDUHH[SHFWHGRI} PDOHVHJDJJUHVVLRQ)RUPDOHVZKRDUHLVRODWHGDQGZKRKDYHZHDNVRFLDOWLHVZLWKWKHLUSHHUVIDFHWRIDFH UHODWLRQVKLSVPD\EHGLVSODFHGE\UHODWLRQVKLSVWKURXJKFKDUDFWHUVLQJDPLQJFRQWH[WV

Motivational incentives. 0RWLYDWLRQDOLQFHQWLYHVWRDFWDJJUHVVLYHO\LQFOXGHWKHVWDWXVJDLQHGE\DFFUXLQJWKH PRVWSRLQWVDQGEHLQJVXFFHVVIXODQGDGPLUHGIRUWKDWVXFFHVVGXULQJJDPHSOD\)RULQVWDQFHÀUVWSHUVRQVKRRWHU JDPHVUHZDUGSOD\HUVZLWKLQFUHDVHGVWDWXVIRUNLOOLQJRWKHUSOD\HUV7KHUROHRIWKHKHURPD\EHSDUWLFXODUO\ DSSHDOLQJWRPDOHVEHFDXVHUHZDUGVVXFKDVPRUHVWDWXVDQGSRZHUDUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDFWLQJDJJUHVVLYHO\ )RU\RXWKZKRKDYHIHZVRFLDOUHZDUGVLQWKHLUHYHU\GD\OLIHRSSRUWXQLWLHVDERXQGIRUWKHPWRDVVXPHDPRUH VXFFHVVIXODOWHULGHQWLW\LQYLUWXDOH[SHULHQFHV,QVKRUWVRFLDOO\LVRODWHG\RXWKFDQEHFRPHWKHSRSXODU´VXSHUµPDOH WKDWKDVHOXGHGWKHPLQWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVZLWKWKHLUSHHUV

Behavioral outcomes. 0HWDDQDO\VHVLQZKLFKQXPHURXVVWXGLHVRQDWRSLFDUHDQDO\]HGUHYHDOWKDWH[SRVXUH WRDJJUHVVLYHYLGHRJDPHVOHDGVWRLQFUHDVHVLQSK\VLRORJLFDODURXVDODJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRUDJJUHVVLYHWKRXJKWV DQGDJJUHVVLYHIHHOLQJVDVZHOODVWRGHFUHDVHVLQHPSDWK\DQGSURVRFLDOEHKDYLRU_{6LPLODUO\PHWDDQDO\VHV} DERXWH[SRVXUHWRYLROHQWWHOHYLVLRQFRQWHQWUHYHDOLQFUHDVHGOHYHOVRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRU_{,QDGGLWLRQWRH[SRVXUH} WRPHGLDYLROHQFHDGGLWLRQDOULVNIDFWRUVHPHUJHLQHPSLULFDOVWXGLHVLQFOXGLQJSULRUDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRUSRRU VRFLDOUHODWLRQVKLSVSRRUSV\FKRORJLFDOIXQFWLRQLQJSDUHQWVZKRWUHDWWKHLUFKLOGUHQLQGLIIHUHQWO\RULQDULJLGVW\OH DQGLQVRPHLQVWDQFHVEHLQJDPDOH_{2YHUDOOWKHHYLGHQFHVXSSRUWVWKHLGHDWKDWH[SRVXUHWRPHGLDYLROHQFH} FDQLQFUHDVHDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRUEHFDXVHRIDURXVDOVRFLDOOHDUQLQJIURPPHGLDPRGHOVDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQW RIDJJUHVVLYHVFKHPDVDQGVFULSWV%\FRQWUDVWOLWWOHHYLGHQFHVXSSRUWVFDWKDUVLV7KHUHIRUHYLHZLQJRULQWHUDFWLQJ ZLWKYLROHQWPHGLDFRQWHQWKDVEHHQWUHDWHGDVDULVNIDFWRUIRUFKLOGKRRGDQGDGROHVFHQWDJJUHVVLYHFRQGXFW

Link between Media Aggression Research and Rampage Shootings

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

Reducing the Risks for Rampage Shootings

5HGXFLQJWKHQXPEHURI\RXWKULVNIDFWRUVFRXOGSRWHQWLDOO\GLVUXSWDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU_{:KLOHUHGXFLQJ}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

Rejection and Lethal Violence

*HUDOGLQH'RZQH\3K'3URIHVVRURI3V\FKRORJ\DQG'HDQRI6RFLDO6FLHQFHV&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\

5HMHFWLRQLVRIWHQLGHQWLÀHGDVDWULJJHURIOHWKDO\RXWKYLROHQFH<HWUHMHFWLRQLVXELTXLWRXVDQGLWUDUHO\ WULJJHUVOHWKDOYLROHQFH,QZKRPDQGXQGHUZKDWFLUFXPVWDQFHVPLJKWUHMHFWLRQWULJJHUOHWKDOYLROHQFH" Aggression Versus Ingratiation

&ODVVLFZRUNRQUHMHFWLRQIRFXVHGRQLWVUROHLQLQGXFLQJLQJUDWLDWLRQDQGFRQIRUPLW\5HFHQWZRUNKDVSURYLGHG UREXVWHYLGHQFHOLQNLQJUHMHFWLRQZLWKKRVWLOLW\DQGDJJUHVVLRQ(IIRUWVWRUHFRQFLOHWKHVHDSSDUHQWO\FRQWUDGLFWRU\ FRQVHTXHQFHVRIUHMHFWLRQVXJJHVWWKDWUHMHFWLRQZLOOWULJJHULQJUDWLDWLRQDQGRWKHUHIIRUWVWRJDLQIDYRUZKHQWKH UHMHFWLRQLVKDUVKDQGRFFXUVLQVLWXDWLRQVDQGLQIRUPVWKDWDUHGHHSO\WKUHDWHQLQJWRWKHWDUJHW·VVHOIGHÀQLWLRQDQG ZKHQWKHWDUJHWRIWKHUHMHFWLRQKDVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIJDLQLQJDFFHSWDQFH_{%\FRQWUDVWDJJUHVVLRQLVPRUHOLNHO\} ZKHQWKHUHMHFWLRQLVGHHPHGERWKLUUHYRFDEOHDQGXQIDLUEHFDXVHLWRFFXUVGHVSLWHWKHLQGLYLGXDO·VHIIRUWVWRJDLQ DFFHSWDQFH:LWKGUDZDOLVDOVRDFRPPRQUHVSRQVHWRUHMHFWLRQDQGPD\SURSHODGROHVFHQWVWRVHHNGLVWUDFWLRQLQ F\EHUVSDFHDQGSHUKDSVWRVRFLDOPHGLDH[SHULHQFHVWKDWQRUPDOL]HYLROHQFH

Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Rejection

(YHU\RQHJHWVUHMHFWHG6RPHUHVSRQGLQH[WUHPHZD\VZKHUHDVRWKHUVUHVSRQGZLWKHTXDQLPLW\'UDZLQJ RQDWWDFKPHQWWKHRU\DQGDWWULEXWLRQDOWKHRU\_{WKHUHMHFWLRQVHQVLWLYLW\PRGHOZDVGHYHORSHGWRKHOSH[SODLQ} YDULDWLRQLQUHVSRQVHWRUHMHFWLRQ7KHPRGHOSRVLWVWKDWWKHH[SHULHQFHRIUHMHFWLRQSHUKDSVZKHQFRPELQHGZLWK ELRORJLFDOYXOQHUDELOLW\OHDGVFKLOGUHQWRGHYHORSDKHLJKWHQHGVHQVLWLYLW\IRUWKUHDWVRIUHMHFWLRQDQGWRH[SHFW DQGIHHODQJU\RUDQ[LRXVDERXWWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIUHMHFWLRQLQVLWXDWLRQVZKHUHLWPLJKWRFFXU,PSRUWDQWO\WKH\ OHDUQWRUHVSRQGLQDQ´LIWKHQµPDQQHUWRUHMHFWLRQFXHV7RUHGXFHWKHVHQVHRIWKUHDWWKH\GRZKDWHYHUWKH\WKLQN ZLOOEULQJDFFHSWDQFHHYHQDWFRQVLGHUDEOHFRVWWRWKHVHOI,IHIIRUWVWRJDLQDFFHSWDQFHDUHPHWZLWKLUUHYRFDEOH UHMHFWLRQKRVWLOHUHVSRQVHVWRWKHSHUFHLYHGLQMXVWLFHPD\RFFXU

“If..Then” Perspective on Responses to Rejection Cues7KLVSHUVSHFWLYHWDNHVDFFRXQWRIWKHIDFWWKDWWKHFXHV WKDWWULJJHUUHMHFWLRQWKUHDWPD\EHVSHFLÀFWRWKHLQGLYLGXDORUJURXSWRZKLFKWKHLQGLYLGXDOEHORQJV7KHUHMHFWLRQ sourceDQGformPD\PDWWHU5HMHFWLRQIURPWKHSHHUJURXSPD\KDYHDVWURQJHULPSDFWWKDQUHMHFWLRQIURPD VLJQLÀFDQWLQGLYLGXDORQPDOHVWKDQRQIHPDOHVDQGYLFHYHUVD_{'HYDOXDWLRQRIYDOXHGDVSHFWVRIRQH·VLGHQWLW\} DERXWZKLFKRQHIHHOVLQVHFXUHPD\EHSDUWLFXODUO\OLNHO\WRHOLFLWDKRVWLOHUHVSRQVH$PRQJDGROHVFHQWPDOHV UHMHFWLRQLQIRUPVWKDWFRQYH\SRZHUOHVVQHVVDQGGHYDOXDWLRQRIRQH·VPDVFXOLQLW\PD\EHSDUWLFXODUO\WKUHDWHQLQJ WRDUHODWLYHIUDJLOHVHQVHRIVHOIDQGOLNHO\WRHOLFLWDJJUHVVLYHSRZHUDVVHUWLYHHIIRUWVWRJHWUHYHQJH Self-regulatory Competency $QLPSRUWDQWPRGHUDWRURILQWHQVHUHDFWLRQVWRUHMHFWLRQDQGWRRWKHUVRXUFHVRIWKUHDWLVVHOIUHJXODWRU\ FRPSHWHQF\WKDWLVWKHDELOLW\WREHKDYHLQDÁH[LEOHGLVFULPLQDWLYHDQGVWUDWHJLFPDQQHUXQGHUVWUHVVWKDW WDNHVDFFRXQWRIWKHFXUUHQWVLWXDWLRQ·VGHPDQGVDQGRQH·VORQJWHUPJRDOV_{1XPHURXVVWXGLHVKDYHVKRZQWKDW} WKHDELOLW\WRGDPSHQKRWLPSXOVHGULYHQUHVSRQVHVKDVERWKLPPHGLDWHDQGHQGXULQJEHQHÀWV)RUH[DPSOH UHMHFWLRQVHQVLWLYHFKLOGUHQZKRFRXOGGHOD\JUDWLÀFDWLRQDVVHVVHGLQ0LVFKHO·VFODVVLFSDUDGLJPGLGQRWVKRZWKH LQFUHDVHLQSHHUDJJUHVVLRQVKRZQE\UHMHFWLRQVHQVLWLYHFKLOGUHQZKRZHUHORZLQGHOD\DELOLW\_7KHFRQYHUVH SRRUUHJXODWRU\FRPSHWHQF\²ZKHWKHUGLVSRVLWLRQDORUDVLWXDWLRQDOUHVSRQVHWRLPPHGLDWHRUHQGXULQJVWUHVV²LV FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VHYHUDOIHDWXUHVWKDWIDFLOLWDWHH[WUHPHDQGKLJKO\ULVN\UHDFWLRQVWRWKUHDWWKLVLVWKHNLQGRI FRSLQJGHVFULEHGE\1RUPD+DDQ_{DVGHIHQVLYHRUIUDJPHQWHG)LUVWHPRWLRQVDQGFRJQLWLRQVDERXWRWKHUVDUH}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ÀQGKDUGWRGRPD\RSHUDWHD7KHUHPD\EHDIDFLOLWDWLRQGLVLQKLELWLRQ HIIHFWRIUHSHDWHGFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIWKHSODQRUEDUHODWLYHO\VLPSOHSODQWRLPSOHPHQWDQLQWHQWLRQPD\JUHDWO\ LQFUHDVHWKHSUREDELOLW\RILWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ

Why Does Rejection Have Such a Profound Effect in Adolescence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{7KXVWKHEUDLQV} RIDGROHVFHQWVDVDJURXSPD\EHPRUHSUHSDUHGWRUHDFWLQWHQVLYHO\DQGLQDQXQPRGHUDWHGZD\WRVRFLDOWKUHDW Why Lethal Violence?

