Plumbing Engineering
Design Handbook
A Plumbing Engineer’s Guide to System Design and Specifications
Plumbing Components
and Equipment
Copyright © 2008 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers
All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photographic process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction, or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the publisher.
mation contained in this publication. All data and information are provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting, engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers 8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007
Chicago, IL 60656-1116
(773) 693-ASPE • Fax: (773) 695-9007 E-mail: [email protected] • Internet: www.aspe.org
ISBN 978-1-891255-28-1 Printed in China
Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook
Volume 4
Plumbing Components and Equipment
Chair Jason McDonald, CPD ASPE Vice President, Technical Norman Parks, CPD, CET
Editorial Review Gretchen Pienta Layout & Design David Ropinski
CONTRIBUTORS Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures
Joseph Ficek, CPD Chapter 2: Piping Systems
Bruce Weiss, CPD Chapter 3: Valves Tom A. Wilson, CPD Jason Geller Chapter 4: Pumps Steven Skattebo, PE Chapter 5: Piping Insulation
Dennis Richards, CPD Bruce Weiss, CPD
Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports Jason McDonald, CPD
Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation Mark Stickney
Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors Dennis Richards, CPD
Mark J. Kaulas Mike Gauthier Greg Aymong
Chapter 9: Cross-connection Control Steven Skattebo, PE
Chapter 10: Water Treatment David DeBord, LEED, CPD Chapter 11: Thermal Expansion
Jodie Sherven, CPD
Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems
Frank Sanchez, CPD Chapter 13: Bioremediation
Pretreatment Systems Max Weiss
Chapter 14: Green Plumbing David DeBord, LEED, CPD
The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is the international organization for professionals skilled in the design and specification of plumbing systems. ASPE is dedicated to the advancement of the science of plumbing engineering, to the professional growth and advancement of its members, and to the health, welfare, and safety of the public.
The Society disseminates technical data and information, sponsors activities that facilitate interaction with fellow professionals, and, through research and education programs, expands the base of knowledge of the plumbing engineering industry. ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, effective materials and energy use, and the application of advanced techniques from around the world.
WorldWide MeMbership — ASPE was founded in 1964 and currently has 7,000 members. Spanning the globe,
members are located in the United States, Canada, Asia, Mexico, South America, the South Pacific, Australia, and Europe. They represent an extensive network of experienced engineers, designers, contractors, educators, code officials, and manufacturers interested in furthering their careers, their profession, and the industry. ASPE is at the forefront of technology. In addition, ASPE represents members and promotes the profession among all segments of the construction industry.
Aspe MeMbership CoMMuniCAtion — All members belong to ASPE worldwide and have the opportunity to belong to and participate in one of the 59 state, provincial, or local chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. ASPE chapters provide the major communication links and the first line of services and programs for the individual member. Communication with the membership is enhanced through the Society’s magazine, Plumbing Systems & Design, and the newsletter ASPE Report, which is incorporated as part of the magazine.
teChniCAl publiCAtions — The Society maintains a comprehensive publishing program, spearheaded by the
profession’s basic reference text, the Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook. The Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, encompassing 49 chapters in four volumes, provides comprehensive details of the accepted practices and design criteria used in the field of plumbing engineering. In 2008, the Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook of Tables joined ASPE’s published library of professional technical manuals and handbooks.
ConventionAnd teChniCAl syMposiuM — The Society hosts biennial Conventions in even-numbered years and
Technical Symposia in odd-numbered years to allow professional plumbing engineers and designers to improve their skills, learn original concepts, and make important networking contacts to help them stay abreast of current trends and technologies. In conjunction with each Convention is an Engineered Plumbing Exposition, the largest gathering of plumbing engineering and design products, equipment, and services. Everything from pipes to pumps to fixtures, from compressors to computers to consulting services is on display, giving engineers and specifiers the opportunity to view the newest and most innovative materials and equipment available to them.
Certifiedin pluMbing design — ASPE sponsors a national certification program for engineers and designers of
plumbing systems, which carries the designation “Certified in Plumbing Design” or CPD. The certification program provides the profession, the plumbing industry, and the general public with a single, comprehensive qualification of professional competence for engineers and designers of plumbing systems. The CPD, designed exclusively by and for plumbing engineers, tests hundreds of engineers and designers at centers throughout the United States. Created to provide a single, uniform national credential in the field of engineered plumbing systems, the CPD program is not in any way connected to state-regulated Professional Engineer (PE) registration.
Aspe reseArCh foundAtion — The ASPE Research Foundation, established in 1976, is the only independent, impartial organization involved in plumbing engineering and design research. The science of plumbing engineering affects everything, from the quality of our drinking water to the conservation of our water resources to the building codes for plumbing systems. Our lives are impacted daily by the advances made in plumbing engineering technology through the Foundation’s research and development.
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook
(4 Volumes — 49 Chapters)
Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering
(Revised 2004)Chapter 1 Formulas, Symbols, and Terminology
2 Standards for Plumbing Materials and Equipment 3 Specifications
4 Plumbing Cost Estimation
5 Job Preparation, Plumbing Drawings, and Field Reports 6 Plumbing for People (or Persons) with Disabilities 7 Energy and Resource Conservation in Plumbing Systems 8 Corrosion
9 Seismic Protection of Plumbing Equipment 10 Acoustics in Plumbing Systems
11 Basics of Value Engineering
12 Green Design for Plumbing Systems
Volume 2 Plumbing Systems
(Revised 2006)Chapter 1 Sanitary Drainage Systems
2 Grey Water (Water Reuse) Systems 3 Vents and Venting
4 Storm Drainage Systems 5 Cold Water Systems
6 Domestic Water Heating Systems 7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
8 Private Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems (POWTS) 9 Private Water Wells
10 Vacuum Systems
11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification 12 Special-Waste Drainage Systems
Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems
(Revised 2007)Chapter 1 Fire Protection Systems
2 Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities 3 Treatment of Industrial Waste
4 Irrigation Systems
5 Reflecting Pools and Fountains 6 Public Swimming Pools
7 Gasoline and Diesel Oil Systems 8 Steam and Condensate Piping 9 Compressed Air Systems 10 Solar Energy
11 Site Utility Systems
(The chapters and subjects listed for these volume are subject to modification, adjustment and change. The contents shown for each volume are proposed and may not represent the final contents of the volume.
Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures. . . 1
Accessibility . . . 2
Applicable Standards . . . 2
LEED and Plumbing . . . 2
Water Closets . . . 3
Shape and Size . . . 4
Bariatric Water Closets . . . 5
Water Closet Seat. . . 5
Flushing Performance . . . 5 Installation Requirements . . . 6 Flushing Systems. . . 7 Urinals . . . 8 Urinal Styles . . . 9 Flushing Performance . . . 9 Installation Requirements . . . 9 Flushing Requirements . . . 10 Lavatories . . . 10
Size and Shape . . . 10
Installation. . . 10
Kitchen Sinks . . . 11
Residential Kitchen Sinks . . . 11
Commercial Kitchen Sinks . . . 12
Service Sinks. . . 12 Sinks . . . 13 Laundry Trays . . . 13 Faucets . . . 13 Faucet Categories. . . 13 Flow Rates . . . 13 Backflow Protection. . . 13 Drinking Fountains . . . 14 Showers. . . 14
Table of Contents
Bathtub Fill Valve . . . 16
Bidet . . . 16
Floor Drains . . . 16
Emergency Fixtures . . . 17
Minimum Fixture Requirements for Buildings . . . 17
Single-occupant Toilet Rooms. . . 17
Chapter 2: Piping Systems. . . 23
Installation . . . 23
Specification . . . 23
Cast Iron Soil Pipe . . . 23
Hub and Spigot Pipe, No-hub Pipe and Fittings . . . 24
Hubless Pipe and Fittings . . . 25
Ductile Iron Water and Sewer Pipe. . . 25
Concrete Pipe . . . 28
Copper Pipe. . . 31
Copper Water Tube . . . 31
Copper Drainage Tube . . . 32
Medical Gas Tube . . . 32
Natural and Liquefied Petroleum . . . 32
Glass Pipe . . . 41 Steel Pipe . . . 42 Plastic Pipe . . . 50 Polybutylene. . . 50 Polyethylene. . . 50 Crossed-linked Polyethylene . . . 51
Crossed-linked Polyethylene, Aluminum, Crossed-linked Polyethylene . . . 52
Polyethylene/Aluminum/Polyethylene . . . 52
Polyvinyl Chloride . . . 52
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride . . . 53
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene . . . 53
Polypropylene. . . 54
Polyvinylidene Fluoride. . . 55
Teflon (PTFE) . . . 55
Low-extractable PVC. . . 55
Fiberglass and Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe . . . 55
Vitrified Clay Pipe . . . 56
Duriron Pipe . . . 56
Special-purpose Piping Materials . . . 57
Aluminum . . . 59
Stainless Steel . . . 59
Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing. . . 59
Double Containment . . . 60
Joining Practices . . . 60
Mechanical Joints . . . 60
Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints) . . . 60
Shielded Hubless Coupling . . . 60
Mechanically Formed Tee Fittings for Copper Tube . . . 61
Mechanical Joining of Copper Tube . . . 61
Joining Plastic Pipe . . . 62
Assembling Flanged Joints . . . 62
Making Up Threaded Pipe . . . 62
Thread Cutting . . . 62
Welding . . . 62
Joining Glass Pipe . . . 62
Bending Pipe and Tubing . . . 63
Electrofusion Joining. . . 63
Accessories and Joints . . . 63
Anchors. . . 63
Dielectric Unions or Flanges. . . 63
Expansion Joints and Guides . . . 63
Ball Joints . . . 63
Flexible Couplings (Compression or Slip) . . . 63
Gaskets (Flanged Pipe) . . . 63
Mechanical Couplings . . . 64
Hangers and Supports. . . 64
Pipe Unions (Flanged Connections) . . . 67
Pipe Sleeves . . . 67
Service Connections (Water Piping) . . . 67
Piping Expansion and Contraction . . . 69
Chapter 3: Valves. . . 73
Approval Organizations and Standard Practices . . . 73
Glossary . . . 73 Types of Valves . . . 75 Gate Valve . . . 75 Globe Valve. . . 75 Angle Valve. . . 76 Ball Valve . . . 76 Butterfly Valve . . . 76 Check Valve . . . 77 Plug Valve. . . 77 Valve Materials . . . 78
Brass and Bronze. . . 78
Iron . . . 78
Malleable Iron . . . 79
Stainless Steel . . . 79
Bonnets. . . 79
End Connections . . . 80
Water-pressure Regulators . . . 80
Regulator Selection and Sizing . . . 81
Common Regulating Valves. . . 81
Common Types of Regulator Installations. . . 82
Valve Design Choices . . . 82
Service Considerations . . . 82
Multi-turn Type . . . 82
Quarter-turn Type. . . 82
Check Type. . . 82
Design Detail: Gate Valve . . . 82
Advantages and Recommendations . . . 82
Disadvantages . . . 83
Disc and Seat Designs . . . 83
Design Detail: Globe and Angle Globe Valve . . . 83
Advantages and Recommendations . . . 83
Disadvantages . . . 83
Disc and Seat Designs . . . 83
Design Detail: Check Valve . . . 83
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Ball Valve. . . 83
Advantages and Recommendations . . . 83
Disadvantages . . . 84
Body Styles. . . 84
Port Size . . . 84
Handle Extensions. . . 84
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Butterfly Valve . . . 84
Advantages and Recommendations . . . 84
Disadvantages . . . 84
Body Styles. . . 84
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Valve, Lubricated Plug Cock . . . 84
Advantages and Recommendations . . . 84
Disadvantages . . . 85
Valve Sizing and Pressure Losses . . . 85
General Valve Specification by Service . . . 85
Hot and Cold Domestic Water Service . . . 85
Compressed Air Service. . . 86
Vacuum Service . . . 87
Medical Gas Service. . . 87
Low-pressure Steam and General Service . . . 87
Medium-pressure Steam Service . . . 88
High-pressure Steam Service . . . 88
High-temperature Hot Water Service. . . 89
Gasoline and LPG Service. . . 89
High-rise Service . . . 90
Chapter 4: Pumps . . . 93
Pump Basics . . . 93
Efficiency. . . 94
Comparison of Similar Centrifugal Pumps. . . 96
Performance Curves. . . 97 Terminology . . . 98 Staging . . . 98 Applications . . . 99 Pump Service . . . 100 Environmental Concerns . . . 100 Pump Control . . . 101 Pump Installation. . . 101 Conclusion . . . 102 Resources . . . 102
Chapter 5: Piping Insulation . . . 105
Glossary . . . 105
Water Vapor . . . 105
Flame and Smoke Requirements. . . 106
Cleaning and Sterilization . . . 106
Types of Insulation. . . 106 Fiberglass . . . 106 Elastomeric . . . 106 Cellular Glass. . . 107 Foamed Plastic . . . 107 Calcium Silicate . . . 107 Insulating Cement . . . 107 Types of Jacket . . . 107 All-service Jacket . . . 108 Aluminum Jacket. . . 108
Stainless Steel Jacket . . . 108
Plastic Jacket and Laminates . . . 108
Wire Mesh . . . 108
Lagging. . . 108
Installing Insulation for Valves and Fittings for Piping . . . 108
Installing Insulation for Tanks . . . 109
Pipe Support Methods . . . 109
Selection of Insulation Thickness . . . 112
Controlling Heat Loss . . . 112
Condensation Control . . . 113
Personnel Protection . . . 113
Resources . . . 116
Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports . . . 117
Hanger and Support Considerations. . . 117
Hangers and Supports as Part of the Piping System . . . 118
Loads . . . 118
Thermal Stresses . . . 119
Pressure Fluctuations . . . 119
Structural Stresses . . . 119
Natural Environmental Conditions . . . 119
Reactivity and Conductivity Considerations . . . 120
Acoustics. . . 120
Manmade Environmental Conditions . . . 120
General . . . 120
Hanger and Support Selection and Installation. . . 120
Hanger Types. . . 120
Selection Criteria . . . 124
Hanger and Support Spacing . . . 125
Anchoring. . . 125
Sleeves . . . 132
Hangers, Supports, and Anchor Materials. . . 132
Glossary . . . 134
Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation . . . 145
Definitions. . . 145
Theory of Vibration Control . . . 146
Types of Vibration and Shock Mountings. . . 149
Cork . . . 149
Elastomers and Neoprene Rubber . . . 149
Steel Spring Isolators . . . 149
