Second Edition
Advertising Research
THEORY A N D PRACTICEJoel J. Davis
School of Journalism & Media Studies,
San Diego State University
Prentice Hall
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition xx
PART I Foundations
Chapter 1 The Nature and Process of Advertising Research 1 The Contributions of Advertising Research 3
The Market 3 The Consumer 3 Creative 6
Media Analysis and Placement 7 Synthesis 7
Tactics, Actions, Evaluation, and Revision 8 Who Conducts Research? 8
Information Users 8 Research Specialists 9
Media and Consulting Companies 9 Trade Associations 10
Field Services 10
The Process of Advertising Research 11 Preliminary Discussions and Agreements 13 Problem Definition 13
Justifying the Need for Research 15 Specifying Informational Needs 16 The Complete Problem Statement 16
Planning and Data Collection 17
Identify the Appropriate Type of Research 17 Sampling and Data Collection 20
Selection of Data Collection Method 21 Determine the Research Budget and Timing 21
Prepare, Distribute, and Obtain Approval of Research Proposal 21 Prepare Research Materials 22
Conduct the Research 22
Prepare Information for Analysis 22 Application 23
Data Analysis 23 Present the Results 23 Decision Making 24
vi Contents
Applying Chapter Concepts 24 Summary 25
Review Questions 26 Application Exercises 27 Endnotes 28
Chapter 2 Research Ethics 30
Ethics and Individual Respondents 32
Informed Decisions and Informed Consent 32 Mistreatment 34
Confidentiality and Privacy 35
Responsibilities t o Respondents: Special Populations 35 Research with Children 35
Research in Online Communities 36 Research in Virtual Worlds 37 Responsibilities to Clients 39
Appropriate Research 39 Confidential and Proprietary 40 Presentation of Findings 40 Project Changes 43
Responsibilities t o Research Companies 43 Pre-selection 44
Free Advise 44 False Promises 44
Responsibilities to Society 44 Complete Data and Findings 45 Proper Interpretation 45 Sound, Objective Research 45
Research Is Not a Guise for Other Activities 45 Summary 47
Review Questions 47 Application Exercises 48 Endnotes 51
PART II Sources of Information
Chapter 3 Secondary Research 53
An Introduction t o Secondary Research 54
Contents vii
The Uses of Secondary Research 55 Advantages of Secondary Research 59 Limitations of Secondary Research 60
Evaluating the "Goodness" of Secondary Information 61 Locating Secondary Information 62
Non-indexed Online Sources 62
Indexed Online Sources: Search Strategies 63 Beyond the General Search Engines 69 Staying Current 70
E-mail Newsletters 70 Newsletter Publishers 70
Whitepapers, Research Reports, Webinars, and Presentations 72
Applying Chapter Concepts 74 Summary 75
Review Questions 75 Application Exercises 76
Endnotes 77 Chapter 4 Sampling 79
An Overview of Sampling 80
Random Sampling and Quantitative Research 81 Sample or Census 81
Define Target Population 83 Select Sampling Method' 87 Sample Frame 87
Types of Probability Sampling 88 Sample Size in Random Samples 96
Sample Selection Bias in Probability Samples 99
Nonprobability Sampling and Quantitative Research 102 Convenience Sampling 102
Judgment Sampling 103 Quota Sampling 104 Snowball Sampling 104
Sample Size in Nonprobability Samples 105 Sample Selection and Qualitative Research 106
Sample Size 107
viii Contents
Summary 107
Probability Sampling 108 Nonprobability Sampling 108 Review Questions 109
Application Exercises 109
Theory Underlying Sample Size Determination 113 Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Proportion 113 Sample Size When the Estimate Is a Mean 116 Endnotes 117
PART III Qualitative Research
Chapter 5 Collecting Qualitative Insights 119
Personal and Focus Group Interviews 121 Personal Interviews 121
Focus Groups and Minigroups 122
Approaches t o Collecting Qualitative Insights 123 Direct Question Types 123
Projective Techniques 127
Techniques Using Verbal Stimuli 128
Techniques Requiring Imagination or Scenarios 130 Pictures as Stimuli 131
Process Techniques 134 The Qualitative Interview 139
Active Listening and Probes 141 Setting the Right Environment 142 Summary 144
Review Questions 145 Application Exercises 146
Endnotes 148 Chapter 6 Focus Groups 150