2QHIHDWXUHRILQGLYLGXDOVZKRDUHKLJKO\VHQVLWLYHWRUHMHFWLRQRUZKRRWKHUZLVHIHHOSRZHUOHVVLVWKDWZKHQ LQDVWDWHRISK\VLRORJLFDOWKUHDWWKH\SHUFHLYHWKHGDQJHUSRVHGE\WKHWKUHDWVRXUFHDVH[DJJHUDWHG_7KXV

SUHVXPDEO\WKHPDJQLWXGHRIWKHLUUHVSRQVHLVOLNHO\WREHH[DJJHUDWHG:KHQZHDSRQVDUHRQKDQGWKH\PD\EH XVHGEHFDXVHWKH\PD\EHSHUFHLYHGDVHOLPLQDWLQJDSRWHQWLDOO\OHWKDOVHQVHRISV\FKRORJLFDOWKUHDWWRWKHVHOI Need for Future Research

‡ :KLOHWKHUHMHFWLRQVHQVLWLYLW\PRGHOZDVLQVSLUHGE\FOLQLFDOUHSRUWVRIWKHUHMHFWLRQOHWKDOYLROHQFHOLQNWKH OLQNKDVQRWEHHQWHVWHG

‡ 5HMHFWLRQ²YLROHQFHOLQNLVHYLGHQWLQUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJLQWLPDWHYLROHQFHDQGJDQJGUXJUHODWHGYLROHQFH'R WKHVDPHSURFHVVHVDSSO\"

(IIHFWVRI2QOLQH,QÁXHQFHVRQ([SHULHQFHVRI5HMHFWLRQDQG5LVNVIRU6XLFLGHDQG+RPLFLGH 'DQ5RPHU3K''LUHFWRU$GROHVFHQW&RPPXQLFDWLRQ,QVWLWXWH$QQHQEHUJ3XEOLF3ROLF\&HQWHU 8QLYHUVLW\RI3HQQV\OYDQLD 7KHLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHH[SHULHQFHRIUHMHFWLRQDQGRQOLQHFRPPXQLFDWLRQLQHYLWDEO\LQYLWHVFRQVLGHUDWLRQ RIWKHPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQRIWKHXVHU,WKDVEHHQQRWHGWKDW\RXQJUDPSDJHVKRRWHUVFRPPLWVXLFLGHIROORZLQJWKHLU DFWVSODFLQJWKHLUEHKDYLRULQWRWKHKLJKO\XQXVXDOFDWHJRU\RIPXUGHUVXLFLGH_{$OWKRXJKPXUGHUVXLFLGHVDUH}

UDUH_{WKH\DUHGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\OLNHO\WRLQYROYHPXOWLSOHKRPLFLGHYLFWLPV,WLVOLNHO\WKDWVXLFLGDO\RXWKZKR}

FRQVLGHUNLOOLQJRWKHUVDVZHOODVWKHPVHOYHVKDYHKRVWLOHDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGRWKHUVSHUKDSVEODPLQJWKHPIRUWKHLU FRQGLWLRQ*LYHQWKHOLQNVEHWZHHQEXOO\LQJVXLFLGDOLGHDWLRQDQGYLROHQWWHQGHQFLHV_{LWLVZRUWKFRQVLGHULQJ} ZKHWKHUWKHJURZWKRI,QWHUQHWFRPPXQLFDWLRQKDVKDGDQLQÁXHQFHRQERWKVXLFLGDODQGKRPLFLGDOLGHDWLRQLQ\RXQJ SHRSOH 6XLFLGHUDWHVDPRQJ\RXQJSHRSOHURVHGUDPDWLFDOO\LQWKHVDQGKDYHUHPDLQHGVWXEERUQO\KLJKWR WKLVGD\_{7UHQGVLQRIÁLQHEXOO\LQJDVIDUDVZHNQRZKDYHUHPDLQHGVWDEOHRUGHFOLQHGDORQJZLWKKRPLFLGH} UDWHV_{+RZHYHUUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJVKDYHEHFRPHPRUHFRPPRQLQ\RXQJSHRSOHLQWKHODVW\HDUV7KXVLW} LVWHPSWLQJWRK\SRWKHVL]HWKDWUHFHQWO\HPHUJLQJRQOLQHVRFLDOLQÁXHQFHVKDYHHQFRXUDJHGWKLVWUHQGVLQFH\RXWK VXLFLGHKDVEHHQUHODWLYHO\VWDEOHZKLOHKRPLFLGHKDVGHFOLQHG 2QHPDMRUFKDQJHWKDWKDVRFFXUUHGZLWKWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKH,QWHUQHWLVWKHPXFKZLGHURSSRUWXQLW\WR PDNHFRQWDFWZLWKRWKHUVZKRKDYHVLPLODULQWHUHVWV,QWKHVDQGV\RXWKFXOWXUHZDVPRVWO\LQÁXHQFHGE\ PDVVPDUNHWPHGLDVXFKDV79PXVLFDQGÀOPV7KLVLQÁXHQFHZDVSULPDULO\WRSGRZQIURPVLQJOHVRXUFHVWRODUJH DXGLHQFHV:LWKWKHDGYHQWRIWKH,QWHUQHW\RXWKFDQFRQQHFWZLWKDPRUHGLYHUVHUDQJHRISHHUVZKRKDYHWKH DELOLW\WRFUHDWHPHGLDPDWHULDOVWKDWFDQEHVKDUHGDQGGLVFXVVHGZLWKHDFKRWKHU ,QRXUUHVHDUFKZHKDYHIRXQGHYLGHQFHIRUWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIRQOLQHGLVFXVVLRQJURXSVLQWKHSURJUHVVLRQ WRZDUGVXLFLGDOLGHDWLRQ_{<RXWKZKRVSHQGWLPHFKDWWLQJDERXWVXLFLGHRQOLQHUHSRUWHQKDQFHGVXLFLGDOLGHDWLRQ} 7KHUHLVDOVRVRPHHYLGHQFHWKDW\RXQJUDPSDJHVKRRWHUVMRLQVXFKGLVFXVVLRQVWRYHQWWKHLUIHHOLQJVRIUHMHFWLRQ DQGWRJDLQWKHVXSSRUWRIRWKHUVLPLODUO\LQFOLQHGXVHUV_{7KHVHGLVFXVVLRQVLWHVPD\ZHOOEHSODFHVZKHUH} VHULRXVO\GLVDIIHFWHGSHUVRQVJRWKDWZHUHQRWDYDLODEOHSULRUWRWKHDGYHQWRIVRFLDOPHGLD_{7KXVLWPD\QRWRQO\} EHWKHH[SHULHQFHRIUHMHFWLRQWKDWKDVLQFUHDVHGWKURXJKRQOLQHLQWHUDFWLRQHJWKURXJKF\EHUEXOO\LQJEXWDOVR WKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRFRQQHFWZLWKRWKHUVZKRKDYHKDGVLPLODUH[SHULHQFHV7KHVHJURXSLQWHUDFWLRQVPD\LQWHQVLI\ IHHOLQJVRIUHMHFWLRQDQGVXSSRUWIRUYLROHQWDFWLRQ_{:KHQFRPELQHGZLWKVXLFLGDOLQWHQWWKHULVNIRUPXUGHUVXLFLGH} PD\EHHYHQJUHDWHU $QRWKHURSSRUWXQLW\WKDWPD\KDYHLQFUHDVHGLQWKH,QWHUQHWHUDLVWKHXVHRIRQOLQHJDPLQJ0DQ\RI WKHVHJDPHVHQDEOHXVHUVWRSOD\ZLWKRWKHUVDWWKHVDPHWLPHDQGZKHQWKH\LQYROYHVLPXODWHGVKRRWLQJWKH RSSRUWXQLWLHVWRLQWHQVLI\DJJUHVVLYHLPSXOVHVDJDLQVXSSRUWHGE\RWKHUVPD\EHJUHDWHUWKDQSUHYLRXVO\ DYDLODEOH_{:HKDYHIRXQGWKDWGHSUHVVHGDQGKRSHOHVV\RXWKPLJUDWHWRZDUGJDPLQJDQG,QWHUQHWDFWLYLW\} LQJHQHUDO_{$VLGHIURPWKHGLUHFWHIIHFWVRIYLROHQWYLGHRJDPHVRQDJJUHVVLYHLGHDWLRQ\RXWKZKRXVHWKLV} RSSRUWXQLW\WRSOD\YLROHQWJDPHVPD\WKHQFRPHLQWRFRQWDFWZLWKRWKHUVLPLODUO\LQFOLQHG\RXWKUHLQIRUFLQJWKHLU DJJUHVVLYHLPSXOVHV7KHUHLVDOUHDG\VRPHVXJJHVWLYHHYLGHQFHWKDWRQOLQHYLROHQWJDPLQJLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK F\EHUEXOO\LQJ_{7KLVPD\LQFUHDVHWKHH[FKDQJHRIUHMHFWLQJPHVVDJHVWKHUHE\IXUWKHUH[DFHUEDWLQJKRVWLOH} IHHOLQJVDPRQJVXLFLGDO\RXWK )XWXUHUHVHDUFKFDQSURÀWE\H[DPLQLQJWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIKRVWLOHDQGVXLFLGDOLGHDWLRQLQ\RXWKDVDPDUNHU IRU\RXWKZKRDUHDWULVNIRUPXUGHUVXLFLGHDQGRWKHUYLROHQWDFWLRQ$WSUHVHQWZHNQRZYLUWXDOO\QRWKLQJDERXW WKLVLPSRUWDQWLQWHUVHFWLRQLQDGROHVFHQWFRJQLWLRQ7KHÀJXUHEHORZVXJJHVWVDEDVLFPRGHOEHKLQGWKLVSURSRVDO

