Physics Grade 13 Teacher s guide.pdf
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(2) ngsjpftpay; Mrpupa mwpTiug; G topfhl; b juk;. - 13 – 2010. Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; 1 SBN. mr; r fg; gpupT. topfhl;ly; :. Nguhrpupau; cghyp M Nrju i.
(3) gzpg;ghsu; ehafj;jpd; nra;jp 2007k; Mz;by; juk; 6> juk;10 vd;gtw;wpy; mwpKfk; nra;ag;gl;l Nju;rr ; pfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; mZFKiw gbg;gbahf mLj;jLj;jhz;Lfspy; 7Mk;> 8Mk;> 11Mk; juq;fSf;fhd fiyj;jpl;lq;fspy; cs;thq;fg;gl;lJld; 2009 ,y; mJ f.ngh.j cau;ju tFg;Gf;Fupa fiyj; jpl;lq;fSf;Fk; tpupTgLj;Jtjw;F Njrpa fy;tp epWtf fiyj;jpl;l tbtikg;ghsu;fs; ntw;wpfz;Ls;sdu;. ,jd;fhuzkhf> 12Mk;> 13Mk; juq;fspy; gy;NtW ghlq;fs; mtw;Wf;Fupa ghlj;jpl;lq;fs; Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfs; khztuplj;jpy; tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba Nju;r;rpfs;> Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; vd;gd njhlu;ghf tpupthd jfty;fs; ,g;NghJ Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,j;jfty;fs; jkJ ghlk; njhlu;ghd fw;wy;fw;gpj;jy; re;ju;g;gq;fis tFj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;F Mrpupau;fSf;Fj; Jizahf mikAk;. fiyj; jpl;lk; tbtikg;Nghuhy; fdp\;l ,ilepiy (6-9) rpNu\;l ,ilepiy (10-11) juq;fSf;F cupa fiyj;jpl;lq;fisj; jahupg;gjw;fhff; ifahz;l mZFKiwapYk; ghu;ff ; NtWgl;l Xu; mZFKiw f.ngh.j cau;ju ghlq;fSf;Fupa Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfisj; jahupg;gjw;fhfg; gpd;gw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpl tpUk;GfpNwd;. 6> 7> 8> 9> 10> 11Mk; juq;fspy; ghl tplaq;fisf; fw;gpf;Fk;NghJ gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba fw;wy;fw;gpj;jy; mZFKiwfs; njhlu;ghf Mrpupau;fs; Fwpj;j khjpup xd;wpd;ghy; topg;gLj;jg;gl;ldu;. vdpDk; f.ngh.j cau;ju tFg;Gf;Fupa ghlj;jpl;lq;fSk; Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfSk; Mrpupau; f s; jkJ tpUg; g pd; g b nraw; g Ltjw; f hd Rje; j puj; i j caupa kl; l j; j py; mDgtpg;gjw;Fk; ,lkspf;Fk; tifapy; jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,t;tifapy; Fwpj;j ghl myFfSf;F my;yJ ghlj;Jf;F (Lesson) cupa Nju;rr ; piaAk; Nju;rr ; p kl;lj;ijAk; tpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhf cj;Njr fw;wy; Kiwfspy; jhk; tpUk;gpa Kiwfis Mrpupau;fs; gad;gLj;JjNy vjpu;gg ; hu;ff ; g;gLfpwJ. jhk; gad;gLj;Jk; fw;gpj;jy; mZFKiw kfpo;r;rp mspg;gjhfTk; tpidj;jpwd; cilajhfTk; mikAk; tpjj;jpy; gad;gLj;jp khztu;fis cj;Njr Nju;r;rp> Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd;ghy; ,l;Lr; nry;Yk; gzpapy; Mrpupau;fs; FiwNtJk; ,d;wp epiwNtw;Wjy; Ntz;Lk;. f.ngh.j cau;ju guPl;irapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;> mg;guPl;ir njhlu;ghf fy;tpj; Jiwiar; rhu;e;j rfyUk; fhl;Lk; fuprid Mfpatw;iwf; fUj;jpw; nfhz;Nl MrpupaUf;F ,t;thwhd Rje;jpuj;ij toq;fj; jPu;khdpf;fg;gl;lJ vd;gijAk; ,q;F Fwpg;gpl tpUk;GfpNwd;. ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b Mrpupau;fSf;F ,d;wpaikahj xU ife;E}yhf mikal;Lk; vdg; gpuhu;j;jpf;fpd;Nwd;. vkJ (khztu;fspd;) gps;isfspd; mwpTf; fz;iz jpwg;gjw;F ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bapy; mlq;fpAs;s jfty;fs; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> mwpTWj;jy;fs; vd;gd vkJ Mrpupau;fSf;F Kiwahd topfhl;ly;fis toq;Fk; vdg; ngupJk; vjpu;ghu;f;fpd;Nwd;.. fyhepjp cghyp Nrju gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. iii.
