C H R IS T I E A R L O T T A
:E f f
e ct
s of E
nh
a n c ed C
o ag
ul
at i
o n a nd O
z o na
t i
o n o nt h
eF
o rm
at i
o no
f
T
ri h
a
l
o
m
et h
a
ne s a
nd H
al
o a
c et i
cA
ci d
sU
nd
e rC
o
nt
r oll
ed C h l
o ri
n at i
o nC
o nd it i
o n
s(
U
nd
e rt h
ed i
re c
t i
o no
f P h il ip C
.S i
n
g
e r)
T h i
sp
r oj
e ct
e v al
ua
t
ed t h
ei m p
a ct
of
e nh
a n c ed
c o ag
ul
at i
o n a nd
s ub
s eq
u e nt
o z o n at i
o nf
o rt h
ec
o n
t
r ol
of h
ai
o
g
en
at
ed d i
s
i
nf
ec
t i
o n
b
y
-p
ro
d
u ct
s
(
D B P
s
)
i
n
d
ri
n
k i
n
g
w
a
t
e r
.E
a c
h
o
f
t h
e
ni
n e
r a
w w
a
t
e
rs
s am
p l
e
d w
e r e c
h
o se n
t
o
r ep
re s
e nt
a
d i
f
f
e
re
nt
e
l
e
m
e n
t
o
f
t
h
e
3
x
3 T
o
t
a
l O
r
g
a n
i
c
C
a rb
o n(
T O C
)
/ A lk
al i
nit y m
at
ri
x e st
ab l i
s
h
ed
b y t h
eU
.S
E
nv
i
r o nm
e
nt
al P
r o
t
e ct i
on
A g
e n cy
(
U
S
E P A
)
T h i
sm
a
t
ri
xi
sp
a rt
of t h
eS t
a
g
e1 D i
si
nf
e ct
a nt
s/ D i
s
i
nf
e ct i
o
nB y
-P
r od
u ct
s
(
D / D B P
)
R
ul
e
t h
at
r eq
ui
r es
sp
e ci
f
i
cp
e r ce
nt
r ed
uc
t i
o n so
f T O C
c
o n ce n
t
r at i
on
b
a s ed
o
nt h
eT O C
an
d
a
l k
a
li
ni t y
o
f
t h
e ra
w w
at
e r
T h
ei
nt
e nt i
o no
f
t h
e
D
/
D B P R
ul
e
i
s
t
o re
d
u c ep
u
b li
c e xp
o s
u r et
o
p
o
t
e
nt i
a
lly h
a
rm
f
u
l
c
h
e
m
i
c a
l
s
t h
a
t f
o
rm
a s a r e s u
lt
o
f d
i
s
i
n
f
e c
t i
n
g
w
a
t
e r
w it h
c
h l
o
ri
n e
E
a c
h
r
a
w w
at
e rw
a st
re a
t
ed
u nd
e re
nh
a n ce
d
c o ag
ul
a
t i
o
n c o nd it i
o ns a
nd t h
e
n s et t l
ed
A p
o rt i
o n of
t h
ec
o ag
ul
a
t
ed
a
nd
s et t l
e
d w
a
t
e rw
as
t
h
e n o zo
na
t
ed
a
t
a1
:1 O
3t
o
T O
C
ra
t i
ob y w
e
i
g
h t
, at
t h
ep H
r e s ult i
ng
a
f t
e r c o ag
ul
at i
o nT h
e
t h
r e ed if f
e re n
t f
ra c
t i
o
ns
f
or e a
ch w
a
t
e r ut il it y
(
ra
w
,c o a
g
ul
at
ed
, a nd
p
o st
-o z o n a
t
ed
w
at
e r)
w
e r e a n aly
z ed
f
o rp H
,t
u rb id it y
,T O C
,d i
s s ol
ve
d
o x
y
g
e
nc a
rb
o n
(
D O C
)
,u
lt
r a
vi
o
l
e
t
a
b
s
o rb
a
n ce
at
2 5 4
n
m
(
U V
2 5 4)
,b i
o
d
eg
r ad
ab
l
eD
O C
(
B D
O C
)
a
nd 2 4
-h
o
u r ch l
o
ri
n ed
e
m
a nd
E
a
ch f
r a ct i
o n
of w
at
e
rw
as
t h
e nc
h
l
o ri
n at
ed
u nd
er
u ni
f
o
rm f
o
rm
at i
o
n co
nd it i
o
n s,q
u
e n ch
ed
an
d
an
aly
ze
d
f
o rt h
e
f
o u rt
ri h
al
o
m
et h
a n
es
(
T H M
s)
a nd
all
ni
ne
h
al
o a c et i
c ac
id
s(
H A A
s)
.T h
e r e su
lt
ss
h
ow t h
a
t
e
nh
a
n ce
d
c oa
g
ul
a
t i
o
n re
m
o v ed
t h
