The Study of Managerial Competencies for Effective Job
Performance.
Kavita Girish Adsule
1Dr.R.R.Berad
21.Sinhagad Institute of management and computer application,pune, [email protected],mob-9823010160
2. Ex-director, Amrutvahini Institute of Management & Business Administration, Sangamner.
SHIV SHAKTI
International Journal in Multidisciplinary and Academic Research (SSIJMAR)
Vol. 3, No. 1, February- March -2014 (ISSN 2278 – 5973)
Abstract: Managers are required to ensure that organizations achieve their objectives. The core focus of any organization is to ensure that they hire, develop and retain effective and efficient personnel‟s. Competent managers have been required by the organizations from the early 1950‟s.Boyatzis (1982). However, since the
scope of the study is limited to understanding the competencies required for effective job performance, we
would restrict our detailing to that itself. Job performance is one of the most important dependent variables and
has been studied for a long decade. The basic objective behind this study was to ascertain how the meaning of
the word „competency‟ has changed and evolved over a period of time. This was primarily done to understand the meaning of competency thoroughly which is relevant in today‟s business environment, To establish the
difference between traditional role and new roles played by managers, Does the new role require new
competencies?, Identify managerial competencies (Based on existing literature),Try to establish relationship
between Job Performance and Managerial Competencies.
1) Introduction:
Managers are required to ensure that organizations achieve their objectives. The core focus of
any organization is to ensure that they hire, develop and retain effective and efficient
personnel‟s. Competent managers have been required by the organizations from the early 1950‟s.Boyatzis (1982).If we look at the scenario of the world‟s super power i.e. The United
States of America, the service sector has dominated the economy by contributing around 66 % to
GDP in early 70‟s. Secondly, service sector in USA also employed around 68% during the same
period. The scenario has not changed much in USA even today and also it is not quite different
in India. The contribution of service sector to India‟s GDP stands at 57%.Press Information
Bureau (2013).
Post liberalization, and abolishing of „License Raj‟, the Indian economy opened up for private players. This in turn increased the competition and with „Globalization‟, Inflows of FDI‟s and FII‟s it became evident that, organizations need to compete to survive rather than survive and compete. This has eventually led to a „Talent War‟ with many organizations head hunting star
performers from the competitors and investing heavily in their growth. Organizations which have
has to work with a lesser talent have learnt to develop and effective utilize the available talent
from within the organization. Organization‟s have understood that citing to limited availability of
talent but abundant availability of the resources through which the talent can be developed, it
would be fruitful if organizations focus on improving the skills and knowledge of existing
manpower. The role of manager has changed over years. Organization‟s today need‟s competent
managers.
Before getting into the specifics of the study, it is critically important to review and explain the
concepts that are the building blocks of competency modeling. However, to achieve the same, it
is also important to know how competencies have evolved over a period of time, how the role of
managers have changed in today‟s globalized economies, can there be a generic competency
model, if so what are the advantages and limitations of the same?
The literature relating to competence and competencies is extremely wide ranging in terms of
management practices. Understanding the definition is of prime importance as it forms the base
for development of competency models. This section attempts to concise the definitions provided
by experts so as to understand how the word competency has evolved over a period of time.
Over the last decade, Human Resources Management has developed and used competency
models as a major reinforcement for strategy development and implementation. This has led to
other departments and domains also resorting to competency mapping and modelling. It is
propagated by lot of experts and researchers and consultants that, competency based approach to
performing management functions not only improves job performance but also, significantly
improves organizational effectiveness. Nevertheless there is a considerable, and
fundamentallyunchallenged, gap between the many claims and the actual benefits measurably
delivered by competency initiatives. Leanne H. et.al. (2005).
Conventional acumen says that for success of any enterprise, we need three primary entities,
people, product and process Jon Holt and Simon Perry (2011). It may be argued that an
organization would always require workers and employees of requisite skills to do the job
properly. Now the skills can be acquired through training and various qualifications. Once the
skills are acquired, it is necessary to demonstrate the same in various different processes which
would lead to the production of product or services. If a worker, employee or a manager is able
to imbibe the skills into the processes, it is termed as capabilities.