7KLVPRGHORIPHGLDWHGULVNHQKDQFHPHQWSURSRVHVWKDWWKHULVNVRIPHGLDWHGFRPPXQLFDWLRQDUHSDUWLFXODUO\ KDUPIXOIRU\RXWKZKRDUHGLVDIIHFWHG$WOHIWDUHWKHSRWHQWLDOUHFLSURFDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQKRVWLOHLQWHUDFWLRQ ERWKRQOLQHDQGRIÁLQHDQGYLROHQWLGHDWLRQ7KHVHLQÁXHQFHVLQFRPELQDWLRQPD\HQFRXUDJHGLVDIIHFWHG\RXWKWR VHHNRXWPHGLDDQGRQOLQHDFWLYLWLHVWKDWHQKDQFHWKHULVNIRUYLROHQFHE\HLWKHUOLQNLQJZLWKOLNHPLQGHGSHHUVRU EHFRPLQJHQJURVVHGLQYLROHQWFRQWHQW6RPHTXHVWLRQVUDLVHGE\WKHPRGHODUH,VPHGLDYLROHQFHPRUHOLNHO\WREH LQWHUSUHWHGDVVHOIUHOHYDQWWRVXFK\RXWK"'RVXFK\RXWKSHUFHLYHPHGLDYLROHQFHDQGJDPLQJDVPRUHUHDOLVWLFDQG DVSLUDWLRQDOWKDQRWKHU\RXWK"

Lessons Worth Pursuing From the Study of Suicide in Youth

5HVHDUFKHUVKDYHVWXGLHGWKHSUREOHPRI\RXWKVXLFLGHIRUVRPHWLPHDQGYDULRXVHIIRUWVKDYHEHHQGLUHFWHG WRZDUGUHGXFLQJLWVRFFXUUHQFH*LYHQWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQVXLFLGDODQGKRPLFLGDOLGHDWLRQWKDWDSSHDUVWREH FRPPRQLQUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJVLWLVZRUWKFRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHUVRPHRIWKHVDPHVWUDWHJLHVPLJKWEHDSSOLHGWRWKLV PRUHOHWKDOIRUPRIYLROHQFH2QHLPSRUWDQWHIIRUWKDVEHHQWRHGXFDWHWKHSUHVVDERXWWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUFRQWDJLRQ UHVXOWLQJIURPSUHVVUHSRUWVRIVXLFLGHVHHKWWSUHSRUWLQJRQVXLFLGHRUJ,WLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKDWWKHQHZVPHGLD FRYHUUDPSDJHVKRRWLQJVKHDYLO\EXWYHU\OLWWOHLVNQRZQDERXWWKHHIIHFWVRIVXFKFRYHUDJHRQDGROHVFHQWVDQG\RXQJ DGXOWV(YHQOHVVLVNQRZQDERXWWKHUROHRIVRFLDOPHGLDLQHFKRLQJQHZVUHSRUWVWKURXJKRQOLQHIULHQGVKLSQHWZRUNV 'RHVVXFKFRYHUDJHLQFUHDVHWKRXJKWVRILPLWDWLRQDVLWVHHPVWRLQVXLFLGH",VLWPRUHOLNHO\WRLQÁXHQFHWKRXJKWVRI LPLWDWLRQDPRQJ\RXWKZKRDOUHDG\KDYHWKRXJKWVRIVXLFLGHDQGKRPLFLGH"7KHUHLVHYLGHQFHWKDWVFKRROVKRRWLQJV HQFRXUDJHUHSRUWVRIVFKRROERPELQJVPRVWO\XQIRXQGHGEXWGRYXOQHUDEOH\RXWKVHHVXFKHYHQWVDVDZD\WR DFKLHYHQRWRULHW\DVKDVEHHQVXJJHVWHGLQVHQVDWLRQDOFRYHUDJHRIVXLFLGHV" %HFDXVHUDPSDJHVKRRWHUVRIWHQUHYHDOWKHLULQWHQWLRQVEHIRUHKDQGLWLVDOVRZRUWKFRQVLGHULQJVRPHRI WKHVWUDWHJLHVWKDWKDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGWRLGHQWLI\VXLFLGDO\RXWKLQVFKRROVVRWKDWWKH\FDQEHUHIHUUHGIRU DSSURSULDWHPHQWDOKHDOWKFDUH_{7KHVHSURJUDPVLQYROYHHGXFDWLQJVWXGHQWVDQGVWDIIWRWKHZDUQLQJVLJQVRI} VXLFLGHDQGWRUHGXFLQJEDUULHUVWRUHSRUWVXFKVLJQVWRDSSURSULDWHVWDII(YDOXDWLRQVRIWKHVHSURJUDPVVXJJHVW