ea
p p
r op
ri
at
el
e v el
s of T O C
re
q
ui
r ed b y t h
eU
S
E P A
,f
o
r al l b
ut
o
n ew
at
e r s am
p
l
eT h
e
p
e rc e
nt
re
m
o va
l
o
f T O
C
i
nc
r ea
s ed
w it h
i
n c re
a si
ng
ra
w
w
a
t
e
rT
O C
c o
nc e n
t
ra
t i
o
nT h
e
p
e rc
e nt
r em
o v al
s, a sw
ell
a st h
et
r e nd
s, of U V
2 5 4 ab
s o rb
a n c ew
e r e v e ry
sim i l
a rt
ot h
e
p
e rc
e nt
r e
m
o v al
so
f T O C
T h
e r e s ult
sa
l
s o sh
o
w
e
d t h
at T H M
a nd H A A f
o rm
at i
o np
ot
e nt i
a
l
sw
er
e re
d
u c e
d i
nt h
e
co a
g
ul
a
t
e
d
w
at
e r s
i
n a s
i
m i
l
a r
m
a
nn e
ra s
t
h
e r e
d
u c
t
i
o n o
f U V
25 4 ab
s o
rb
a n c e
a n
d T O C
c o n c e nt
r
at i
o nW
h
e n c o ag
ul
a
t i
on
w
a
sf
o
l l
ow
ed b y
o
z o na
t
i
o n
,t h
e
T H M
a
nd
H A A
f
o rm
a
t i
o np
o
t
e
nt i
a
l
sd
e c re
a se
d f
u rt h
e rH
ow
e
v e r,w
at
e
r s am p l
e
st h
at w
e re o
zo
na
t
e
d b
ef
o r ec o
a
g
ul
at i
o np
r od
u c ed
l
ow
e
rT H M
a nd
H A A
f
o rm
at i
o np
ot
en
t i
al
st h
a nt h
e
p
o st
-o
z o n at
ed
s
am
p
l
es
F
o
rw
at
e
r sw it h h i
g
h b
r
om id
e
co
n ce
nt
ra
t i
o
n s,t h
e
d i
s
t
rib
u
t i
o n of T H M
a nd
H A A
T h i
sp
r oj
e ct w
a sf
u nd
ed
b
y
t
h
eU S E P A
(
C R
-8 2 6 3 4 2
)
,w it h
p
a rt i
c ul
a
ri
nt
e re s
t
f
ro
m
R ic
h
a r
d
M
ilt
n e
rI w
o u
l
d l
i
k
e
t
o
t
h
a n
k D
rP
h i
l
ip C
S
i
n
g
e
rf
o r
a
l l h
is
g
u
id
an c e
a nd
e n c o
u
ra
g
e
m
e n
t t h
r o u
g
h t h
is
y
e a
ra n
d
a
h
a
lf
.H i
sk
n o
w l
ed
g
e
o
f w
at
e
rt
re
at m
e nt w
a sa
lw
a
y
s as
t
o un
d i
ng
a nd
v er
y
a
p
p
r e ci
at
ed
I w
o uld
li k
et
o
e
xt
e nd
g
r e at t h
a nk
st
oD
rH
ow
a
rd
S
W
ei
nb
e rg
f
o
r s e r vi
ng
o nm y
co
m m it t
e e a nd
f
o rh i
st i m
e a nd
i
nt
e r e st i
na n a
l y t i
c al m
at t
e r sS
i
nc
e re
t h
a
nk
st
oD
rF
r a nc
is
A
.D i
G
i
a
n of
or
a
l
s o
s erv
i
ng
o nm y
co
m m it t
ee
, a nd f
o rh i
sg
re a
t l
ec
t
u r es
T
ot h
e
r es
t
of t h
ef
a c ult y
,m y t i
m
e
h
e r ea
t U N C
-C H w
a sc
h
al l
e ng i
ng
a
nd
r ew
a rd i
ng
,a
nd I t h
an
k y
o
u all
S
p
e c
ia
l
t
h
a n
k
s
t
o
C
a
r ri
e
D
e
l
c o
m
y
n,In a
G
ri
s s
t
e
d
e
,L i
n
L ia n
g
,a n
d A
m
y M il
e s
fo r s
h
a r
in
g
t
h
e
i
rl
ab
o ra
t
o
ry k
no
w l
e
d g
e.I w
o
ul d lik
e
t
o
t h
a
nk
a
ll
o
f t
h
ei
n
h
a
b
it
a
nt
s of t
h
eW
W
R C
(
i
n cl
ud i
ng
o u rp
s e ud
o-i
nh
ab
it
a nt
,B
e
c c aK
a uf f m
a
n)
,it h
a sb
e e n al
o ng
r oa
d
.b
ut
at
l
e
a st it i
sp
a v ed
n ow !