Applications . . . 150
Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors. . . 153
Principle of Operation . . . 153
Retention Period . . . 154
Flow-through Period . . . 155
Factors Affecting Flotation in the Ideal Basin . . . 155
Grease Interceptor Design Example . . . 156
Data . . . 156
Solution . . . 157
Practical Design . . . 158
Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors . . . 158
Semiautomatic Units. . . 159
Grease Removal Devices . . . 159
Timer-controlled Units . . . 159
FOG Disposal Systems. . . 160
Gravity Grease Interceptors . . . 160
Field-formed Concrete Units. . . 161
Equipment Summary. . . 161
Applications . . . 162
Flow Control . . . 163
Guidelines for Sizing . . . 163
Code Requirements . . . 164
Summary of Uniform Plumbing Code Requirements for Interceptors . . . 164
Summary of International Plumbing Code Requirements for Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors. . . 165
Operation and Maintenance . . . 165
Economics . . . 166
Resources . . . 166
Chapter 9: Cross-connection Control. . . 169
Hydrostatic Fundamentals . . . 169
Causes of Reverse Flow . . . 170
Hazards in Water Distribution . . . 171
Control Paradox . . . 172 Classification of Hazards. . . 172 Control Techniques . . . 172 Passive Techniques . . . 172 Active Techniques . . . 173 Installations . . . 175 Installation Shortfalls . . . 176 Quality Control. . . 176
Product Standards and Listings . . . 176
Field Testing . . . 177
Regulatory Requirements . . . 177
Glossary . . . 177
Resources . . . 179
Appendix 9-A Sample Water Department Cross-connection Control Program/Ordinance . . . 179
Appendix 9-B Plumbing System Hazards . . . 184
Appendix 9-C American Water Works Association Statement of Policy . . . 184
Appendix 9-D Application of Cross-connection control Devices . . . 185
Appendix 9-E Safe Drinking Water Act Maximum Contaminant Levels. . . 186
Appendix 9-F Index of Water Treatment Equipment/Water Problems . . . 187
Appendix 9-G Case Studies of Cross-Contamination . . . 187
Human Blood in Water Supply . . . 187
Chemical Burn in the Shower. . . 187
Propane Gas in Water Supply . . . 188
Hexavalent Chromium in Water Supply . . . 189
Dialysis Machine Contamination . . . 189
Chapter 10: Water Treatment . . . 193
Need and Purpose for Water Treatment. . . 194
Damage by Untreated Water. . . 194
External and Internal Treatment. . . 194
Basic Water Types . . . 194
Methods of Producing High-grade Water. . . 195
Water Conditions and Recommended Treatments. . . 196
Turbidity . . . 196
Hardness . . . 196
Aeration and Deaeration . . . 196
Minerals . . . 197
Ion Exchange—Theory and Practice. . . 197
Controls . . . 198
Internal Arrangements . . . 198
Ion Exchange Water Softeners . . . 198
Basic Water Treatment . . . 199
Chlorination . . . 199
Clarification . . . 200
Filtration . . . 201
Water Softening . . . 205
Water Softener Selection . . . 205
Salt Recycling Systems . . . 209
Salt Storage Options . . . 211
Distillation . . . 211
Distillation Equipment Applications and Selection. . . 212
Feed Water . . . 214
Specialized Water Treatment . . . 215
Chlorination . . . 215
Ozone Treatment. . . 215
Ultraviolet Light Treatment . . . 216
Reverse Osmosis . . . 216 Nanofiltration . . . 220 Ultrafiltration . . . 220 Copper-Silver Ionization . . . 220 Glossary . . . 220 Resources . . . 224
Chapter 11: Thermal Expansion . . . 227
Aboveground Piping. . . 227
Pressure Piping . . . 227
Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping . . . 229
Underground Piping . . . 229
Expansion of Water . . . 232
Expansion of Material . . . 232
Boyle’s Law . . . 233
Summary. . . 234
Resources . . . 235
Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems . . . 237
Water in the Human Body . . . 237
Unitary Coolers . . . 237
Types . . . 237
Options and Accessories . . . 240
Water Cooler Features . . . 240
Refrigeration Systems . . . 242 Stream Regulators . . . 242 Water Conditioning . . . 242 Ratings . . . 243 Central Systems . . . 243 Chillers . . . 243
Distribution Piping System. . . 244
Drinking Water Coolers and Central Systems . . . 244
Drinking Fountains . . . 244 System Design . . . 244 Refrigeration . . . 244 Circulating Pump. . . 245 Storage Tank . . . 245 Distribution Piping . . . 246 Installation. . . 247
Standards, Codes, and Regulations. . . 247
Chapter 13: Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems . . . 249
Principle of Operation . . . 249 Separation . . . 250 Retention . . . 250 Disposal . . . 250 Flow Control . . . 251 Sizing Guidelines . . . 251 Design Considerations . . . 251 Materials . . . 252 Concrete . . . 252 Stainless Steel . . . 252
Fiberglass Reinforced Polyester . . . 252
Polyethylene. . . 252
Structural Considerations . . . 252
Chapter 14: Green Plumbing. . . 255
The Big Picture . . . 255
Water Use Facts . . . 255
Water and Sanitation. . . 255
Water and Disease . . . 256
Water and Economic Growth . . . 256
What Is Sustainable Design? . . . 256
Standards and Validation . . . 256
U.S. Green Building Council . . . 256
How Can LEED Help? . . . 257
The LEED Certification Process. . . 257
The LEED Rating System. . . 257
Real Life Financial Benefits. . . 258
Obstacles and Objections. . . 258
Domestic Water Use Reduction for Irrigation . . . 258
Domestic Water Use Reduction for Fixtures . . . 258
Low-flow Fixtures . . . 258
Wastewater Management. . . 259
Rainwater Capture and Reuse . . . 260
Graywater and Black Water . . . 261
Biosolids Technology . . . 261
Energy Requirements . . . 264
Energy Efficiency and Energy-saving Strategies . . . 264
Solar Water Heating. . . 264
Geothermal Systems . . . 265
Resources . . . 265
Figure 1-1 The older styles of water closets were identified as (A) reverse trap, (B) blowout, and (C) siphon jet, to name a few. Though still used in the industry, these
terms are no longer used in the standards. . . 3
Figure 1-2 Water closets are identified as (A) close coupled, (B) one piece, and (C) flushometer types. . . 3
Figure 1-3 A floor-mounted, back outlet water closet is supported on the floor with the piping connection through the back wall. . . . 4
Figure 1-4 A wall hung water closet attaches to the back wall; the water closet does not contact the floor.. . . 4
Figure 1-5 The standard rough-in dimension is 12 inches from the centerline of the water closet outlet to the back wall. The floor flange must be permanently secured to the building structure.. . . 4
Figure 1-6 The minimum size water closet compartment is 30 in. × 60 in. Spacing is required from the centerline of the water closet to a side wall or obstruction and from the front lip of the water closet to any obstruction. . . 6
Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes for Carriers . . . 7
Figure 1-8 (A) A Gravity Tank and (B) a Flushometer Tank . . . 8
Figure 1-9 Urinal spacing must be adequate to allow adjacent users to access the urinals without interference. . . . 9
Figure 1-10 Minimum Chase Sizes for Urinals . . . 10
Figure 1-11 Recommended Installation Dimensions for a Lavatory . . . 11
Figure 1-12 Minimum Chase Sizes for Lavatories. . . 11
Figure 1-13 Standard dimensions for a kitchen sink include a counter height of 36 inches above the finished floor. . . 12
Figure 1-14 When grease-laden waste is possible, the sink must discharge to a grease interceptor. . . 12