A Brief Look at Sociological Perspectives on Peer Hierarchies, Organizational Conditions in Schools, DQG<RXWK9LROHQFHDQG&RQÁLFW1 &DOYLQ0RUULOO3K'3URIHVVRURI/DZDQG6RFLRORJ\DQG'LUHFWRU&HQWHUIRUWKH6WXG\RI/DZDQG6RFLHW\ 8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD%HUNHOH\ 6RFLRORJLVWVUHJDUGDFWLYHUHODWLRQDOSUDFWLFHVDVNH\VRFLDOPHFKDQLVPVIRUKRZ\RXWKPDNHXQPDNHDQG H[SHULHQFHSHHUKLHUDUFKLHV_{6XFKSUDFWLFHVDUHW\SLFDOO\ERXQGXSLQLGHQWLWLHVERWKORFDOO\SURGXFHGDQG} LQIRUPHGE\EURDGHUVRFLDOFDWHJRULHVLQFOXGLQJDJHFODVVUDFHJHQGHUDQGSRSXODUFXOWXUDOH[SUHVVLRQ$W VWDNHLQSHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDUHPHDQLQJIXOVRFLDOWLHVLGHQWLWLHVDQGLQWHUSHUVRQDOSRZHU%H\RQGWKLVJHQHUDO RULHQWDWLRQKRZVRFLRORJLVWVFRQFHSWXDOL]HDQGVWXG\SHHUKLHUDUFKLHVGLIIHUGUDPDWLFDOO\)RUWKHSXUSRVHVRIWKLV PHPR,FRQFHQWUDWHRQKLJKVFKRRO\RXWKW\SLFDOO\\HDUVRIDJHDQGWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVZLWKLQWHUSHUVRQDO DQGLQWHUJURXSYLROHQFHH[FOXGLQJPDVV\RXWKYLROHQFH