D
rW
ei
nb
er
g
'
s r e s e
a
r ch g
r ou
p d
e
s e r v e ss
e v e ra
l t h
a nk
sf
o r all
t h
ei
rh
e
l p
al
o ng
t h
ew
a
y
T h
e st
af f i
nt h
eD
ep
a rt m
e nt
of E
n vi
r o nm
e nt
al S
ci
e n c e sa
nd
E
ng i
n e e ri
ng h
a sb
e e na
ni
n st
r um
e nt
al
p
a
rt i
nh
e
l p i
ng m
e
t
o re
a ch
m
y g
o al
s
,a
nd m y
o v e r a
l l h
ap
p i
n e s sI t i
sv e
ry t
r ue
t h
at t h i
sp
ro
j
e
ct w
o
ul
d
no
t h
a ve
b
ee n
c
om
p
l
et
e
d
s o s
m
o o
t h l
y
w it
ho
ut m
y
s u
p
e rb l
ab p
a rt
n e r,N i
c
h
ol
e
S
nid
e rI t h i
nk w
eh
a v e s e e nt h
e
b
es
t
a nd w
o
r st
of
ea
ch
o
t h
e r, a nd I k
n ow t h
at w
ew il l b
ef
ri
en
d
sf
o
r e ve
r"
D
o n'
t w
a nt t
ol
e a v e,b
ut w
eb
ot h k
n ow
s om
et im
e sit
's
b
et t
e rt
og
oS
om
eh
ow I k
no
w
w
e
'll m
e
et
ag
ai
n , n ot
s u
r eq
uit
ew h
e
r e a nd I d
o n'
t k
n ow
j
u st w h
e nY
o u
'r e
i
nm
y
h
ea
rt
,s
o
u nt il t h
e
n, sm il
e ,d
o n 't w
a nt t
o c ry
s
ay i
n
g g
o o
d b
y
e
."
-
T h
e
M
up p
et
sT
o
M
i
k
e ,J
o
sh
u aa
nd
K
e
r ry
: e ve n
t h
o u
g h y
o
uw
e
re
n o
t
h
e r e
,y
o
ur
fr
ie n
d
s
h
ip
a nd lo
ve
w
e r e s o cr
u ci
al f
o rt h i
sp
r o c e s st
ob
e
s u c ce
s sf
ul
F i
n al ly
,I w
o u
ld li k
et
ot h
a nk m
y
f
am ily
f
o rt h
ei
r c o nt i
n u o u s s up p
o rt
.M
om
,M i
ch
ell
e ,B
a rb
,J
e n n a ,P i
z z a ,G
al il
e o a nd R
o ck y
:I
L I
S
T
O
F T A B L E
S
vi
L I
S
T
O
F F I
G U
R E
S
vii
L I
S
T
O
F A B B R E V IA T I
O
N
S
ix
C
H A P T E R
1
I N T R O D U
C
T I
O
N
1
2
L IT
E
R A
T U R E
R
E
V I E
W
4
2
.1
I N T R
O D
U
C
T I
O
N
4
2 2
N A
T U
R A L
O
R
G
A N I
C
M A T E R I A L
4
2
.3
C
H
E
M I
S
T R
Y O
F
C
H L
O
R I N E
5
2
.4
F
O
R M
A T
I
O
N
O
F D I
S
I N F E
C
T I
O
N B Y
-
P R
O
D
U C
T
S
5
2
.4
.1
M
e ch
a nis
m
s of T H M
a nd H A A F
o rm
a t
io n
6
2
.4
.2
R
e a ctio n
C
o nd i
t
io
n s6
2
.4
.3
E f f
e ct
of B
r o
m id
e8
2
.5
R E
G U
L A T I
O
N
O
F D B P
s
8
2
.6
C O
N T
R O
L
O
F D
B
P
s9
2
.6 1
E
n
h
a n c ed
C
o ag
ula
t i
o n9
2
.6
.2
O
z
o n at io n
1 1
2 6 2
.1
C
he
m is
t
ry
1 2
3
.M A
T
E R IA L
S
A N D M
E
T H
O
D
S
1 5
3
.1
G
E N E R A L A P P R O A C H
1 5
3 2
G
L A S
S
W
A R E P R E P A R A T I
O
N
1 7
3
.2
.1
G
e n e r al P
r ep
ar
at io n
1 7
3
.2
.2
C
h lo r
in
eD
em
a nd
-
F
r e eG
l
a s sw
a r e
1 7
3
2 3
O
zo n
eD
e
m
a nd
-F
r ee
G
la
s s
w
a re
1 8
3
.3
W
A T E
R C O
L
L E C
T I
O
N A
N
D
S H I
P M
E N T
1
8
3
.4
E N
H
A
N C
E D
C O A G U
L A T I
O
N P R
O C
E D
U
R E
1 8
3
.5
O
Z
O
N A T I
O
N P R
O C
E D U
R
E
2 0
3
.5
.1
A
p
p
a ra
tu s
2 0
3 5 2
G
a
sT
r a
ns
f
e
ro
f O
zo
ne
2 2
3
.5
.3
G
a s
P h
a s
eM
e a
s u r em
e n t
2
3
3 5
.4
L iq
ui d P h
a s eO
zo
n eR
e sid
u als
2 3
3 6
C
H L
O
R I N A T I
O
N P R
O C
E D U R E
2 4
3 6
.1
P
r ep
a r at
io n
a nd S