(4) KfTiu. iv.
(5) v.
(6) fy; t p ntspaP l ; L Mizahsu; ehafj; j pd; nra; j p murpdhy; rfy ghlrhiy khztu;fSf;Fk; ghlE}y;fs; ,ytrkhf toq;fg;gLtJld; Mrpupau;fSf;F Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfSk; toq;fg;gLtjhdJ fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; eltbf;iffis cr;rg; gad;kpf;fjhf Mf;Ftijf; Fwpf;Nfhshff; nfhz;ljhFk;. ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s Nju;rr ; pfis khztu;fs; milAk; nghUl;L tpidj;jpwd; kpf; f fw; w y; - fw; g pj; j y; nraw; g hLfspD}lhf khztu; f is topelj; J k; egu; MrpupaNuahthu;. vdNt> cq;fs; nghWg;ig kpfj; njspthf tpsq;fp> ,t; Mrpupau; mwptiug;G topfhl;bia cr;rg; gaidg; ngWk; tifahfg; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;. mjd; %yk; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghL njhlu;gpy; ey;ywpT ngWtjD}lhf fw;wy; nraw;ghl;bypUe;J khztu;fs; cr;rg; gaidg; ngw;Wj; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fis milAk; nghUl;L mtu;fSf;F mwpT+l;Lk; nghWg;G cq;fisr; rhu;e;jNj. jw;fhy cyfpd; rthy;fis ntw;wpnfhs;Sk; khztu; guk;giunahd;iw cUthf;Fk; ghupa gzpapy; <Lgl;Ls;s cq;fSf;F ,jd; %yk; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfspy; gz;Gj; ju Nkk;ghl;il Vw;gLj;j KbAk; vd ek;GfpNwd;. lgps; A .vk; . vd; . N[.G]; g Fkhu fy;tp ntspaPl;L Mizahsu; ehafk; fy;tp ntspaPl;Lj; jpizf;fsk; ‘,RUgha’ gj;juKy;y 2010.07.21. vi.
(7) topfhl; l y; :. fyhepjp cghyp M Nrju gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; tpky; rpak;gyhnfhl cjtpg;gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; nkhopfs;> khDltpay;> r%f tpQ;QhdgPlk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. gzpg;G. :. jpU. C.M.R me;jdp - gzpg;ghsu; tpQ;Qhdk; kw;Wk; RfhjhuKk; clw;fy;tpf;Fkhd Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. ghl tpla topfhl;ly; Nguhrpupau; T.R. Mupaul;z> gyfiyf;fofk; nfhOk;G. fyhepjp S.R.D. Nuhrh> gy;fiyf;fofk;> nfhOk;G. Nguhrpupau; S.R.D. fypq;fKjyp gy;fiyf;fofk;> fsdp. fyhepjp M.K. [ahde;j> gy;fiyf;fofk;> nfhOk;G. fyhepjp J.C.N. uhN[e;jpuh. jpwe;j gy;fiyf;fofk;> ,yq;if. Nguhrpupau; J.K.D. [aNej;jp> gy;fiyf;fofk;> nfhOk;G. Nguhrpupau; W .G.D. ju;kuj;jpd> gy;fiyf;fofk;> WFZ. fyhepjp P.W.S.K. gz;lhu ehaf> gy;fiyf; fofk;> Nguhnjdpa. fyhepjp D.D.N.B. jah> gy;fiyf;fofk;> nfhOk;G. fyhepjp W .G.D. ju;kuj;jpd> gy;fiyf; fofk;> WFZ. fyhepjp P.fPf;fpadNf gy;fiyf; fofk;> = n[atu;j;jdGu.. ts Mszpapdu; : jpU. B.A.jpyf;fuj;d>SLEAS-II Xa;Tepiy gpujk nraw;wpl;l jiytu; (ngsjpftpay;) Nj.f.ep. jpU. W .A. D. ,uj;jpd#upa> Xa;Tepiy gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup (ngsjpftpay;) Nj.f.ep. jpU. H.S.K. tp[ajpyf;f> SLEAS-I, Xa;Tepiy mjpgu;. - uh[rpq;` kj;jpa fy;Yhup jpU A. Rfjghy Xa;Tepiy Mrpupau;> Utd;nty kj;jpa fy;Yhup jpU. D.S. tpjhdMuhr;rp> Xa;Tepiy gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup (jfty; njhopy;El;gk;) Nj.f.ep. vii.