Planning for Focus Groups 152 Select a Moderator 152 Brief the Moderator 153
Prepare, Evaluate, and Revise Discussion Guide 154 Determine Group Characteristics 156
Contents ix
Select the Facility 158
Schedule Groups, Specify Sample, and Recruit Participants 158 Conduct the Groups 160
Assess Group Success and, If Necessary, Revise the Discussion Guide 162
Analyze and Present Findings; Apply Findings to Decision Making 162
Viewing Focus Groups 163 Online Focus Groups 164 Applying Chapter Concepts 166 Summary 168
Review Questions 169 Application Exercises 169 Endnotes 171
Chapter 7 Analysis of Qualitative Data 173
Activities Conducted Prior t o Data Examination 174 Review Problem Definition and Informational Needs 174 Evaluate the Sample and Note Any Limitations 175 Data Examination 176
Understand the Intensity of Respondents' Feelings and Points of View 177
Understand the Respondent, Not Individual Responses 177 Review with a Critical Eye and Ear 178
Reflection 179
Theme Identification, Analysis, and Revision 179 Theme Development 180
Coding Data According to Themes 181 Examining Relevant Data 181
Theme Evaluation and Revision 182
Relating Individual Themes to Form Metathemes 183 Serendipitous Discoveries 183
Evaluating the Analysis 184
CAQDAS: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software 185
Summary 186
Review Questions 187 Application Exercises 187 Endnotes 189
Contents
PART IV Quantitative Research
Chapter 8 Observation Research: Human and Automated 190
Human Observation 191
Qualitative or Quantitative? 192 Types of Human Observation 193 Human Observation: Case Examples 196 Automated Observation 199
Observing Online Behaviors 199 Observing Offline Behaviors 203
Observing Consumer-Generated Media 203 Applying Chapter Concepts 213
Video Consumer Mapping Study 213 Campaigning with Social Media 216 Summary 216
Review Questions 217 Application Exercises 217
Endnotes 219
Chapter 9 Observation Research: Biometrics 221 Eye Tracking 222
Application of Eye Tracking to Advertising Planning 224 Application of Eye Tracking to Evaluation and Revision of
Advertising Creative 228
Combining Eye Tracking with Retrospective Interviews 230
Combining Eye Tracking with Facial Coding and Verbal Response 231
Additional Examples of Eye Tracking Applications to Advertising 232
Neuromarketing 232
fMRI: Activation of Specific Brain Areas 234
Overall Brain Activation (EEG) Plus Physiological Measures 236 Exclusive Reliance on Physiological Measures 238
Alternative Views 238
Applying Chapter Concepts 239
Tobii Technology Eye Tracking Cases 239 Etre Web Site Analysis 240
One to One Insight: Emotion, Engagement, and Internet Video 240
Contents xi
MindSign fMRI Advertising Test of Virgin Mobile Phones "Fantastic Journey" 241
Summary 241
Review Questions 242 Application Exercises 242 Endnotes 243
Chapter 10 Data Collection Through Surveys 246
Methods of Collecting Survey Information 247 Personal Interviews 247
Telephone Interviews 248 Mail Surveys 249
Online Surveys 253
Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Surveys 253
Criteria for Selecting a Data Collection Method 254 Cost 254
Timing Requirements 255
Sample, Interview, and Administrative Control 255 Informational Needs 256
Complexity of the Topic and Questionnaire 256 Interview Length 257
Response Rate, Nonresponse Rate, and Nonresponse Error 258
Causes of Nonresponse Errors 260
Improving Response Rate to Reduce Nonresponse Error 260 Summary 264
Review Questions 264 Application Exercises 265 Endnotes 266
Chapter 11 Measurement 268
The Measurement Process 269
Task One: Identify and Define the Concept of Interest 269 Stage Two: Specify an Observable Event 274
Stage Three: Evaluate and Revise the Observable Event 284 Reliability and Validity: An Overview 285
Assessing Reliability 285 Assessing Validity 287
xii Contents
Summary 288
Review Questions 289 Application Exercises 289 Endnotes 291
Chapter 12 Writing Survey Questions 292
Writing Closed-Ended Survey Questions 293 Nominal Level Questions 293
Ordinal Level Questions 299 Interval Level Questions 300 Ratio Level Questions 305
Developing Open-Ended Questions 306 Considerations in Question Development 307 Question Writing: An Evaluation 309