t
a nd
ar
d iz a
t i
o no
f
C
h lo r
in
eS
ol
utio
ns
2 4
3
.6
.2
P
r e
l im
i
na
ry C
h lo r
in
a
t i
o nE
xp
e rim
e nt
s2 5
3
.6
.3
B
a t
ch
C
h lo r
in a
t io n s
2 6
3
.7
A N A L Y T I
C
A L M E A S
U
R E M E N T
S
2 7
3
.7 1
U
lt
r a
vio
l
e
t A b
s o
rb
a n c e
M
e a s
u re
m
e n
t
-
L iq
ui
d S
a
m
p
l
e s
2 7
3 7
.2
T
u
rb id
i
t
y
M
e as u
r em
e nt
2 7
3
.7
.3
p H M
ea s
u r em
e nt
2 7
3
.7
.7
.1
C
a
l ib
r at
io n
S
t
a
nd
a
rd
s a nd D il
ut
io n s
3 1
3
.7
.7
.2
S
a
m p
l
e
P
r e
p
a r
at i
o
n3
2
3
.7
.7
.3
G
a
sC
h
ro
m
a
t
o
g
r ap
h P
re
p
a r at io n
,C
h
a
r ac
t
e ris
t i
c s a
nd
Q
u
al it y
C
o nt
ro
l
3 2
3
.7
.7
.4
C
h
r om
at
og
r am A
n aly
sis
3 4
3 7 8
H
al
o a c et ic
a cid A
n aly
sis
3 4
3
.7
.8
.1
C
al ib
r at
i
o nS
ta n
d
a rd
s a nd D il
ut
io n s
3 4
3
.7
.8
.2 D i
a
z om
et h
a n eG
e n e r at
io n
3 5
3
.7
.8
.3
S
am p l
e
P
r
ep
a ra
t i
o
n3 6
3 7 8
.4 D
er
iv
it iz
a
t i
o n
a nd E
xt
r a ct io n
3 6
3
.7
.8
.5
G
a s
C
h
r o
m
a
t
o
g
ra
p
h P
re
p
a r a
t io n
,C
h
a
ra c
t
e ri
st i
c s a n
d
Q
u a
l it y
C
o nt
ro
l
3 7
3
.7
.8
.6
C
h
r om
at
og
r am A
n aly
sis
3 8
4
.R E
S U L T S
3 9
4 1 R A
W W
A T E R
C
H A R A
C
T E R IS T I
C S
3 9
4
.2
E N H A N C E D
C O
A G U L A T I
O
N J A R T E S T
S
A T A M B I E N T p H
A N D p H 6 5
4 0
4
.3
B A T
C
H
C O
A
G
U L A T I
O
N R E
S
U L T
S
4 2
4
.3 1
R
em
o v al
of T
O C
a
f t
e r c oa
g
ula
t io n
4 2
4 3
.2
R
e
m
o
v al
o
f U V
2 5 4 ab
s o
rb
i
ng
m
at e
ri
a
l
af t
e
r co
ag
u
l
at io n
4 3
4 3 3
R
em
o
va
l
o
f D B P
s
af t
e rc o
ag
ul
a
t i
o
n4 4
4
.4
O
Z
O
N A T
IO
N
O F C O
A
G U
L A T E D
W
A T E R
S
A M P L E
S
4 9
4
.4
.1
D B P
re
m
o va
l
a
f t
e r
o zo
na
t io n
4 9
4
.5
B
R O
M I D
E E
F F E
C
T
O
N
S
P
E C
I
A
T I
O N O
F
T
H
M
s a n
d
H
A A
s
5 2
4
.6
C O
M P A R I
S O
N
O
F P R E
-
A N D P
O S
T
-O
Z
O
N A T I
O
N
5 6
4
.7 C
O
R R E L A T I
O
N B E T
W
E E N D B P F
O
R M A T I
O
N A N D
U
V
2 5 4A B
S O
R B A N
C
E
5 9
4
.8
C O
R R E L A T I
O
N B E T
W
E
E
N D B P F
O
R M A T I
O
N A N D
T
O C C O N C
E N T
R
A T I
O
N
6 0
4
.9
R E L A T I
O
N
S
H I P B E T
W
E E N T H M A N D H A A
C O
N
C
E N T R A T I
O
N
S
6 1
5
.C O
N
C
L U
S
I
O
N
S
6 3
R E F E R E N
C
E
S
6 5
A p p
e nd i
x
A
.E
x am p l
eC
alib
r at
io n
C
u r v es
f
o rT H M
s
7 1
B
.E
xa
m p l
e
C
ali
b
r at io n
C
u r v e sf
o
rH A A
s
7 3
C
.P
re
lim in a r
y
C
o
ag
u
l
a
t i
o n
C
u r ve s
7 6
D
.O
z o n eW
o rk
sh
e et E
xa
m
p
l
e
8 1
E
S
um m
a
ry
of
W
a
t
e
rC
ha r
a c
t
e
ri
s
t i
c s
8 3
F
B
r om i
d
ea
nd B
r om
a
t
e
M
e a
s ur e
m
e
nt
s
8 9
G
.R
ela
t i
o
n sh i
p
B
e
t w
e e nD B P F
o rm
at i
o
n a nd
U
V
2 5 4
A b
so
rb
a nc
e9 1
T
a
b le
1
.1
T
a
b le
1 2
T
ab l
e2 1
T
ab le
3
.1
T
ab
l
e3 2
T
ab le
3
.3
T
ab l
e3 4
T
ab l