(8) ghlxd;wpizg;Gk;> vOJjYk; : jpU.P.kytpgjpud> nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup> Nj.f.ep jpU. M.L.S. gpajp];]> cjtp nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup> Nj.f.ep jpU. N. KFe;jd;> cjtp nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup> Nj.f.ep. nkhopngau; g ; G. :. jpU S. =fzfrig - nrd; Njhk]; fy;Yhup> fy;fp];ir. juk; 13 jkpo; nkhop%y Mrpupau; ife;Ehy; kPs;xOq;fikg;Gf; FOtpdu;. jpU S. Rjhfud;> tyaf; fy;tp mYtyfk;> jpUNfhzkiy jpU. S. gfPujd;> ghf;ak; Njrpa fy;Y}up> khj;jis jpU. S.R. n[af;Fkhu;> Nwhay; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G 07 nry;tp. J. tujuh[ngUkhs; - Mrpupau;- njhl;ltj;ij my;g`;upah kj;jpa fy;Yhup. fzzp tbtikg;G : jpUkjp ghjpkh ehjpah `p]hd; - Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.. tiyaikg;G : www.nie.lk. viii.
(9) cs; s lf; f k;. 1.0 gzpg;ghsu; ehafj;jpd; nra;jp. i. 2.0 KfTiu. iv-v. 3.0 vOj;jhsu; FO. vi-vii. 4.0 fw;ww; NgWfSk; cj;Njr fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nrad;KiwfSk; myF 5 - <ug;Gg;Gyk;. 01-05. myF 6 epiykpd;Gyk;. 06-15. myF 7 - Xl;lkpd;dpay;. 16-29. myF 8 - kpd;fhe;jtpay;. 30-39. myF 9 - ,yj;jpudpay;. 40-55. myF 10 - rlg;nghUl;fspd; nghwpKiw ,ay;Gfs;. 56-63. myF 11 - rlKk; fjpu;g;Gk;. 64-78. myF 12 - ntspg;gLk; tpQ;Qhd mwpT. 79-81. 5.0 ghlrhiy kl;lf; fzpg;gPL - mwpKfk;. ix. 82-90.
(10) ftdpf; f . myF 12,w;fhd jpUj;jg;gl;l ghlj;jpl;lk; gf;fk; 81,y; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. xt;nthU ghl cs;slf;fKk; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk; NghJ mt;Ts;slf;fj;Jld; njhlu;Gila njhopy;El;g gpuNahfq;fis Fwpg;gpLk;gb Mrpupau;fs; Ntz;lg;gLfpwPuf ; s;.. x.
(11) myF 5 : <ug;Gg; Gyk; Nju;r;rp 5'0. ( tpQ;Qhdf; fUkq;fs;> ehshe;j mYty;fis gaDW tifapy; Mw;Wtjw;F <u;g;Gg;Gy tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5'1. ( epa+l;ldpd; <u;g;G tpjpia gad;gLj;jp nghUl;fspd; kPJ <u;g;Gg; Gyj;jpd; tpisit gFj;jhuha;thu;.. ghlNtis. ( 06. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² vspa nghUj;jkhd nraw;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp tpirg;Gyq;fs; vDk; ² ² ² ². vz;zf;fUit tpsf;Ftu;. jdpikahf;fg;gl;l Gs;spj;jpzpnthd;wpdhy; cz;lhFk; <ug;Gg; Gyr; nrwptpid epa+l;ld; <u;g;G tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jpf; fhz;gu;. <u;g;Gg; Gyj;jpYs;s Gs;spnahd;wpy; <ug;G mOj;jj;jpid fzpg;gu;. Jhuj;Jld; <ug;G Gyr; nrwpT> <u;g;G mOj;jk; vd;gtw;wpd; khwiy tiugpd; %yk; fhl;Ltu;. jdpikahf;fg;gl;l jpzpnthd;iw tl;lg; ghijapy; Rw;wp tyk; tUk; Jzpf;ifnahd;wpd; nkhj;j rf;jpia Jzptjw;F rf;jpr; rkd;ghl;il gad;gLj;Jtu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² tpirg;Gyq;fspd; vz;zf;fU. ² <u;g;G tpir (. ). ² <u;g;G Gyr; nrwpT. ² epa+l;ldpd; <u;g;G tpjp ². 1.