Conceptualizing Peer Hierarchies

0XOWLSOHJHQHUDWLRQVRIVRFLRORJLVWVEHJLQQLQJZLWKWKH&KLFDJR6FKRROHPSKDVL]HLQVLGHURXWVLGHU JURXSG\QDPLFVDVFRQVWLWXWLQJSHHUKLHUDUFKLHV7KHHDUOLHVWZRUNDORQJWKHVHOLQHVIRFXVHGRQJDQJV_DQG WKHQKLHUDUFKLFDOO\DUUD\HGXUEDQ\RXWKVXEFXOWXUHV_{&ROHPDQFRPELQHGWKHVHSHUVSHFWLYHVZLWKHDUO\QHWZRUN} DQDO\VLVWRLGHQWLI\KLHUDUFKLHVRISHHUFOLTXHVLQKLJKVFKRROV_{/DWHU%ULWLVKUHVHDUFKHUVFRQFHSWXDOL]HG\RXWK} VXEFXOWXUHVDVZRUNLQJFODVVUHVLVWDQFHWRFDSLWDOLVWGRPLQDWLRQ_{0RUHUHFHQWO\VRFLRORJLVWVUHIUDPHGLQVLGHU} RXWVLGHUG\QDPLFVLQWHUPVRIUDFLDOO\LQÁHFWHGFXOWXUDOERXQGDULHV_{$VHFRQGSHUVSHFWLYHFRQFHQWUDWHVRQ} VHOIDQGRWKHUSHUFHLYHGUDQNLQJVRILQGLYLGXDO\RXWKLQSHHUVWDWXVKLHUDUFKLHV_{VRPHWLPHVPHDVXULQJUDQNDV} SRLQWFHQWUDOLW\LQSHHUVRFLDOQHWZRUNV_{$QHZHUSHUVSHFWLYHH[DPLQHVKRZ\RXWKQHJRWLDWHSHUVRQDODQGJURXS} UHODWLRQVKLSVWKURXJKVSDWLDOG\QDPLFVPDUNLQJDQGEHLQJPDUNHGE\PRYHPHQWDFURVVDQGFRQÀQHPHQWZLWKLQ SK\VLFDOVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOWHUUDLQV 7KH´7ROOµ([DFWHGRQ<RXWKE\3HHU+LHUDUFKLHV 7KHWROORQ\RXWKH[DFWHGE\SHHUKLHUDUFKLHV²RWKHUWKDQLQYROYLQJPDVVLYHDPRXQWVRIWLPHDQGFRQFHUQ DFURVVVFKRROKRPHZRUNDQGRQWKHVWUHHWV²YDULHVWUHPHQGRXVO\ZLWKLQGLYLGXDOOHYHODWWULEXWHVFRQWH[WDQG W\SHRIKLHUDUFK\_{,QVFKRROVVHOISHUFHLYHGORZSRVLWLRQVLQDFDGHPLFSHHUKLHUDUFKLHVIRUH[DPSOHKDYH} EHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKKHLJKWHQHGOHYHOVRIVWUHVVLQIHPDOHEXWQRWPDOH\RXWKZKLOHVHOISHUFHLYHGORZSRVLWLRQV LQSRSXODULW\KLHUDUFKLHVDUHUHODWHGWRKHLJKWHQHGVWUHVVLQPDOHEXWQRWIHPDOH\RXWK_{$WWKHVDPHWLPHKLJK} DFKLHYLQJVWXGHQWVUHJDUGOHVVRIUDFHRUJHQGHUDUHRIWHQVWLJPDWL]HGE\SHHUVDV´QHUGVµRU´JHHNVµHVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQKLJKDFKLHYHUVDUHSHUFHLYHGWREHVRFLDOO\RUHFRQRPLFDOO\DGYDQWDJHGLQVRPHZD\_6WXGHQWVZKR GHPRQVWUDWHPXOWLSOH´FXOWXUDOFRPSHWHQFLHVµE\HIIHFWLYHO\QDYLJDWLQJDFURVVDFDGHPLFDQGSRSXODULW\KLHUDUFKLHV HVSHFLDOO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKUDFLDORUHWKQLFLGHQWLW\RIWHQH[SHULHQFHPRUHSRVLWLYHDFDGHPLFDQGPHQWDOKHDOWK RXWFRPHVWKDQ\RXWKRULHQWHGDQGFRQÀQHGWRVLQJOHKLHUDUFKLHV )URP7KH6WXG\RI<RXWK9LROHQFHWRWKH6WXG\RI<RXWK&RQÁLFW 'XULQJWKHODWHWKFHQWXU\VRFLRORJLVWVDQGFULPLQRORJLVWVGHYRWHGHQRUPRXVIXQGVDQGHQHUJ\LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKH LQWHUWZLQLQJRISHHUKLHUDUFKLHVZLWKHYHU\GD\XUEDQ\RXWKFRQÁLFW7KLVUHVHDUFKHPHUJHGLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHULVHRI XUEDQ\RXWKDVVDXOWDQGKRPLFLGHGXULQJWKHVDQGHDUO\VDOWKRXJKXUEDQ\RXWKYLROHQFHKDVGHFOLQHG RYHUWKHSDVWGHFDGH_{0XFKRIWKLVUHVHDUFKYLHZVXUEDQ\RXWKYLROHQFHWKURXJKDJDQJOHQVGRFXPHQWLQJDQG} H[SODLQLQJLWDVYLROHQWLQWHUJURXSGLVSXWHVHWWOHPHQWDQGVWDWXVFRPSHWLWLRQLQLOOLFLWLQQHUFLW\GUXJPDUNHWV_7KHUHLV VRPHGLVDJUHHPHQWRQGLIIHUHQWLDOUDWHVRIPDOHDQGIHPDOHJDQJYLROHQFHZLWKRIÀFLDOVWDWLVWLFVUHYHDOLQJIDUPRUH PDOHWKDQIHPDOHSK\VLFDOYLROHQFHZKLOHVHOIUHSRUWVXUYH\VLQGLFDWHHTXDOSURSRUWLRQVDFURVVWKHVH[HV_$SDUWIURP JDQJYLROHQFHVRFLRORJLVWVKDYHLQYHVWLJDWHGLQQHUFLW\LQWHUSHUVRQDOFXOWXUHVRIYLROHQFHRUJDQL]HGDURXQG´FRGHV RIWKHVWUHHWµWKDWGHÀQHÀJKWLQJDQGDJJUHVVLYHYHUEDOULSRVWHVDVDZD\RIOLIHDQGWKHSULPDU\PHFKDQLVPVIRU VHFXULQJIDYRUDEOHSRVLWLRQVLQORFDOUHSXWDWLRQDOKLHUDUFKLHVDPRQJ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ_{DQG/DWLQRPDOHDQGIHPDOH}

\RXWK_{6FKRODUVDOVRDUJXHWKDWVWUHHWFRGHVPD\IXQFWLRQOHVVDVGHVFULSWLRQVRIEHKDYLRUWKDQLQGH[LFDODFFRXQWV} VLJQDOLQJFXOWXUDOFRPSHWHQFHLQSDUWLFXODUXUEDQFRQWH[WV_{0RUHRYHUVRPHXUEDQVFKRODUVKDYHSURGXFHGHYLGHQFH} WKDWSHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDUHOHVVUHFRJQL]HGE\\RXWKWKDQE\DGXOWVERWKRQWKHVWUHHWVDQGLQVFKRROV,QWKHVHLQVWDQFHV ZKDWELQG\RXWKDUHFRPPRQLGHQWLWLHVZLWKQHLJKERUKRRGVDQGRUVFKRROVZKLFKVWD\ZLWKWKHPDVWKH\PRYHWKURXJK OLIH_{)DUOHVVLVNQRZQDERXWWKHVHSURFHVVHVLQQRQXUEDQVHWWLQJV} 1_{,WKDQN0LFKDHO0XVKHQRIRUFRPPHQWV}