If we look at the definitions which has emerged over the years, it would be quite evident that the
coverage of the term „competency and competence‟ was narrow in the early years. However, the
definitions and meanings of the above terms have changed to include the behavioral dimension
of the concerned, hence covering a wider domain in the recent years.Mohammad Javed
Dehghan Ashkezari &Mojtaba Nik Aeen (2012)
Looking at the competitive scenario in the world economies, it can be easily concluded with
conviction that „skills‟ of the workforce plays a major role in organizations achievingcompetitive
advantage. The focus is more on human competency base and its development to sustain the
competitive advantage.Ozcelik and Ferman (2006)
But can skills alone deliver the competitive advantage? Experts think otherwise. Their arguments
significantly over the years. Also the skill requirements for doing a job has evolved over a period
of time. Also, knowledge and skills are interrelated. Knowledge alone cannot ensure successful
completion of job. Also, sufficient skills and knowledge together also cannot ensure s successful
performance on the job.
Although noted that understanding competencies is important, the fundamental challenge is to
draw a consensus on a common generic definition of competencies. It seems through literature
that competency requirements changes from role to role or a specific position that an individual
holds in the organization. Micheal A. Hoge et.al. (2005)
The competency movement has been in use in business through the groundbreaking work of
McClelland, (1973), Boyatzis, (1982), Spencer and Spencer(1993)and many others in the
field. Ozcelik and Ferman(2006)
Boyatzis (1982) described competencies as underlying characteristics of an individual, which
are, causally related to effective job performance. He suggested that if performance is considered
as a dependent variable, then change in one independent variable will lead to change in the
dependent variable. Many researchers took forward the work of Boyatzis to see if individual
characteristics can be identified and defined more precisely.
Individual characteristic is a competency that can be counted reliably and that can be shown to
differentiate significantly between effective and ineffective performers. Lachance
(1999)propogated that individual charachteristics would involve self image, traits, skills,
motives, social roles and body of knowledge. This was in extention to the framework proposed
by Boyatzis (1982).
Sinnott et.al. (2002)stressed that successful job performance and ability to meet the
organizational objectives totally depended on the underlying characteristics of the person. These
charateristics included knowledge, skills, abilities and some other charateristics such as values,
ethics, motivation, initiatuve and self control. Some researchers also propogated that, the job
performance of an individual if it had to be effective should primarily consit of four main areas
of competencies which would include cognitive competence, functional competence, behavioual
competence and ethical competenceCheetam & Chivers (2005). They stressed that cognitive
technical know hows of its applicability. Functional competencies would include the ability to
carry out a range of work based tasks effectively to produce effective and efficient outcomes.
Behavioural competencies would include ability to adopt appropriate observable behaviour in
work related situations. Ethical competencies would include possession of appropriate personal
and professional values and ability to make sound judgements based upon these in work related
situations.
Further to this researchers started viewing competencies in terms of Knowledge, skills and
abilities alone of the concerned individuals.Voorhes (2001), Sanchez-Ruiz, et.al. (2006)
However knowledge, skills and abilities alone could not have delivered the competencies. This
was viewed from the purpose of integrated application of the above three parameters along with
values, experiences, contacts, tools to solve the problems required for handling an activity or a
situation. Friesen & Anderson, (2004)
Meanwhile, competency can be described as a set of behavior patterns that an incumbent needs
to bring to a position in order to perform its tasks and functions in the delivery of desired results
or outcomes.Woodruffe (1992)
Some researchers stressed on measuring the applicability of the terms in regards to successful
completion of given jobs. Quinn et.al.(1990)corroborated that competencies are skills and
knowledge requirements associated with implementing the projects and assignments
successfully. Where the focus of Boyatzis (1982) was completely on Individual characteristics,
Quinn (1990) focused more on implementation of skills and knowledge. However, the work
does not dwell much on personality, attitude and behavioral aspects of a workmen.
Organizations work on goals and objectives. Strategic goals are translated to domain specific
goals further generating departmental goals and team goals. Burgoyue (1993) brought in a
functional perspective by suggesting that competencies are „how the goals of organizations were
best achieved by improving members performance‟?