Figure 1-15 Drinking fountain height can vary depending on the application. . . . 14
Figure 1-16 Built-in-place showers require a pan below the floor. The drain must have weep holes at the shower pan level. . . 15
Figure 1-17 A standard bathtub is 5 ft in length. . . 15
Figure 1-18 A trench drain can be used as a floor drain in a building. A separate trap is required for each section of trench drain. . . . 16
Figure 1-19 Floor Drain . . . 16
Figure 1-20 Emergency Shower . . . 17
Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings. . . 24
Figure 2-4 Joints and Fittings for Ductile Iron Pipe. . . 29
Figure 2-5 Copper Tube Flared Fittings . . . 39
Figure 2-6 Copper and Bronze Joints and Fittings . . . 39
Figure 2-7 Copper Drainage Fittings . . . 40
Figure 2-8 Standard Glass Pipe . . . 41
Figure 2-9 Standard Glass Pipe Couplings . . . 41
Figure 2-10 Typical Glass Pipe Joint Reference Chart . . . 41
Figure 2-11 Standard Glass Fittings . . . 42
Figure 2-12 Plastic Pipe Fittings . . . 48
Figure 2-13 Fusion Lock Process in Operation . . . 55
Figure 2-14 Duriron Pipe (A) Duriron Joint (B) . . . 59
Figure 2-15 Copper Pipe Mechanical T-joint . . . 61
Figure 2-16 Typical Welding Fittings . . . 63
Figure 2-17 Types of Welded Joints . . . 63
Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts . . . 64
Figure 2-19 Dielectric Fittings . . . 65
Figure 2-20 Expansion Joints and Guides . . . 66
Figure 2-21 Compression Fittings . . . 66
Figure 2-22 Mechanical Joint . . . 67
Figure 2-23 Hangers, Clamps, and Supports . . . 68
Figure 2-24 Pipe Union . . . 69
Figure 2-25 Sleeves . . . 70
Figure 3-1 Gate Valve . . . 75
Figure 3-2 Globe Valve . . . 76
Figure 3-3 Angle Valve . . . 76
Figure 3-4 Ball Valve . . . 77
Figure 3-5 Butterfly Valve . . . 77
Figure 3-6 Check Valve . . . 77
Figure 3-7 Valve Stems . . . 78
Figure 4-1 Portion of a Close-coupled Centrifugal Pump With an End-suction Design . . . 94
Figure 4-2 Inline Centrifugal Pump with a Vertical Shaft . . . 94
Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller . . . 95
Figure 4-4 Centrifugal Pump with a Double-suction Inlet Design. . . 95
Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an Impeller Represented by Vector Y . . . 96
Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve. . . 97
Figure 4-7 Multistage or Vertical Lineshaft Turbine Pump . . . 98
Figure 4-8 Cross-section of a Grinder Pump with Cutting Blades at the Inlet . . . 100
Figure 5-1 Split Ring Hanger Detail. . . 109
Figure 5-2 Clevis Hanger - High Density Inserts . . . 110
Figure 5-3 Temperature Drop of Flowing Water in a Pipeline . . . 115
Figure 6-1 Types of Hangers and Supports . . . 121
Figure 6-2 Types of Hanger and Support Anchors . . . 127
Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency Ratio. . . 146
Figure 7-2 Calculator for Vibration Isolation . . . 147
Figure 7-2(M) Calculator for Vibration Isolation . . . 148
Figure 7-3 Typical Cork. . . 149
Figure 7-4 Typical Elastomer and Elastomer-cork Mountings. . . 150
Figure 7-5 Typical Steel Spring Mounting . . . 150
Figure 8-1 Rising and Settling Rates in Still Water . . . 154
Figure 8-2 Cross-section of a Grease Interceptor Chamber . . . 155
Figure 8-3 Trajectory Diagram . . . 156
Figure 8-4 (A) Hydromechanical Grease Interceptor (B) Timer-controlled Grease Removal Device (C) FOG Disposal System . . . 158
Figure 8-5 (A) Gravity Grease Interceptor (B) Passive, Tank-type Grease Interceptor . . 160
Figure 9-1 Hydrostatics Showing Reduced Absolute Pressure in a Siphon. . . 170
Figure 9-2 Pipe Network With Four Endpoints. . . 170
Figure 9-3 Five Typical Plumbing Details Without Cross-connection Control . . . 170
Figure 9-4 Siphon Sufficiently High to Create a Barometric Loop. . . 172
Figure 9-5 Five Typical Plumbing Details With Cross-connection Control . . . 172
Figure 9-6 Example of Cross-connection Controls in a Building . . . 173
Figure 9-7 Double-check Valve . . . 174
Figure 9-8 Reduced-pressure Principle Backflow Preventer . . . 174
Figure 9-9 Dual-check with Atmospheric Vent . . . 175
Figure 9-10 Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker . . . 175
Figure 9-11 Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker. . . 175
Figure 10-1 Ion Exchange Vessel—Internal Arrangements . . . 198
Figure 10-2 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant . . . 199
Figure 10-3 Sodium Cycle Softener Plus Acid Addition . . . 199
Figure 10-4 Automatic Chlorinators . . . 200
Figure 10-5 Manual Control Chlorinator . . . 201
Figure 10-6 Settling Basin . . . 201
Figure 10-7 Mechanical Clarifier . . . 202
Figure 10-8 Gravity Sand Filter (Rectangular shaped, material). . . 202
Figure 10-9 Vertical Pressure Sand Filter . . . 203
Figure 10-10 Backwashing . . . 203
Figure 10-11 Filtration and Backsplash Cycles . . . 203
Figure 10-12 Mudballs. . . 204
Figure 10-13 Fissures . . . 204
Figure 10-14 Gravel Upheaval . . . 204
Figure 10-15 Leaf Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter . . . 204
Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited from Water of 10 Grains Hardness as a Function of Water Use and Temperature. . . 205
Figure 10-17 Water Softener Survey Data . . . 209
Figure 10-18 Water Softener Sizing Procedure . . . 210
Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View . . . 216
Figure 10-24 Reverse Osmosis Process . . . 217
Figure 10-25 Osmotic Pressure. . . 217
Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-grade and Reagent-grade Water . . 219
Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel . . . 220
Figure 11-1 Expansion Loop Detail . . . 229
Figure 11-2 Closed Hot Water System Showing the Effects as Water and Pressure Increase from (A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2. . . 230
Figure 11-3 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a Closed System as Pressure and Temperature Increase from (A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2 . . . 231
Figure 11-4 Sizing the Expansion Tank. . . 234
Figure 12-1 Early Drinking Faucet. . . 237
Figure 12-2 Bottled Water Cooler . . . 238
Figure 12-3 Wheelchair-accessible Pressure-type Water Cooler. . . 238
Figure 12-4 Pressure-type Pedestal Water Cooler . . . 238
Figure 12-5 Wheelchair-accessible Unit . . . 239
Figure 12-6 Dual-height Design . . . 239
Figure 12-7 Dual-height Design with Chilling Unit Mounted Above Dispenser . . . . 239
Figure 12-8 Floor-mount Water Cooler . . . 240
Figure 12-9 Wall-hung water cooler . . . 240
Figure 12-10 Fully Recessed Water Cooler. . . 240
Figure 12-11 Fully Recessed Water Cooler with Accessories . . . 241
Figure 12-12 Fully Recessed, Barrier-free Water Cooler for Wheelchair Access . . . . 241
Figure 12-13 Semi-recessed or Simulated Recessed Water Cooler . . . 241
Figure 12-14 Water Cooler Accessories . . . 241
Figure 12-15 Upfeed Central System . . . 243
Figure 12-16 Downfeed Central System. . . 244
Figure 12-17 Drinking Fountain. . . 244
Figure 12-18 Drinking Fountain. . . 244
Figure 13-1 Kinetically Operated Aerobic Bioremediation System . . . 250
Figure 14-1 Typical Small Rainwater Cistern System Diagram. . . 260
Figure 14-2 Graywater versus Black Water . . . 262
Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards . . . 2
Table 1-2 Faucet Flow Rate Restrictions . . . 13