e3 5
T
ab le
4 1
T
ab
le
4 2
T
a
b
le
4
.3
T
ab l
e4 4
T
ab le
4 5
T
ab le
4 6
P
e r c e nt
re
m
o
va
l
re
q
uir e
m
e nt
so
f T
O
C f
o rt h
e
D
/
D B P b y
e nh
a nc e
d
c o a
g
ul
a
t io n
2
3
9
1 5
S
o u r ce s o
f
r aw w
at
e rin v e s
t i
g
a
t
ed
T O C / A lk
ali
nit y m
at
rix
f
o rT O C
r em
o v al b y
e nh
a n c ed
c o ag
ula
t io n
D is
t
rib
u
t io n
of w
at
e r s s ele c
te
d f
o rt h
ei
n ve s
t i
g
at io n
I
o n ch
r om
at
og
ra
p
h
c o nd
it io n s
f
o rt h
e a n al
y
si
s of b
r om id
e
a nd b
r om
a
t
e
3 0
G
a s
ch
r om
at
og
r
ap h
c
o nd
it io n s
f
or
el im i
na
t io n
of
r es
i
d
u al
c
on
t
am
i
n a nt
s3
3
G
a s ch
r om
at
og
r ap h
c o nd i t i
o n sf
or
T H M
an
aly
s
is
3 3
G
as c
h
r om
at
og
r
ap h
c
o nd
it i
o ns
f
o r
H A A
a
na
ly
si
s3
7
R
aw w
a
te r c
h
a r a ct
e ris
t ic
s
3 9
A l
um
d
o s e sf
o re
nh
a n c ed
c o
ag
ula
t io
n4 2
P
e rc e
nt
r e
m
o
v al
o
f T
O C fo r
a
m
b ie n
t
p
H
a n
d
p H
6
.5
(
i
np
a
re n
t h
e s
is
)
c o a
g
ula
t io n
4 3
P
e r c e nt
r em
o v al
of U V
2 5 4f
o r am b ie
nt p H
an
d p H 6
.5
(
i
np
a re n
t h
e si
s)
c o a
g
ula
t io n
4
3
P
e r c e nt
r em
o v al
o
f T H M
s
fo r a
m b ie
nt p H
a
nd p H 6
.5
(
in
p
a re
nt h
e si
s)
c o a
g
ul
at i
o n4 5
P
e r
c e nt
re
m
o
v al
o
f H A A
s
f
o
ra
m b
ie
nt p H
a n
d p H
6
5
(
i
np
a
re
nt h
e si
s)
c o
ag
ula
t io n
4 5
F i
g
u re
3 1
S
ch
em
at i
cf
o
r c o ag
u
l
at i
o nw it t
ip
o st
-o z -o n a
t i
o n1 6
F
i
g
u re
3 2
S
ch
em
at ic o
f
o
zo
n at i
o n ap
p
a
ra
t
u s2 0
F i
g
u r e3 3
Q
u
a rt
z c ell
u se
d f
o
rg
a sp h
a s em
e a su
r em
e
nt
s of
o z o n e2 3
F ig
u re
4 1
H
ac
k
e n s a ck
,N J
:P
re
lim i
na
ry
c oa
g
ul
a
t i
o n cu r
ve s
fo
r am
b
i
e nt p H
a n
d p H 6 5
4 0
F i
g
u re
4 2
D
u rh
am
,N C
:P
r elim i
n a ry
c o ag
ul
at i
o n c u r v e sf
o ra
m b i
e nt p H
4 1
F i
g
u re
4 3
T H M p
r od
u ct i
o n af t
e r c o ag
ul
at i
o n at
am b i
e nt p H
v al
u e s4 6
F
i
g
u re
4 4
HA A p
ro
d
u c
t io
na
ft
e
r c o ag
u
la
t
io n a
t
am
b
ie n
t
p
H
va
l
u e s
4 7
F ig
u r e4 5
T
H
M p
ro
d
uc
t io
n , r aw
a nd
c o ag
u
l
at
e
d
w
at
e rs
,a
t
am b i
e nt p
H
a n
d p H 6 5
4 7
F ig
u re
4 6
H A A p
r od
u ct i
o n , r aw
a nd
c
o ag
ul
at
ed w
at
e rs
, at
am b i
e nt p H
a
n
d p H
6
5
4 8
F i
g
u re
4
.7
T
H
M
p
ro
d
u ct io n a
f t
e r
c o ag
ul
at i
on a
nd
o z o na
t i
o na
t
a
m b i
e nt p
H
v a
l
u e s
5 0
F
i
g
u r e4 8
H A A
p
r od
uc
t io n a
f t
er c o a
g
ul
at i
o n a
nd
o
zo
na
t io
na
t
am
b
ie
nt p
H
v
a
l
u
e s5
0
F ig
u re
4 9
T H M p
r od
u ct io
n af t
e r c oa
g
ul
at io
n a nd
o z o n at i
o na
t p H 6 5
5
1
F i
g
u re
4 1 0
H A A p
r od
u
ct i
o n , af t
e r c o ag
ula
t io
n a nd
o z o n at i
o na
t p H 6 5
5 1
F i
g
u r e4 1 1
D is
t
rib