Applying Chapter Concepts 314
Razorfish Digital Brand Experience Report/2009 315 People From Cossette 315
Summary 316
Review Questions 317 Application Exercises 317
Endnotes 322
Chapter 13 Questionnaire Design 323
Determine the Data Collection Method 325 Determine the Need for Disguise 325 Create Questionnaire Components 326
Introduction 326 Screener 327 Main Body 330 Classification 331
Physically Prepare the Questionnaire 331 Self-Administered Questionnaires 331 Online Questionnaires 333
Transitions 335
Interviewer and Respondent Instructions 335 Internal Evaluation 339
Pretest the Questionnaire 339 Prepare Field Support Materials 342
Contents xiii
Applying Chapter Content 342 VERB Campaign Evaluation 342 Generation Next 344
Summary 345
Review Questions 345 Application Exercises 346 Endnotes 359
Chapter 14 Experimentation 361
Surveys Versus Experiments 362 The Characteristics of Experiments 364
Independent and Dependent Variables 365 Requirements for Causality 365
Problems Affecting Internal Validity 367 Premeasurement and Interaction 367 Testing 368
Instrumentation 368 Maturation 369
Selection and Mortality 370 History 371
Researcher Bias 371 Experimental Design 372
Quasi-Experimental Designs 372 True Experimental Designs 377
More Complex Experimental Designs 381 Conducting Experiments Online 384 Internal Validity: A Broader View 384 External Validity 386
Applying Chapter Concepts 387
IAB Advertising Effectiveness Study 387 Massive Video Game Advertising Test 388 Summary 389
Review Questions 390 Application Exercises 391 Endnotes 393
Chapter 15 Descriptive Statistics 395
Basic Math and Key Measures 396 Percentage 396
xiv Contents
Average 396
Median and Mode 398 Standard Deviation 399
Making Certain You Have Good Data 404 Data Review, Decisions, and Editing 404 Data Analysis for Specific Question Types 406
Classification, Checklist, and Other Nominal Level Questions 408
Checklist Questions 411
Ranking and Other Ordinal Level Questions 414 Rating Scales and Other Interval Level Questions 415 Constant Sum and Other Ratio Level Questions 417 The Importance of Subgroup Analysis 418
Data Analysis in Action 420 The Situation 420
The Analysis 420 Conclusion 426 Summary 426
Review Questions 426 Application Exercises 427 Endnotes 431
Chapter 16 Inferential Statistics 433 Statistical Significance 434
Making Judgments about A Single Measure from One Sample 436 Comparing a Sample Average to a Population Average 437 Comparing a Sample Proportion to a Population Proportion 439 Examining the Internal Characteristics of a Single Sample 440 Making Judgments about a Single Measure from Two or More
Independent Samples 441 Comparing Two Means 441
Comparing Three or More Means 443
Factorial Designs: Making Judgments about the Simultaneous Influence of Two or More Variables 445
Neither Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 446
One Factor Is Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 447 One Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction Between
Contents xv
Two Factors Are Significant, No Interaction Between Factors 451 Neither Factor Is Significant, There Is an Interaction Between
Factors 452
Making Judgments about the Relationship between Two or More Measures 453
Correlation 453 Chi-Square 456
A Caution Regarding Statistical Tests 457 Summary 457
Review Questions 458 Application Exercises 459
Theory Underlying Statistical Significance 461 The Normal Curve 461
The Standard Normal Curve, Standard Deviation and Area Under the Curve 462
Area Under the Curve and Probability 463 Hypothesis Testing 463
Endnotes 466
PARTV Applied Topics
Chapter 17 Segmentation 468
How Advertisers Use Segmentation 471 Criteria for Selecting Segments 473 Variables Used in Segmentation 474
Demographic Segmentation 474 Geographic Variables 476 Psychographic Variables 477
Category and/or Brand-Related Attitudes and Behaviors 480 Conducting Original Segmentation Research 482
Explicitly State the Research Question(s) 482 Identify the Range of Classification and Descriptive
Variables 482
Reduce the List of Segmentation and Descriptive Measures 484
Sample and Survey the Population 484
If Necessary, Reduce the Data to a Manageable Number of Factors or Dimensions 485