How the goals of the organizations are met dealt more with understanding the skill sets available
on how well the organizations are able to fill the gap between the required skills set and available
skill set. The work focused more on technical competencies required to do the job successfully
proving that there was a high correlation between individual competencies and performance
further leading to significant impact on organizational performance.
In the late 90‟s focus of the researchers was to define competencies in terms of capabilities.
Marrelli (1998)defined competencies as “Measurable human capabilities that are required for
effective work performance demands”.
3) CHANGING ROLE OF MANAGERS:
The world is moving rapidly towards a management revolution. Traditional teams have been
replaced by empowered teams and virtual teams. Focus of the organizations have now drifted to
lean management practices and kaizen. The teams are developed such that individuals within the
teams are able to operate at optimum productivity. Organizations have been forced to
re-examinetheir basic goals and operating principles in orderto compete in a global economy while
keepingthe work force effective and productive.Larry Dean and Shiela E Murphy(1995)
After deliberating much focus on team approach which obviously has more advantages than
disadvantages, many experts feel that in today‟s scenario managers role has diminished a great
extent. Many have concluded that managers prove to be hindrance in effective functionality of
teams and individuals. Charles C. Manz and H.P Sims Jr(1993)
The reasons being many for the above. Firstly, it is argued that where teams are performing well,
what is the role that a manager would play? Secondly, many managers find it difficult to
articulate the change in organzational structure and key roles that is desired with the changing
environment.
The roles of the managers have significantly changed Charles C. Manz and H.P Sims Jr
(1990)as compared to traditional hierarichal system of the past. The managers of today have
donned the role of team advisor or a case manager or an advocate. This role is significant when
the organizations prime focus is towards business reengineering and strategic management.
4) MANAGERIAL COMPETENCIES AND JOB PERFORMANCE:
Many researchers over a period of time have tried to identify and establish competencies which
are required for managerial effectiveness leading to superior performance. Some experts
suggested that inherent ability, personality, experience, managing people, leadership, team
working ability and customer focus as key competencies that would define and lead the way to
successful completion of assignments by managers in the 21st century. A substantial study for the
Institute of Management found that the skills most in demand were managing people, leadership,
team working and customer focus. Functional and technical skills are not unimportant, but it is
these „softer‟ skills that will define the successful managers and leaders of tomorrow. The
findings and shows that the key factor for successful organisations in the new millennium will be
having leaders who have excellent people management skills and an understanding of behavioral
issues.
Along with the above mentioned, many researcher tried to identify and differentiate
competencies in terms of available skills(Murray, Owen, & McGaw, 2005). Their focus was
more into segregating competencies on the basis of analytical skills, interpersonal skills and
collaboration skills. Analytical skills in further sub-divided into problem solving skills and
critical thinking.
A survey carried out by Strategic Human Resource Management SHRM (2008) suggested
that HR professionals, employees and managers all reported that adaptability/flexibility and
critical thinking/problem-solving skills were of greatest importance now compared with two
years ago.
Research in the area of establishing communication skills as a key competency among
managers revealed that communication plays a crucial role as a interpersonal skill and showing a
positive correlation towards customer retention, self- confidence and performance. It manifests
in both the ability of a worker to interact with customers and colleagues and how they
communicated via their appearance and approach – what is referred to as aesthetic
workplace,” but that such “soft” skills were more difficult to train. (Gatta, 2010, Nickson, 2004,
Group, 2003).
Use of oral presentations is a competency with which people make effective verbal
presentations, whether these presentations be in one-on-one meetings or an address as able to
verbally communicate effectively. They often utilize visual aids and graphics to get the message
across to the audience.(Boyatzis, 1982)
Collaboration plays a critical role of a competency. Collaboration means an individual‟s ability
to engage with others, ability to interact in a heterogeneous group. This further helps in critical
decision making where the inputs from other employees plays a crucial role. (Crebert, et.al
2004).
Concern with impact represents a concern with symbols of power to have impact on others. At
the motive level, this is called the n Power (McClelland D. , 1973; Winter D.G, 1981). People
with this motive collect objects of prestige, become officers in organizations to which they
belong, and act assertively. These people see themselves as important. In social and
organizational contexts, they adopt roles associated with a relatively high degree of status.
Self-control is a competency with which people inhibit personal needs or desires in service of
organizational needs. At the trait level, self-control is impulse control (McClelland, 1973).