Table 1-3 Minimum Number of Required Plumbing Fixtures . . . 18
Table 1-4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities . . . 20
Table 2-1 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . 25
Table 2-1(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . 26
Table 2-2 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . 26
Table 2-2(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . 27
Table 2-3 Dimensions of Spigots and Barrels for Hubless Pipe and Fittings . . . 27
Table 2-4 Standard Minimum Pressure Classes of Ductile Iron Single-thickness Cement-lined Pipe . . . 28
Table 2-5 Dimensions and Approximate Weights of Circular Concrete Pipe. . . 30
Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths of Copper Plumbing Tube . . . 30
Table 2-7 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube. . . 33
Table 2-7(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube. . . 34
Table 2-8 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube . . . 35
Table 2-8(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube . . . 36
Table 2-9 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube . . . 37
Table 2-9(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube . . . 38
Table 2-10 Dimensional Data—Type DWV Copper Tube . . . 38
Table 2-11 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe . . . 44
Table 2-11(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe . . . 45
Table 2-12 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe . . . 46
Table 2-12(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe . . . 47
Table 2-13 Plastic Pipe Data . . . 48
Table 2-13(M) Plastic Pipe Data . . . 48
Table 2-14 Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials . . . 49
Table 2-14(M) Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials . . . 49
Table 2-15 Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe . . . 57
Table 2-15(M) Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe . . . 57
Table 2-17 Maximum and Minimum Rod Sizes for Copper Piping . . . 67 Table 2-18 Pipe Union Dimensions . . . 69 Table 4-1 Centrifugal Pump Affinity Laws . . . 97 Table 5-1 Heat Loss in Btuh/ft Length of Fiberglass Insulation, ASJ Cover 150°F
Temperature of Pipe . . . 110 Table 5-2 Heat Loss from Piping . . . 111 Table 5-3 Insulation Thickness - Equivalent Thickness (in.) . . . 112 Table 5-4 Dew-point Temperature . . . 112 Table 5-5 Insulation Thickness to Prevent Condensation, 50°F Service Temperature
and 70°F Ambient Temperature . . . 113 Table 5-6 Insulation Thickness for Personnel Protection, 120°F Maximum
Surface Temperature, 80°F Ambient Temperature. . . 114 Table 5-7 Time for Dormant Water to Freeze . . . 114 Table 6-1 Maximum Horizontal Pipe Hanger and Support Spacing . . . 118 Table 6-2 Pipe Classification by Temperature . . . 125 Table 6-3 Hanger and Support Selections . . . 126 Table 6-4 Recommended Minimum Rod Diameter for Single, Rigid Rod Hangers. . 132 Table 6-5 Load Ratings of Carbon Steel Threaded Hanger Rods . . . 132 Table 6-6 Minimum Design Load Ratings for Pipe Hanger Assemblies . . . 133 Table 6-7(A) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturer’s Concrete Inserts . . . . 133 Table 6-7(B) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturer’s Concrete Inserts . . . . 133 Table 7-1 The Relative Effectiveness of Steel Springs, Rubber, and
Cork in the Various Speed Ranges . . . 151 Table 8-1 Droplet Rise Time . . . 157 Table 8-2 Minimum Grease Retention Capacity . . . 165 Table 9-1 Air Gap Standards. . . 172 Table 9-2 Types of Back-pressure Backflow Preventer . . . 173 Table 9-3 Types of Vacuum Breakers . . . 173 Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names and Formulas . . . 193 Table 10-2 Water Treatment—Impurities and Constituents, Possible Effects
and Suggested Treatments . . . 194 Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide . . . 208 Table 10-4 Comparison of Laboratory-grade Water Quality Produced by
Centralized Systems . . . 218 Table 10-5 Applications of RO Water . . . 219 Table 11-1 Linear Coefficients of Thermal Expansion or Contraction. . . 227 Table 11-2 Developed Length of Pipe to Accommodate 1½-in. Movement . . . 229 Table 11-3 Approximate Sine Wave Configuration With Displacement . . . 230 Table 11-4 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at a Saturated Liquid . . . 232 Table 11-5 Nominal Volume of Piping . . . 233 Table 12-1 Standard Rating Conditions . . . 238 Table 12-2 Drinking-water Requirements . . . 245 Table 12-3 Refrigeration Load . . . 245 Table 12-4 Circulating System Line Loss. . . 245 Table 12-5 Circulating Pump Heat Input . . . 245 Table 12-6 Circulating Pump Capacity . . . 245
Table 12-7 Friction of Water in Pipes. . . 246 Table 12-8 Pressure Drop Calculations for Example 12-1 . . . 247 Table 14-1 Treatment Stages for Water Reuse . . . 259 Table 14-2 Rainwater Treatment Options . . . 261 Table 14-3 Filtration/Disinfection Method Comparison . . . 261 Table 14-4 Storage Tank Options . . . 262 Table 14-5 Comparison of Graywater and Black Water . . . 262
Plumbing Fixtures
Plumbing Fixtures
1
1
It has been said that without plumbing fixtures, there would be no indoor plumbing. A plumbing fixture is supplied with water, discharges water and/or waste, and performs a function for the user. Each fixture is designed for a specific activity to maintain public health and sanitation.
The standard plumbing fixtures used in a plumb-ing system include:
• Water closets • Urinals • Lavatories • Kitchen sinks • Service sinks • Sinks • Laundry trays • Drinking fountains • Showers • Bathtubs • Bidets • Floor drains • Emergency fixtures
In addition, fixture fittings used in connection with these plumbing fixtures include:
• Faucets and fixture fittings • Shower valves
• Tub fillers
FIxTURE MATERIALS
The surface of any plumbing fixture must be smooth, impervious, and easily cleanable to maintain a high level of sanitation. Fixture materials are selected based on these requirements. Common plumbing fixture materials include the following:
other ceramic materials, vitreous china does not absorb water because it is not porous. Vitreous china plumbing fixture surfaces are glazed. The glazing provides a nice finish that is easily cleaned. Vitreous china is also an extremely strong material. Because vitreous china is nonporous, it has a very high shrinkage rate when fired in a kiln. This accounts for the slight differences among otherwise identical plumbing fixtures.
• Nonvitreous china: Nonvitreous china is a porous ceramic that requires glazing to prevent any water absorption. Use of nonvitreous china for lavatories and similar fixtures is growing in popularity. The advantage of nonvitreous china is its low shrinkage rate, which allows the fixture to be more ornately designed.
• Glass: Tempered glass fixtures are being used in more lavatories. These fixtures tend to be ornately designed and can be found in numerous designs and colors.
• Enameled cast iron: The base of enameled cast iron fixtures is a high-grade cast iron. The exposed surfaces have an enameled coating, which is fused to the cast iron, resulting in a hard, glossy, opaque, and acid-resistant surface. Enameled cast iron plumbing fixtures are heavy, strong, ductile, and long-lasting.