ut i
o n of T H M
f
o rm
at
i
o np
o
t
e nt ia
l
si
nc
h l
o ri
na
t
ed
ra
w w
a
t
e r(
w
it h
o
ut T
am p
a
,F L
)
5
3
F
i
g
u r e4 1 2
D is
t
rib
ut io
no
f H A A f
o
rm
a
t io n
p
o
t
e n
t i
als
in
ch
lo
ri
n a
t
e
d
ra
w w
a
te r
(
w it h
o ut T
a
m p
a,
F L
)
5
4
F
i
g
u
re
4
.1
3
T H M
s
p
ec
ia
t io n
f
o
rr
aw w
a
t
e rs
w it h h i
g
h
b
r om id
e
c o nc e
nt
r at i
o
n s ,b
ef
o r e a nd
af t
e
rt
r e at m
e nt
(
C & 0 3
r ep
r e s e nt
st h
e s am p l
et h
at w
a sc o
a
g
ul
at
ed t h
e n o z on
at
ed
)
5
5
F ig
u r e4 1 4
H A A
sp
e ci
at i
on
f
o r ra
w w
at
e r sw it h h i
g
h b
r om id
e c o n c e nt
r at i
o n s ,b
e
f
o
re a n
d
a
f t
e
rtr e a
t m
e n
t
(
C &
0
3
r e
p
r e s
e nts
t h
e s
am p l
e
t h
at w
a sc o a
g
ula
t
e
d t h
e n
o zo n
at
e
d
)
5
5
F ig
u r e4 1 5
T H M p
ro
d
u ct io
nf
o rp
r e-a
nd
p
os
t
-o
z on a
t i
o nw
at
e r s
, at
a
m b ie n
t
F i
g
u r e4 1 7
U V
2 5 4 c om
p
a ri
s o nf
o rp
r e-a n
d p
o st
-o z -o n a
t
ed w
at
e
r s, at
am b i
e nt
p H
va
lu e s
5
8
F i
g
u r e4 1 8
R
el
at i
o n sh i p b
et w
e e nD B P f
o rm
at i
o n a nd U V 2 5 4
ab
s o rb
a n c e(
e x cl
ud i
ng
T
am p
a ,F L
r aw
v al
u e s)
5 9
F i
g
u r e4 1 9
R
el
at i
o n sh i p b
et w
e e nD B P f
o rm
at i
o
n a nd T O C
c
o n c e nt
r at io n
(
e x cl
ud i
ng T
am p
a,F L
r
aw w
at
e r v al
u e s)
6 0
F i
g
u r e4 2 0
R
el
at i
o n sh i p b
et w
e e nT H M
s a nd H A A
s,f
o r all
ob t
ai
n ed d
ata
6
1
F i
g
u re
4 2 1
R
el
at i
o n sh
i
p b
et w
e e nT H M
s
a nd H A A
sD i
si
nf
e ct i
o n of d
ri
nl
<i
ng
w
at
er
i
s
a c rit i
c al
s
t
e
p i
nt i
ne
t
re a
t m
e nt p
r o c e s st h
at d
el i
v e r sp
ot
a
b l
ew
at
e
rt
o
t h
e
p
ub li
c
T h
e
p
rim
a r
y
g
o
al
o
f
d i
si
nf
e ct i
o ni
s
t
o
p
r e
ve n
t w
a
t
e r
b
o r n e
d i
s e a se
s s u ch
a s
C
ry p t
o sp
o rid i
o si
s a nd G i
a rd i
a si
sI t i
s r eq
ui
r ed b y t h
eS
af
eD
ri
nk i
ng
W
at
e rA
ct
of 1 9 8 6
(
U
nit
ed S t
at
e sE
n vi
r o nm
e nt
a
l P
r ot
e ct i
o nA g
e n cy
(
U S E P A
)
1 9 8 6
)
t h
at
al l d
ri
nk i
ng w
at
e r s a r et
r e at
ed t
o eit h
e r r em
o v e o ri
na
ct i
v at
e a c e rt
ai
np
e r c e nt
ag
e of p
at h
og
e ni
cm i
c r o o rg
a ni
sm
sM
o st w
at
e r si
nt h
eU S
a r e ch l
o ri
n at
ed
,w h il
e s om
e a r ed i
s
i
nf
e ct
ed w it h
o z o n e o r ch l
or
i
ne
d
i
o
xid
e
A l l
o
f t h
e s e
m
e
t h
o
d
s o
f
d i
s
i
n
f
ec
t i
o n c re
at
ed
i
s
i
n
f
e c
t
i
o n
b y
-p
r od
u ct
s(
D B F
s
)
S
o
m
e
o
f
th
e s e
D B F
s
h
a
ve
b
e e
ns
h
o
w
n
t
o
h
a
v ep
ot
e nt i
al l
y
a
d
v e r s e
h
e a
t h
e
ff
e ct
s(
N
at i
o n al
C
an
ce
rI
n s
t it
ut
e
1 9 7 6
)
I t i
st h
e r e ac
t i
o n of
e a c
h
d
i
s
i
nf
e c
t
a n
t w
it h
n
at
u
ra
l
o
rg
a
ni
c
m
a
t t
e
r(
N O M
)
t
h
a
t
p
r od