xvi Contents
Describe Segments Using Descriptive Variables 487
Create a Summary Sheet, Narrative or Persona for Each Segment 487 Evaluate Segments for Communication Priority 491
Syndicated Approaches t o Segmentation 491 Psychographic Segmentation: VALS™ 493 Category and Brand Usage Behaviors 497 Geodemographic Segmentation 502 Applying Chapter Concepts 503
A Typology of Information and Communication Technology Users 503
Generation C 506 Summary 506
Review Questions 508 Application Exercises 509
Endnotes 512 Chapter 18 Brand Mapping 515
Perceptual Maps 516
What Perceptual Maps Tell Us 516 Constructing a Perceptual Map 518
Perceptual Maps and Advertising Strategy 524 Correspondence Maps 529
Application to Advertising Strategy 530 Brand Concept Maps 531
Elicitation 532 , Mapping 532 Aggregation 532
Application to Advertising Decision Making 533 Additional Considerations in the Use of Perceptual,
Correspondence, and Concept Maps 537
Perceptual Maps for the Same Brands Often Change Across Different Consumer Segments 538
Comparing Current and Potential Customers Contributes to Strategic Decision Making 538
Before and after Maps Can Track Advertising Impact 538 Summary 542
Review Questions 542 Application Exercises 543 Endnotes 545
Contents xvii Chapter 19 Advertising Testing: Concept and Communications Tests 546
Concept Tests 547
Product and Non-Product Focused Concept Tests 547 Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Concept Test 551 Communication Tests 552
Reasons for Communication Research 552
Preparing Stimulus Materials for a Communication Test 555 Approaches to Data Collection 555
Custom or Syndicated Options 556
Measurement in Message Concept and Communication Tests 556 Introduction: Setting the Stage 557
Show Concept or Execution 567 Spontaneous Initial Reactions 567 Essential Message 567
Reactions to the Message 568 Affective Reactions 568
Message or Execution Specific Issues 569 Attitudinal and Behavioral Impact 569
Analysis of Concept and Communication Test Data 569 Data Summarization 570
Finding Relationships Among Measures 574 Applying Chapter Concepts 578
Healthy Eating 578 Secondhand Smoke 579 Summary 581
Review Questions 582 Application Exercises 582 Endnotes 591
Chapter 20 Post-Production Advertising Testing and Optimization 593 Copy Testing Research 594
Copy Testing Television Advertising 594
Evaluating Alternative Copy Testing Methodologies 596 Split-Run Tests 597
Split-Run Test Design 597 Split-Run Test Data Analysis 600 A/B Tests 600
xviii Contents
Additional A/B Test Considerations 602 Limitations of A/B Testing 605
Full Factorial Designs 605 Multivariate Testing 608
An E-mail Multivariate Test 608
Advantages and Limitations of Multivariate Testing 610 Campaign Evaluation 612
Considerations in Campaign Evaluation 612 Applying Chapter Concepts 615
Mapes and Ross Natural Exposure Copy Test 615 National Tobacco Youth Campaign Evaluation 616 Summary 617
Review Questions 618 Application Exercises 619
Copy Testing from a Legal Perspective 625 Universe Definition and Sample Selection 626 Research Design and Use of Control Groups 627 Questionnaire Design and Question Formats 629
Interviewer Qualifications, Training, and Techniques 630 Data Analysis and Presentation 630
Research Project Administration 631 Endnotes 632
Chapter 21 Reporting Research 635
Characteristics of Good Report Writing 636 Clarity and Conciseness 636
Completeness 638 Coherence 638 Care 638
The Need for Review 639 The Written Research Report 640
Title Page 640
Table of Contents and List of Illustrations/Figures 640 Executive Summary 641
Background 643 Methodology 645 Findings 646 Conclusions 647
Contents xix
Recommendations and Next Steps 647 Appendices 647
The Oral Research Presentation 647
Improving Powerpoint or Similar Slide-Based Presentations 648 The Researcher As Presenter 650
Using Tables and Charts Effectively 651 Considerations for all Tables and Charts 651 Numeric Tables 654
Bar Charts 654 Pie Charts 657 Line Charts 659
Software Options for Chart Creation 600
Special Considerations for Presenting Qualitative Data 661 Applying Chapter Concepts 662
Summary 663
Review Questions 663 Application Exercises 664 Endnotes 665