• Porcelain enameled steel: Porcelain enameled steel is a substantially vitreous or glossy
inorganic coating that is bonded to sheet steel by fusion. The sheet steel must be designed for the application of the porcelain enamel to produce a high-quality product.
• Stainless steel: A variety of stainless steels are used to produce plumbing fixtures. The different types include 316, 304, 302, 301, 202, 201, and 430. One of the key ingredients in stainless steel is nickel. A higher nickel content tends to
Type 316 has 10 percent nickel. These are the two most common types.
• Plastic: Plastic is a generic category for a variety of synthetic materials used in plumbing fixtures. The various plastic materials used to produce plumbing fixtures include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS); polyvinyl chloride (PVC); gel-coated, fiberglass-reinforced plastic; acrylic; cultured marble; cast-filled fiberglass; polyester; cast-filled acrylic; gel-coated plastic; and cultured marble acrylic. Plastics used in plumbing fixtures are subject to numerous tests to determine their quality. Some of the testing includes an ignition (torch) test, a cigarette burn test, a stain-resistance test, and a chemical-resistance test.
• Soapstone: This is an older material used predominantly in the manufacture of laundry trays and service sinks. Soapstone is steatite, which is extremely heavy and very durable.
ACCESSIBILITy
Several federal and plumbing industry codes and standards require certain plumbing fixtures to be accessible to people with disabilities. The
federal guidelines are the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) Standards for Acces-sible Design. Accessibility standards also
are found in American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/International Code Council (ICC) A117.1: Accessible and Usable
Build-ings and Facilities. More information about
accessibility requirements can be found in
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 6.
APPLICABLE STANDARDS
Plumbing fixtures are regulated by nation-ally developed consensus standards. These standards specify materials, fixture designs, and testing requirements.
While standards for plumbing fixtures are considered voluntary, when they are referenced in plumbing codes the require-ments become mandatory. Most fixture manufacturers have their products certified by a third-party testing laboratory as being in conformance with the applicable standard.
Table 1-1 identifies the most common consensus standards regulating plumbing fixtures. A complete list of standards can be found in Plumbing Engineering Design
Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 2.
LEED AND PLUMBING
The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) program is becoming more common in the construction industry. Many large corporations have committed to certifying all of their new buildings. This program is put forth by the U.S. Green Building Coun-cil (USGBC). Its intent is to provide a benchmark for the design of energy-efficient buildings.
The section on water efficiency (WE) applies to plumbing design. The five LEED points are:
• WE Credit 1.1: Water-efficient Landscaping: Reduce by 50 Percent
• WE Credit 1.2: Water-efficient Landscaping: No Potable Water Use or No Irrigation
• WE Credit 2: Innovative Wastewater Technologies
• WE Credit 3.1: Water Use Reduction: 20 Percent Reduction
• WE Credit 3.2: Water Use Reduction: 30 Percent Reduction
These points can be obtained through design and specification of water-efficient products and systems.
Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards
Plumbing Fixture Applicable Standard Fixture Material
Water closet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
ANSI Z124.4 Plastic
Urinal ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
ANSI Z124.9 Plastic
Lavatory ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steel
ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
ANSI Z124.3 Plastic
Sink ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steel
ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
ANSI Z124.6 Plastic
Drinking fountain ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
ARI 1010 Water coolers
Shower ANSI Z124.2 Plastic
Bathtub ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
ANSI Z124.1 Plastic
Bidet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china Floor drain ANSI/ASME A112.6.3 All materials Emergency fixtures ANSI Z358.1 All materials Faucets and fixture fittings ANSI/ASME A112.18.1 All materials Waste fittings ANSI/ASME A112.18.2 All materials
In many cases, at least one LEED point can be ob-tained simply by specifying dual-flush water closets, reduced-flow urinals (0.5 gallons per flush [gpf] or less), and low-flow lavatories (0.5 gallons per min-ute [gpm]). For more information, visit the USGBC website at www.usgbc.org or turn to Chapter 14 of this volume.
WATER CLOSETS
Passage of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 by the U.S. government changed the way water closets (WCs) are designed. The act imposed a maximum flushing rate of 1.6 gpf (6 liters per flush [lpf]). This was a significant drop in the quantity of water used, which previously was 3.5 gpf, and was considered to be a water savings. Prior to the first enactment of water conservation in the late 1970s, water closets typically flushed between 5 and 7 gallons of water. The greatest water use, 7 gpf, was by blowout water closets. Ultra-low-flow WCs now flush as little as 0.4 gpf (1.5 lpf). Dual-flush models also are available. These give the user the option to flush the full 1.6 gallons for solid waste or one-third less for liquid waste.
With the modification in water flush volume, the style of each manufacturer’s water closet changed, and the former terminology for identifying water closets no longer fit. Water closets previously were categorized as blowout, siphon jet, washout, reverse trap, and washdown. Of these styles, the only one currently in use is the siphon jet (see Figure 1-1). This WC uses a jet of water at the bottom of the bowl to induce the siphon, thus clearing the bowl more efficiently.
To meet the new standards, WC manufactur-ers have re-engineered the bowls and trapways to increase efficiency. The trapways are now glazed and much smoother. Many manufacturers also have increased the size of the trapway to further increase efficiency and facilitate waste removal.
Water closets currently are categorized as the following:
• A one-piece water closet is, as the name suggests, one with the tank and bowl as one piece.
• A flushometer water closet is a bowl with a spud connection that receives the connection from a flushometer valve. Flushometer water closets also are referred to as “top spud” or “back spud” bowls depending on the location of the connection for the flushometer valve. (See Figure 1-2.)
The flushing of a water closet may be identified as one of the following:
• In a gravity flush, used with tank-type water closets, the water is not under pressure and flushes by gravity.
• With a flushometer tank, the water is stored in a pressurized vessel and flushed under a pressure Figure 1-1 The older styles of water closets were identified as (A) reverse trap, (B) blowout, and (C) siphon jet, to name
a few. Though still used in the industry, these terms are no longer used in the standards.
(A) (B) (C)
(A)
(B)
ranging between 25 and 35 pounds per square inch (psi).
• A flushometer valve type of flush uses the water supply line pressure to flush the water closet. Because of the demand for a flush of a large volume of water in a short period, the water supply pipe must be larger in diameter than that for gravity or flushometer tank types of flush. Another distinction used to identify a water closet is the manner of mounting and connection. The common designations for water closets are the following:
• A floor-mounted water closet is supported by the floor and connected directly to the piping through the floor. (See Figure 1-3.)
• A wall-hung water closet is supported by a wall hanger and never comes in contact with the floor. Wall-hung water closets are considered superior for maintaining a clean floor in the toilet room since the water closet doesn’t
interfere with the cleaning of the floor. (See Figure 1-4.)
• Floor-mounted, back-outlet water closets are supported by the floor yet connect to the piping through the wall. The advantage of the floor-mounted, back-outlet water closet is that floor penetrations are reduced. However, it is difficult for manufacturers to produce a floor-mounted, back-outlet water closet that meets current flushing performance requirements.
Shape and Size
A water closet bowl is classified as either a round front or elongated. An elongated bowl has an opening that extends 2 inches farther to the front of the bowl. Most plumbing codes require elongated bowls for public and employee use. The additional 2 inches provides a larger opening, often called a “target area.” With the larger opening, there is a greater likelihood of maintaining a cleaner water closet for each user.