u c e sD B F
sH
al
og
e n at
e
d b
y
-p
r od
u ct
s a r eg
e n e r at
ed
w h
e n ch l
o ri
n ei
s u se
d
,i
n o rg
a
ni
cb y
-p
r od
u ct
s a r ef
o rm
ed f
r om
ch l
o ri
n ed i
o xid
e a nd
o z o n e ,a
nd
o rg
a ni
c o xid
at i
o nb y
-p
r od
u ct
sa r e
a
r e s
ult
of
o z o ne
a
nd
c
h l
o
ri
n e
d i
o xid
ea
p p li
c a
t i
o
nT
h
e
t
ri h
a
l
o
m
et h
a
n e s(
T H M
s
)
a
nd
h
a
l
o a c e
t i
c
a c
i d
s
(
H A A
s
)
a
r et h
e
m
o s
t
p
r e
v al
e nt
c
l
a s s e s
of
h
al
o
g
e
na
t
e
d D B F
s,w h i l
ec
h
l
o
ra
l
h y d
r at
e ,h
al
o a c et
o nit
ri l
e s, a nd
h
al
ok
et
o n e s a r e ot h
e r si
g
nif i
c
a nt h
al
og
e n at
ed D B F
s
C
h l
o
ri
n ed i
o xid
e
p
r od
u c e s ch l
o
rit
e
a n
d
c
h l
o r at
ew h
e nit i
s
us
ed
t
ot
re a
t
na
t
ur a
l w
at
e r sT h
e
b y
¬p
r od
uc
t
s a
ri
si
ng f
r om
o xi d
at i
o n
b y
o
z o n ei
n cl
ud
e ald
e
h y d
e s, c a rb
o xy li
c
a cid
s, a nd b
r om
a
t
e
.B
e c a u s ef
r e e ch l
o ri
n ei
st h
ep
rim
a ry d i
si
nf
e ct
a nt
u s ed i
nth
e
U S
,it
sD B F
s a r e of g
r e at
e st
i
nt
e r e st
T h
ef i
r st
m
a xim
um
c o nt
am i
n a nt
l
e v el
(
M C L
)
f
o rt
ot
al
T H M
s(
T T H M
s)
w
a sp
r om
ul
g
at
ed b y t h
eU S E F A
a
t
a
l
e
v el
of 1 0 0 )
Lig
/ L
(
U
S
E F A 1 9 7 9
)
T h
e r e c e nt ly p
ro
m
ul
g
a
t
ed
D i
si
nf
e ct
a
nt
s
/ D i
si
nf
e ct i
o nB y
-F
r o
d
u ct
s(
D / D B F
)
R
u
l
eh
as
l
o
w
e r ed t h
at li m it t
o
8 0
|
ug
/
L f
o rT T H M
s a nd
e st
ab li
s
h
e
d
al im it
o nf i
ve
o
f t h
eh
al
o ac e
t i
c
a
cid
s(
H A A S
) (
m
o n
o ch l
o r o ac e
t i
ca c
id
,m
o n o
b
r
om
o a c e
t i
c
a c
id
,d i
c
h l
o ro a c e
t i
c
a c
id
,d i
b
ro
m
o a c e
t i
c
a c
id
,a
nd
t
r
i
c
h l
o r o a c e
t i
c
a c
id
)
o
f 6 0 j
ug /
L
(
U S
E F A 1 9 9
8
)
.O
z o n at i
o ni
s a vi
ab l
e alt
e r n at i
v et
of
r e e ch l
o ri
n e ,b
ut it
sb
y
-p
r od
u ct
sm
u st
al
s ob
et
ak
e ni
nt
oc o
n si d
e r at i
o n .H
a
ag
a nd
H
o
i
g
n e
(
1 9 8 3
)
s
h
ow
ed
t h
a
t
b
r om
at
e ca
nb
ef
o rm
ed
d
u
ri
ng
o
zo n a
t i
o n
w h
e
nb
ro
m id
ei
sp
r
es e
nt i
nt h
ew
at
e rI
nt h
eD /D
B F R
ul
e ,b
r om
at
eh
a
s aM
C
L
of
1 0 (
ig /
L
a
nd i
s cl
a ss
if i
e
d
a
sa
p
r ob
ab l
e
h
um
a n c a r ci
no
g
e
n(
U S E F A
1 9 9 8
)
.A
n ot h
e rm
a
j
o
rp
rim
a ry
d i
si
nf
e ct
a nt
i
n c o nj
u n ct i
o nw i
t
h
ch l
o ri
n e o r ch l
o r am i
n e st
op
r od
u c e ap
e r si
st
e nt
r e si d
u a
l
i
nt h
ed i
s
t
rib
ut i
o n sy
s
t
e
m
S i
n c eN
O
M i
s r e sp
o n sib l
ef
o
rt h
ef
o rm
at i
o n of T H M
s a nd
H
A A
s, o n eo
f t h
eb
e st w
ay
st
oli m it
t h
e s eD B P
si
nf i
ni
sh
ed
d
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r si
st
o r ed
u c et h
eN O
M
c o n c e nt
r at i
o nb
ef
o r ed i
si
nf
e ct i
o nI t
h
a sb
e en