7XUQLQJWRVFKRROVVRFLRORJLVWVKDYHFKDOOHQJHGFRQYHQWLRQDOZLVGRPWKDW\RXWKDWWKHWRSVRISHHUKLHUDUFKLHV DUHPRVWOLNHO\WRSHUSHWUDWHDQGVRFLDOO\PDUJLQDO\RXWKWREHYLFWLPL]HGE\SHHUDJJUHVVLRQGHÀQHGDVSK\VLFDO DQGYHUEDOEHKDYLRUWKDWFDXVHVSDLQWRDQRWKHU3DUDOOHOLQVRPHZD\VZLWKFRGHRIWKHVWUHHWDUJXPHQWVIURP WKLVSHUVSHFWLYH\RXWKXVHDJJUHVVLRQDVDPHDQVWRFOLPEVWDWXVKLHUDUFKLHVLQRUGHUWRVXVWDLQWKHLUUHODWLRQDO SRZHURYHUSHHUV7KHVHHIIHFWVDUHPLWLJDWHGZKHQFURVVVH[IULHQGVKLSVDUHSOHQWLIXOEXWZKHQFURVVVH[ IULHQGVKLSVDUHUDUHFURVVVH[LQWHUDFWLRQVPDJQLI\VWDWXVGLIIHUHQFHVFUHDWLQJWKHFRQGLWLRQVIRUDJJUHVVLRQ $QHPHUJHQWSHUVSHFWLYHSHHOVEDFNWKHOD\HUVIURP\RXWKYLROHQFHWR\RXWKFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVKRZ\RXWK KDQGOHWURXEOHZLWKSHHUVYLDQRQYLROHQFHDQGSK\VLFDOYLROHQFHWRFXOWXUDOFRQWH[WDQGSHHUUHODWLRQVKLSVDPRQJ \RXWK,QWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHVFKRODUVKDYHGUDZQIURPWKHODZDQGVRFLHW\WUDGLWLRQFRPELQHGZLWKVRFLRORJ\DQG DQWKURSRORJ\WRH[DPLQHKRZ\RXWKPDNHVHQVHRIDQGUHVSRQGWRVLWXDWLRQVWKH\ÀQGWURXEOHVRPHDQGRU WKUHDWHQLQJ5DWKHUWKDQIRFXVRQO\RQYLROHQFHUHVHDUFKHUVXVLQJWKLVDSSURDFKVWXG\WKHHQWLUHUDQJHRI\RXWK FRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVDQGGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSHUVSHFWLYHVUHYHDOHGLQORQJWHUPHWKQRJUDSKLFREVHUYDWLRQVRI\RXWKDQG \RXWKQDUUDWLYHVDERXWFRQÁLFW_{$WLVVXHDUHWKHZD\V\RXWKDYRLGRUUHVSRQGWRYLROHQFHLQQRQYLROHQWZD\V} ,Q\RXWKQDUUDWLYHVIRUH[DPSOHERWKPDOHDQGIHPDOHVWRU\WHOOHUVIURPORZLQFRPHXUEDQDUHDVVSLQWDOHVRIORQH DFWRUYLROHQWDJJUHVVLRQWKDWRYHUFRPHVWKHUHSXWDWLRQDOVWLJPDRIEHLQJ´EHDWGRZQµE\DSHHU²WKHFODVVLFFRGH RIWKHVWUHHWDFFRXQW2EVHUYHGYLDORQJWHUPHWKQRJUDSK\KRZHYHUWKHVHVDPH\RXWKUDUHO\HQJDJHLQYLROHQW UHVSRQVHVWRUHSXWDWLRQDOWKUHDWVDQGWKHLUFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVDUHGHHSO\HPEHGGHGLQQRUPDWLYHFRPPLWPHQWVWR SHHUUHODWLRQV:KHQYLROHQWFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVRFFXUWKH\FRPPRQO\RFFXUDPRQJZHDNO\WLHG\RXWKRQWKHIURQW VWDJHVRISXEOLFSHHUYLVLELOLW\QRQYLROHQWFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVPRUHFRPPRQO\RFFXUDPRQJVWURQJO\WLHG\RXWKRQ WKHEDFNVWDJHVRIVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQ_{,QWKHDIWHUPDWKRISHHUYLROHQFHZLWKWKRVHWRZKRPWKH\KDYHVWURQJ} WLHV\RXWKDJJUHVVRUVRIWHQH[SHULHQFHGHHSHPRWLRQDOGLVVRQDQFHDQGDPELYDOHQFH_{SDUDOOHOWRZKDWDGXOW} DJJUHVVRUVH[SHULHQFH +RZ2UJDQL]DWLRQDO&RQGLWLRQVLQ6FKRROV&DQ$IIHFW3HHU+LHUDUFKLHVDQG<RXWK&RQÁLFW 0XFKRIWKHUHVHDUFKRQKRZRUJDQL]DWLRQDOFRQGLWLRQVLQVFKRROVLQÁXHQFHSHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDQG\RXWKYLROHQFH H[DPLQHVGHOLQTXHQF\SUHYHQWLRQ_{EUHDNGRZQVLQHYHU\GD\VRFLDORUGHURQFDPSXVHVWKHULVHRISHQDO}

OLNHGLVFLSOLQDU\RUGHUVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVXUYHLOODQFHDQGFXOWXUHVRIFRQWUROHJ´]HURWROHUDQFHµDQG´VDIH VFKRROVµ_{DQGWKHYXOQHUDELOLWLHVRIPLQRULW\\RXWKSRSXODWLRQVWRVXFKGLVFLSOLQDU\RUGHUV$QRWKHU}

HPHUJHQWVWUHDPRIUHVHDUFKLQYHVWLJDWHVKRZ\RXWKDJJUHVVLRQ²HVSHFLDOO\´EXOO\LQJµ²YDULHVDFURVVRUJDQL]DWLRQDO FRQGLWLRQVLQVFKRROFRQWH[WV7KLVUHVHDUFKÀQGVWKDWSHUFHSWLRQVRIVRFLDOWUXVWPXWXDOUHJDUGDQGH[SHFWDWLRQV DERXWFRPPLWPHQWVWRRWKHUV_{IDFLOLWDWHVWHDFKHUVDQG\RXWKZRUNLQJWRJHWKHUWRFRQVWUDLQSHHUDJJUHVVLRQ} DPRQJ\RXWK111_{$FRPSOLPHQWDU\OLQHRIUHVHDUFKXVHVDORQJWHUPPXOWLPHWKRGFDVHVWXG\WRUHYHDOKRZDQ} XUEDQSXEOLFVFKRROKLVWRULFDOO\VXVWDLQHGVRFLDOWUXVWLQDVFKRROFXOWXUHRILQFUHDVLQJHWKQRUDFLDOGLIIHUHQFHDQG WKHLQWURGXFWLRQRISHQDOOLNHGLVFLSOLQDU\RUGHUVWKDWWKUHDWHQHGWRXQGHUPLQHWKDWWUXVW6RFLDOWUXVW²HPEHGGHG LQVWXGHQWWHDFKHUDOOLDQFHVDQGFDPSXVRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGHQDEOHGE\DGPLQLVWUDWRUV²XQGHUJLUGVWKHVFKRRO·V UHVLOLHQFHDQGLWVDELOLW\WRDGDSWDQGLQQRYDWHLQWKHIDFHRIFKDQJH6RFLDOWUXVWDOVRFUHDWHVRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRU SHHUVWRJDLQFRPSHWHQFHDWQDYLJDWLQJPXOWLSOHVRFLDOKLHUDUFKLHVDQGFROOHFWLYHO\VKDUHJHRJUDSKLFDQGRWKHU VSDFHV7KHVHG\QDPLFVDOORZVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWRIIDQGRQIURQWDQGEDFNVWDJHVRISHHULQWHUDFWLRQZKLFK LQFUHDVHVWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVIRULQFOXVLYHSHHUUHODWLRQVKLSVWKDWFURVVVRFLDOOLQHVWKHFDSDFLW\RI\RXWKWRLGHQWLI\ZLWK WKRVHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHPVHOYHVDQGDSUHGRPLQDQFHRIQRQYLROHQWFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHV A Note on Methods 6RFLRORJLVWVXVHERWKTXDOLWDWLYHDQGTXDQWLWDWLYHPHWKRGVWRVWXG\SHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDQG\RXWKFRQÁLFWDQG YLROHQFHEXWHVSHFLDOO\IDYRUVLQJOHVLWHHWKQRJUDSKLHVLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVLQFOXGLQJQDUUDWLYHDQDO\VLVVHOI