For floor-mounted water closets, the outlet is iden-tified based on the rough-in dimension. The rough-in is the distance from the back wall to the center of the outlet when the water closet is installed. A standard rough-in bowl outlet is 12 inches. Most manufactur-ers also make water closets with a 10-inch or 14-inch rough-in. (See Figure 1-5.)
The size of the bowl also is based on the height of the bowl’s rim measured from the floor.
Figure 1-3 A floor-mounted, back outlet water closet is supported on the floor with the piping connection through
the back wall.
Figure 1-4 A wall-hung water closet attaches to the back wall; the water closet does not contact the floor.
Figure 1-5 The standard rough-in dimension is 12 inches from the centerline of the water closet outlet to the back wall. The floor flange must be permanently secured to the
• A standard water closet has a rim height of 14 to 15 inches. This is the most common water closet to install.
• A child’s water closet has a rim height of 10 inches above the floor. Many plumbing codes require these water closets in daycare centers and kindergarten toilet rooms for use by small children.
• A water closet for juvenile use has a rim height of 13 inches.
• A water closet for the physically challenged has a rim height of 18 inches. With the addition of the water closet seat, the fixture is designed to conform to accessibility requirements.
Bariatric Water Closets
Bariatric WCs are made to accommodate overweight and obese people. These WCs support weights of 500 to 1,000 pounds. They are available in vitreous china as well as stainless steel. Wall-hung fixtures require special carriers designed for the increased loads. The chase for wall-hung bariatric WCs need to be deeper to accommodate the larger carriers. The most com-monly used bariatric WCs are floor mounted, which can safely accommodate weights in excess of 1,000 pounds. Bariatric WCs should be mounted at the accessibility-required height.
Water Closet Seat
A water closet seat must be designed for the shape of the bowl to which it connects. Two styles of water closet seat are available: solid and split rim. Plumbing codes typically require a split rim seat for public and employee use. The split rim seat is designed to facili-tate easy wiping by females and to prevent contact between the seat and the penis with males. This is to maintain a high level of hygiene in public facilities.
Many public water closets have a plastic wrap around the seat. The intent of this seat is to allow a clean surface for each use. The seat is intended to replace the split rim seat in public and employee locations.
Flushing Performance
The flushing performance requirements for a water closet are found in ANSI/American Society of Me-chanical Engineers (ASME) A112.19.6: Hydraulic
Performance Requirements for Water Closets and Urinals. This standard identifies the test protocol that
must be followed to certify a water closet. The tests include a ball removal test, granule test, ink test, dye test, water consumption test, trap seal restoration test, water rise test, back pressure test, rim top and seat fouling test, and a drainline carry test.
flush of three different flushes. The polypropylene balls are intended to replicate the density of human feces.
The granule test utilizes approximately 2,500 disc-shaped granules of polyethylene. The initial flush of three different flushes must result in no more than 125 granules on average remaining in the bowl. The granule test is intended to simulate a flush of watery feces (diarrhea).
The ink test is performed on the inside wall of the water closet bowl. A felt-tip marker is used to draw a line around the inside of the bowl. After flushing, no individual segment of line can exceed ½ inch. The total length of the remaining ink line must not exceed 2 inches. This test determines that the water flushes all interior surfaces of the bowl.
The dye test uses a colored dye added to the water closet’s trap seal. The concentration of the dye is determined both before and after flushing the water closet. A dilution ratio of 100:1 must be obtained for each flush. This test determines the evacuation of urine in the trap seal.
The water consumption test determines that the water closet meets the federal mandate of 1.6 gpf.
The trap seal restoration test determines that the water closet refills the trap of the bowl after each flush. The remaining trap seal must be a minimum of 2 inches in depth.
The water rise test evaluates the rise of water in the bowl when the water closet is flushed. The water cannot rise above a point 3 inches below the top of the bowl.
The back pressure test is used to determine that the water seal remains in place when exposed to a back pressure (from the outlet side of the bowl) of 2½ inches of water column (wc). This test determines that no sewer gas will escape through the fixture when high pressure occurs in the drainage system piping.
The rim top and seat fouling test determines if the water splashes onto the top of the rim or seat of the water closet. This test ensures that the user does not encounter a wet seat when using the water closet.
The drainline carry test determines the perfor-mance of the water closet’s flush. The water closet is connected to a 4-inch drain 60 feet in length pitched ¼ inch per foot. The same 100 polypropylene balls used in the flush test are used in the drainline carry test. The average carry distance of all the polypro-pylene balls must be 40 feet. This test determines the ability of the water closet to flush the contents in such a manner that they properly flow down the drainage piping.
is required. The debate over this test is the repeat-ability of the test. It is expected that, after round robin testing is completed, the test will be added to the standard.
In Canada, water closets must conform to Cana-dian Standards Association (CSA) B45 Series 02:
Plumbing Fixtures. While Canada does not have
a federal mandate requiring 1.6-gpf water closets, many areas require these water closets. Canada does require a bulk media test for water closet flush performance.
Installation Requirements
The water closet must be properly connected to the drainage piping system. For floor-mounted water closets, a water closet flange is attached to the piping and permanently secured to the building. For wood-frame buildings, the flange is screwed to the floor. For concrete floors, the flange sits on the floor.
Noncorrosive closet bolts connect the water closet to the floor flange. The seal between the floor flange and the water closet is made with either a wax ring or an elastomeric sealing connection. The connection formed between the water closet and the floor must be sealed with caulking or tile grout.
For wall-hung water closets, the fixture must con-nect to a wall carrier. The carrier must transfer the loading of the water closet to the floor. A wall-hung water closet must be capable of supporting a load of 500 pounds at the end of the water closet. When the water closet is connected to the carrier, none of
this load can be transferred to the piping system. Water closet carriers must conform to ANSI/ASME A112.6.1: Supports for Off-the-Floor Plumbing
Fix-tures for Public Use. For bariatric WCs, the loads as
listed by the manufacturers vary from 650 to 1,000 pounds. These carriers must conform to ANSI/ASME A112.6.1 as well.
The minimum spacing required for a water closet is 15 inches from the centerline of the bowl to the side wall and 21 inches from the front of the water closet to any obstruction in front of the water closet. The standard dimension for a water closet compartment is 30 inches wide by 60 inches long. The water closet must be installed in the center of the standard com-partment. The minimum distance required between water closets is 30 inches (see Figure 1-6).
The 1.6-gpf flushing requirement has affected the piping connection for back-to-back water closet installations. With a 3.5-gpf water closet, the common fitting used to connect back-to-back water closets was either a 3-inch double sanitary tee or a 3-inch double fixture fitting. With the superior flushing of the 1.6-gpf water closet, the plumbing codes have prohibited the installation of a double sanitary tee or double fixture fitting for back-to-back water closets. The only acceptable fitting is the double combination wye and eighth bend. The fitting, however, increases the spac-ing required between the floor and the ceilspac-ing.
The minimum spacing required to use a double sanitary tee fitting is 30 inches from the centerline of Figure 1-6 The minimum size water closet compartment is 30 in. × 60 in. Spacing is required from the centerline of the
the water closet outlet to the entrance of the fitting. This spacing rules out a back-to-back water closet connection.
One of the problems associated with short pattern fittings is the siphon action created in the initial flush of the water closet. This siphon action can draw the water out of the trap of the water closet connected to the other side of the fitting. Another potential problem is the interruption of flow when flushing a water closet. The flow from one water closet can propel water across the fitting, interfering with the other water closet.