People with this trait consistently weigh the costs and benefits to themselves and to the social
group, organization, or other system of which they are a part before expressing or acting on
personal needs or desires. System wide issues, such as concern for justice and equity, are often of
primary importance to people with this trait. In contrast, people without this trait think of
immediate gratification or satisfaction in an individual or self-centred manner.
Self-confidence is a competency often called decisiveness or presence. People with
self-confidence feel that they know what they are doing. They also feel that they are doing it well.
People with this characteristic have a positive self-esteem. In behavioral terms, these people
appear to be forceful, unhesitating, and impressive in verbal and nonverbal actions. They have a
belief in the likelihood of their own success.(Boyatzis, 2007)
Some of the other competencies that have been identified by the researchers include:
context while holding one‟s own values constant, Empathy, interest in the local culture,
flexibility, tolerance, and technical skill (Kealy, 1989), Cultural Adaptability (Ruben, 1976),
and (Cui & Berg, 1991), which includes a set of behaviors used by a person motivated to
understand the influence of culture on behavior and who has the skills to learn about and use
cultural differences, Business Knowledge, International Business Knowledge (Kotter, 1982),
dealing with conflict, participating in group discussions, gathering and sharing information
(O'Reilley, Caldwell, & Bartette, 1989), Contextual Sensitivity Competencies, Initiative
Management Competencies, Innovations-related Competencies, Resilient Problem Solving
Competencies, Task Execution Competencies, Interpersonal and Leadership-related (Khandwala,
2004), Managing Administration & Control, Knowledge of Technology, Product Design, &
Production, Managing the Task Environment, Knowledge of general business functions,
Managing Strategy & Innovation, Knowledge of Media Communications & Delivery, Managing
Human Capital, Knowledge of Human Behaviour & Society, Managing Decision-making
Processes, Managing Tools & Technology, Interpersonal Skills, Conscientiousness, Strategic &
Systems Skills, Generative Thinking, Skills in operations, Interpersonal Orientation (Diedorff,
Rubin, & Robert, 2006).
5) Limitations of Traditional Competency Models and its limitations:
There can‟t be a generic competency model commonly applicable to all industries but competency models will differ based on the type of the industry‟- Reasons:
• Competency models are based on behaviors, not accomplishments:
Competencies are behaviors or (more often) abstract categories of behavior. But even
combinations of skillful behavior that reflect a variety of competencies might occur
without generating any valuable accomplishments. Salespeople, for example, might be
able to exhibit different types of behavior learned in sales training yet fail to produce
desired sales outcomes. On the other hand, by specifying business results (e.g., repeat
business) and key accomplishments required to produce them (e.g., satisfied customers,
retained customers), we create a much clearer path for trainers, managers, and sales
• There is often disagreement about the process and the terms used to define competencies (Marrelli A. , 1998)
There is huge variation in how competency modelers work to define competencies and
link those competencies to individual and organizational performance.
Some developers simply select competency names and definitions from lists to create
their models, while others conduct extensive field research to identify behavior that
“illustrates” the competencies. One model might define a given competency differently
than another, use a different analysis process, or link different competencies to different
success factors. In Langdon and Marrelli‟s words, “Identifying job competencies has traditionally used more art than science”.
• Competencies are often broadly defined, ambiguous, and subjective.
Rarely are they specific or measurable. Examples of commonly used competencies
include: good communicator, business acumen, action oriented, approachable, pragmatic,
creative, and a team player. The resulting problems of analysis and application are
numerous. One obvious difficulty is that such competencies are open to wide
interpretation, which can lead to confusingvariability in evaluation and performance.
Competency modelers have attempted to solve this problem by adding behavioral
indicators to each competency. Behavioral indicators do provide more description of
what a competency “means,” however, the focus is still on behavior instead of business
results or individual accomplishments required.
In addition, behavioral indicators are often written as subjective, non-measurable
descriptions of desirable behavior instead of objective measurable results required. An
example of a behavioral indicator for the competency entrepreneurship taken from an actual
competency model is: “applies initiative and drive to find and exploit potential sales opportunities.” Such variability in interpretation lays a weak and uncertain foundation for
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