‡ :KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVRFLDOWUXVWWKHFKDUDFWHURISHHUKLHUDUFKLHVUHODWLRQVDQGWKH UHSHUWRLUHRIFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVRQVFKRROFDPSXVHV" ‡ +RZFDQVFKRROEDVHGVRFLDOWUXVWEHVXVWDLQHGLQWKHIDFHRIXUEDQDQGVXEXUEDQFKDQJHHVSHFLDOO\DV QHLJKERUKRRGVDUHJHQWULÀHGRUGHWHULRUDWHGE\PHWURSROLWDQGHYHORSPHQWDQGSRSXODWLRQWXUQRYHU" ‡ +RZFDQDFWLRQVLQGLFDWLYHRIVRFLDOWUXVWEHHPSLULFDOO\PHDVXUHG" $WWKHUHODWLRQDODQGLQGLYLGXDOOHYHOV ‡ +RZGR\RXWKFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVYDU\ZLWKWKHNLQGVRIVRFLDOUHODWLRQVKLSVWKH\IRUP" ‡ :KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ\RXWKFRQWURORIDQGPRYHPHQWDFURVVJHRJUDSKLFDQGRWKHUIRUPVRI VSDFHHJRQOLQHDQGUHSHUWRLUHVDQGXVDJHRIFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVDPRQJ\RXWK" ‡ :KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHFDSDFLW\WRQDYLJDWHPXOWLSOHSHHUDQGDGXOWKLHUDUFKLHVDQG\RXWK FRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHV" ‡ +RZDUHJHQGHUUDFHHWKQLFLW\DQGVRFLDOFODVVLPSOLFDWHGLQWKHUHSHUWRLUHRIFRQÁLFWSUDFWLFHVDYDLODEOH WRDQGXVHGE\LQGLYLGXDO\RXWK" ‡ +RZDUHDGXOWVLPSOLFDWHGLQWKHIRUPDWLRQRISHHUKLHUDUFKLHVDQGSDWWHUQVRIDJJUHVVLYHFRQÁLFW SUDFWLFHVDPRQJ\RXWK"

Some Key Facts About Criminal Violence Pertinent to the Relation of Self-control to Violence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ÀFLDOVWDWLVWLFV 0XFKYLROHQWEHKDYLRULVVKRUWVLJKWHGDQGVHHPLQJO\DGYHQWLWLRXV,WSURGXFHVOLWWOHJDLQEXWLWHQJHQGHUV FRQVLGHUDEOHORQJWHUPQHJDWLYHFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUWKHDFWRU0RVWYLROHQWDFWVDUHQRWSODQQHGORQJLQDGYDQFH EXWUDWKHURIWHQVHHPQHDUO\VSRQWDQHRXVDQGLQKLQGVLJKWHYHQWRWKHRIIHQGHUWREHXQDFFRXQWDEOH4XLWH IUHTXHQWO\DOFRKRORURWKHUGUXJVDUHLQYROYHG 7KHUHLVFRQVLGHUDEOHVWDELOLW\LQLQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHWHQGHQF\WRHQJDJHLQGHOLQTXHQF\DQGFULPHRYHUWKHOLIH FRXUVH7KLVLVVRHYHQWKRXJKWKHGHFOLQHLQFULPHDQGGHOLQTXHQF\ZLWKDJHSRVWDGROHVFHQFHPDLQWDLQVJHQHUDOO\ ,QGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQVHOIFRQWURORUVHOIUHJXODWLRQDUHDPRQJWKHVWURQJHVWDQGPRVWFRQVLVWHQWO\VKRZQLQGLYLGXDO FRUUHODWHVRIFULPHGHOLQTXHQF\YLROHQFHDQGRWKHUSUREOHPEHKDYLRUV6HOIFRQWURORUVHOIUHVWUDLQWLVDPRQJWKHPRVW ZLGHO\UHVHDUFKHGSHUVSHFWLYHVLQWKHÀHOGDQGDVVXFKWKHHPSLULFDOOLWHUDWXUHDGGUHVVLQJLWLVODUJH ,QWHUYHQWLRQVLQHDUO\FKLOGKRRGPD\HIIHFWLYHO\DOWHUWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIODWHUGHOLQTXHQF\DQGFULPH3LTXHUR DQGFROOHDJXHV_{UHSRUWPHWDDQDO\VLVRIVWXGLHVLQGLFDWLQJHYLGHQFHIRUHIIHFWLYHLQWHUYHQWLRQVIRUIRFXVHG} HIIRUWVRIVHOIFRQWURO>3LTXHURHWDO@DQGSURYLGHHYLGHQFHIRUHIIHFWLYHFKDQJHEDVHGGLUHFWO\RQVHOI FRQWUROHQKDQFHPHQWVIRUDVDPSOHRIVWXGLHV 4XHVWLRQVWKUHHEURDGFODVVHVRILVVXHVUHODWHGWRPDVVVKRRWLQJVDQGJXQYLROHQFHDUHDSSDUHQW ‡ 7RZKDWH[WHQWDUHLQFLGHQWVRIVKRRWLQJVGLVWLQFWIURPRUVLPLODUWRPRUHFRPPRQIRUPVRIDGROHVFHQWSUREOHP EHKDYLRUVLQZD\VSHUWLQHQWWRHWLRORJ\"6RPHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVHHPVLPLODURWKHUVGLIIHUHQW'RVXFKHYHQWV EHORQJLQWKHVDPHGRPDLQRIH[SODQDWLRQDVPRUHRUGLQDU\IRUPVRIYLROHQWDQGGHOLQTXHQWDFWV",QPRVW LQVWDQFHVRIPRUHFRPPRQIRUPVRIGHOLQTXHQF\DQGFULPLQDOYLROHQFHWKHYLROHQFHSHUPLWVWKHRIIHQGHUVRPH PRPHQWDU\SHUVRQDOJDLQ³WKHWKHIWRISURSHUW\WKHHQGRIDQDUJXPHQWRUHYHQDVHQVHRISHUVRQDOVWDWXV 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVRPHFULPLQDOYLROHQFHODFNVDSSDUHQWPRPHQWDU\JDLQRUVHHPVGHVLJQHGWRVDWLVI\ PRUHORQJWHUPUDWKHUWKDQVKRUWWHUPREMHFWLYHVHYHQDVWKHVHREMHFWLYHVDUHDW\SLFDO&RQWUDU\WRPRVW