sh
ow
nb y
m
a ny
i
n v e st i
g
at
o r st h
at
op t i m i
zi
ng
c o ag
ul
at i
o np
r o c ed
u
r e s c a nim p
r o v et h
e
r em
o va
l
s of D B P p
r e c u rs
o r s,i
e
N O M
(
e
g
.K
a va
na
ug h 1 9 7 8
,B
a
b
c o c
k
a nd S
i
n
g
e r1 9 7 9
)
T h
e c
h
a r a
ct
e
ri
s
t i
c s
of N O M
a
re
v e ry
c o
m p l
e x,b
u
t it i
sk
n ow
nt h
a
t N O M
c o
m
p
ri
s
es
a
m
a
j
o rit
y
o
f t h
et
o
t
a
l
o
rg
an
i
c c
a rb
o
n(
T
O C
)
c
on
t
e nt
o
f
na
t
u
ra
l w
at
e r sB
e c a u se
it i
s r el
a
t i
v el
y
e a sy
t
o
m
e
a s u re
t h
eT
O C
c o nc e
nt
r
at i
o
ni
n
w
at
e
r,T
O
C i
s
u s e
d
as
a
s u r r o
g
at
ef
o rN O M
(
t h
ep
ri m
a ry D B P p
r
e c u r s o r)
A
n ot h
e rf
a
c et
o
f t h
eD
/
D B P R
u
l
e s
t
a
t
e st h
a
t
e n
h
a n ce
d
c o ag
ul
a
t i
o nm
et h
o
d
sm
u
st b
e
u s ed p
ri
o
rt
o
d i
si
nf
e c
t i
o n
t
oc o
nt
r
ol D B P f
o
rm
a
t i
o n
i
n
s u rf
a c ew
a
t
e r sE
nh
a n c ed
c o ag
ul
at i
o
ni
n v ol
v es
a c e rt
a
i
n r ed
uc
t i
o ni
nT O C
c o
n c e nt
r at i
o nb
a s ed
o
n ra
w
w
a
t
e
rT O
C
a n
d
alk
a
li
n
it
y
va
l
u es
,a n
d
u s u
al l
y
re
q
ui
r e s
a
h i
g
h
e r
c oa
g
u
l
a n
t
a
d d it i
o
nt h
a nt h
e o n
e r eq
ui
r
ed f
o
rt
u rb id it y
r em
o v al
T
ab l
e
1 1 i ll
u st
ra
t
e sh
ow
m
u ch
o
f t h
e r aw w
a
t
e
rT O C
c o n c e
nt
ra
t i
o n
m
u st b
e r
em
o
ve
d w it h
e
nh
a nc e
d
c o ag
ul
a
t i
o nm
e
t h
o
d
s.T
ab l
e1
.1 P
e r c e nt
r em
o v al
r eq
ui
r em
e nt
s of
T
O C b
y
e nh
a n c ed
c o ag
ul
at i
o nT
O
C
C
o n c e nt
r at i
o n(
m
g / L
)
0
.0
-
2
.0
>2
.0
-
4
.0
>4
.0
-
8
.0
>8
.0
A l k
al i
nit y
(
m
g / L
a
sC
aC O
a)
0
-6 0
N
o
A
ct i
o n
3 5
%
4 5
%
5
0 %
>
6 0
-1 2 0
N
o
A
c
t
i
o n2 5
%
3 5
%
4 0
%
>
1
2
0
N
oA
c
t i
o
n1 5
%
2
5
%
3 0 %
O
z o n eh
a sb
ee
nu
s ed i
nd
ri
n
k i
ng
w
at
e r
t
r e at m
e n
t
si
nc e
t h
ee n
d
of t h
e
1 9
'^c e
nt
u ry
(
L
a ng l
a
i
se
t
al
1 9 9 1
)
T h
eb
e ne
f it
s of
o z on
ei
n cl
ud
e
d i
si
nf
e ct
i
o
n, o xid
a
t i
o
no
f
m
et
a
l
s
,w
at
e rd
e c ol
o ra
t i
o n, o xid
a
t i
o n of
o rg
a ni
cm
i
c ro
p
ol l
ut
a nt
s, a nd
r ed
uc
t i
o ni
nt
as
t
e a nd
od
o
rR
e ck h
o
w
a n
d S i
ng
e r(
1 9 8 4
)
d
em
o n st
r at
ed t h
at
o
z o n at i
ng
r aw w
at
e r s am p l
e sd
e st
r oy
sT H M
a nd H A A
p
re c
ur s o
rs
T
h
e
f
u n
d
am
e n
t
a
l id
e a
i
s
t
h
a
t t h
e a c
ti
ve s
it
e
si
n
t h
ep
re c u
r so
rm
ol
e c ul
e sw i ll
n
ot
b
e
a v ail
a
b
l
e
f
o rD
B
P
f
o
rm
a
t i
o na
ft
e
ro
xid
a
t i
o nw it h
o
zo
n e(
R
o o
k 1 9 7 6
)
T h
e
o z o na
t i
o
n of
n a
t
u ra
l w
a
t
e rs
d
o e s
no
t l
e a
d
t
o
co
m
p
l
e
t
em i
n
e ra
l i
za
t i
o
no
f
t h
e o r
g
a ni
c
c o
m p
o u n
d
sp
re s e n
t ;
i
n st
e ad
,p
r od
u ct
s a r ef
o rm
ed t h
at h
a v ed if f
e r e nt p h y
si
c al