Plumbing and Drainage Institute [PDI]). Carrier sizes vary by manufacturer. Always check before commit-ting to chase size. Also, wall-hung bariatric carriers require more space than indicated by PDI. Bariatric chases should be coordinated with the specified car-rier manufacturer.
Flushing Systems Gravity Flush
The most common means of flushing a water closet is a gravity flush (see Figure 1-8). This is the flush with a tank-type water closet, described above, wherein the Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes for Carriers
allowing the flush to achieve the maximum siphon in the bowl. After the flush, the flapper or ball reseals, closing off the tank from the bowl. On the dual-flush WC, the trip lever raises the flapper or ball a bit less, which results in a reduced-volume flush.
The ballcock, located inside the tank, controls the flow of water into the tank. A float mechanism opens and closes the ballcock. The ballcock directs the majority of the water into the tank and a smaller por-tion of water into the bowl to refill the trap seal. The ballcock must be an antisiphon ballcock conforming to American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE) 1002: Performance Requirements for Antisiphon Fill
Valves for Water Closet Tanks. This prevents the
contents of the tank from being siphoned back into the potable water supply. Dual-flush systems are be-ing used to meet LEED criteria. This type of system gives the user the option to flush with one-third less water when flushing only liquid waste.
Flushometer Tank
A flushometer tank (see Figure 1-8) has the same outside appearance as a gravity tank. However, inside the tank is a pressure vessel that stores the water for flushing. The water in the pressure vessel must be a minimum of 25 psi to operate properly. Thus, the line
pressure on the connection to the flushometer tank must be a minimum of 25 psi. A pressure regulator prevents the pressure in the vessel from rising above 35 psi (typical of most manufacturers).
The higher pressure from the flushometer tank results in a flush similar to a flushometer valve. One of the differences between the flushometer tank and the flushometer valve is the sizing of the water dis-tribution system. The water piping to a flushometer tank is sized the same as the water piping to a gravity flush tank. Typically, the individual water connection is ½ inch in diameter. For a flushometer valve, there is a high flow rate demand, resulting in a large piping connection. A typical flushometer valve for a water closet has a connection of 1 inch in diameter.
The flushometer tank WC tends to be noisier than the gravity tank WC. Their advantage over grav-ity tanks is that the increased velocgrav-ity of the waste stream provides as much as a 50 percent increase in drainline carry. In long horizontal run situations, this means fewer sewer/drainline blockages.
Flushometer Valve
A flushometer valve also is referred to as a “flush valve.” The valve is designed with upper and lower chambers separated by a diaphragm. The water pressure in the upper chamber keeps the valve in the closed position. When the trip lever is activated, the water in the upper chamber escapes to the lower chamber, starting the flush. The flush of 1.6 gallons passes through the flush valve. The valve is closed by line pressure as water reenters the upper chamber.
For 1.6-gpf water closets, flushometer valves are set to flow 25 gpm at peak to flush the water closet. The flushing cycle is very short, lasting 4 to 5 seconds. The water distribution system must be properly de-signed to allow the peak flow during heavy use of the plumbing system.
Flushometer valves have either a manual or an automatic means of flushing. The most popular manual means of flushing is a handle mounted on the side of the flush valve. Automatic, electronic sensor flushometer valves are available in a variety of styles. The sensor-operated valves can be battery operated or directly connected to the power supply of the building.
URINALS
A urinal was developed as a fixture to expedite the use of a toilet room. It is designed for the removal of urine and the quick exchange of users. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 included requirements for the water consump-tion of urinals. A urinal is restricted to a maximum water use of 1.0 gpf. This change in water consumption resulted in a modified design of the fixture. Some urinals now use 0.5 gpf or less.
One of the main concerns in the design of a urinal is the maintenance of a sanitary fixture. The fixture must contain the urine, flush it down the drain, and wash the exposed surfaces. Prior to the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, urinals were developed using large quantities of water to flush the contents. This included a blowout model that could readily remove any of the contents thrown into the urinal in addition to urine. Blowout urinals were popular in high-traffic areas such as assembly buildings. However, these blowout urinals required more than 1 gallon of water to flush. Newer fixtures identified Figure 1-8 (A) A Gravity Tank and (B) a Flushometer Tank
as blowout urinals do not have the same forceful flush. Low-flow (0.5 gpf), ultra-low-flow (0.125 gpf), and waterless urinals are becoming more common in LEED-certified buildings.
Urinal Styles
Urinals are identified as blowout, siphon jet, washout, stall, washdown, and waterless. A stall urinal is a type of washdown urinal. Blowout, siphon-jet, and washout urinals all have integral traps. Stall and washdown urinals have an outlet to which an external trap is connected. Many plumbing codes prohibit the use of stall and washdown urinals in public and employee toilet rooms. One of the concerns with stall and wash-down urinals is the ability to maintain a high level of sanitation after each flush. Waterless urinals are gaining acceptance by code enforcement bodies, but are not allowed in all jurisdictions.
The style identifies the type of flushing action in the urinal. Blowout and siphon-jet types rely on com-plete evacuation of the trap. Blowout urinals tend to force the water and waste from the trap to the drain. Siphon-jet urinals create a siphon action to evacuate the trap. Washout urinals rely on a water exchange to flush, with no siphon action or complete evacuation of the trapway. Stall and washdown urinals have an external trap. The flushing action is a water exchange; however, it is a less efficient water exchange than that of a washout urinal.
Urinals with an integral trap must be capable of passing a ¾-inch-diameter ball. The outlet connection is typically 2 inches in diameter. Stall and washdown urinals can have a 1½-inch outlet with an external 1½-inch trap.
Waterless urinals are used in many jurisdictions as a means to reduce water consumption. Waterless urinals utilize a cartridge filled with a biodegradable liquid sealant. Urine is heavier than the sealant, so it flows through the cartridge while leaving the sealant. According to manufacturer literature, a typical car-tridge lasts for 7,000 uses. Waterless urinals are also inexpensive to install. The waste and vent piping are the same, but no water piping is required. The inside walls of the urinal must be washed with a special solu-tion on a periodic basis for proper sanitasolu-tion. Flushing Performance
The flushing performance for a urinal is regulated by ANSI/ASME A112.19.6. There are three tests for urinals: the ink test, dye test, and water consump-tion test.
In the ink test, a felt-tip marker is utilized to draw a line on the inside wall of the urinal. The urinal is flushed, and the remaining ink line is measured. The
The dye test uses a colored dye to evaluate the water exchange rate in the trap. After one flush, the trap must have a dilution ratio of 100:1. The dye test is performed only on urinals with an integral trap. This includes blowout, siphon-jet, and washout uri-nals. It is not possible to dye test stall and washdown urinals since they have external traps. This is one of the concerns that has resulted in the restricted use of these fixtures.
The water consumption test determines that the urinal flushes with 1 gallon of water or less.
Installation Requirements
The minimum spacing required between urinals is 30 inches center to center. The minimum spacing
between a urinal and the sidewall is 15 inches. This spacing provides access to the urinal without the user coming in contact with the user of the adjacent fixture. The minimum spacing required in front of the urinal is 21 inches (see Figure 1-9).
For urinals with an integral trap, the outlet is lo-cated 21 inches above the floor for a standard-height installation. Stall urinals are mounted on the floor. Wall-hung urinals must be mounted on carriers that transfer the weight of the urinal to the floor. The carrier also connects the urinal to the waste piping system. Sufficient room should be provided in the
Figure 1-9 Urinal spacing must be adequate to allow adjacent users to access the urinals