(12) ² <u;g;G Gyr;nrwpT ² Gs;sp jpzpT M ,dhy; ² Nfhsj;jpzpnthd;wpd; Gwj;Nj ikaj;jpypUe;jhd Jhuk; r cld; <u;g;Gg;Gyr;. nrwpT g,d; khwiy tiuG %yk; fhl;ly; ,q;F r ≥ a (a Nfhsj;jpd; Miu) ² <u;g;G mOj;jk; ² <ug;G mOj;jj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia ntspg;gLj;jy;. ². jpzpT M ,ypUe;J r Jhuj;jpy;. ². Nfhsj;jpzpnthd;wpd; Gwj;Nj ikaj;jpypUe;jhd Jhuk; r cld; V ,d; khwiy tiuG %yk; fhl;ly;. (a Nfhsj;jpd; Miu). ² <ug;Gg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l; jpzpT M ,dJ <u;g;G mOj;jr;rf;jp ² Nfhsj;jpzpT M ,d; ikaj;ij ikakhff; nfhz;L Miu r cila. tl;lg;ghijapy; tyk;tUk; jpzpT ntspg;gLj;jy;.. ,dJ nkhj;jr; rf;jpf;fhd Nfhitia. ². m. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² tpirg;Gyq;fis mwpKfk; nra;tjw;fhf gy;NtW nraw;ghLfis nra;J. fhl;ly;. cjhuzk; :. - Gtpapdhy; jpzpnthd;W ftug;gly;. - cNuhQ;rg;gl;l vgidl;Nfhy; rpwpa nw[pNghk; Jz;Lfis ftUjy; - fhe;jnkhd;W ,Uk;G Mzpfis ftUjy;. ² tpir Fg, MdJ jpzpTm i ,w;F Neu;tpfpj rkd; vdf; fhl;l vspa nraw;ghnlhd;iw nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;. (cjhuzk; : ,r;nraw;ghl;Lf;F RUsptpy; /,wg;gu; ehlh> rpwpa rkjpzpTfs;> jl;L kPw;wu;> Nfhy; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. ) ² ² <u;g;G Gyr; nrwpit tiuaWq;fs;.. . mj;Jld; g ,dJ gupkhzq;fs;>. myFfisg; ngwTk;. 2.
(13) ² epa+l;ldpd; <u;g;G tpjpia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ² ² khztiuf; nfhz;L G ,dJ gupkhzq;fisAk;> myFfisAk; ngWq;fs;.. mj;Jld;> G ,d; ngWkhdj;ijf; toq;Fq;fs;. (6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2) ² jpzpT Μ ,w;F Gwj;Nj ikaj;jpypUe;jhd Jhuk; tl;lg; ghijapy; r ,y; <ug;Gg; Gyr; nrwpTf;fhd rkd;ghl;ilg;. ngWq;fs;. g =. ² Jhuj;Jld; <ug;G Gyr;nrwptpd; khwiy fPot ; Uk; re;ju;gg ; q;fspy; tiuG Kiwapy;. fhl;Lq;fs;. • Gs;spj;jpzptpypUe;J mg;ghYs;s Gs;spfspy;. ² Nfhsj; jpzptpypUe;J ntspNa cs;s Gs;spfspy; • <u;g;Gg; Gyj;jpYs;s Gs;spnahd;wpy; mOj;jk; vd;gJ myFj; jpzpnthd;iw. KbtpypapypUe;J mg;Gs;spf;Ff; nfhz;L nry;tjw;F nra;ag;gLk; Ntiy vd tiuaWq;fs;. • jpzpT Μ ,y; ,Ue;J r Jhuj;jpy; <u;g;G mOj;jk;. vDk; Nfhitia. mwpKfk; nra;Aq;fs;. • Nfhsj; jpzpT M ,dJ ikaj;jpypUe;J r Jhuj;jpy; tl;lg; ghijapy; ,aq;Fk;; jpzpT m ,dJ rf;jpr; rkd;ghl;il ngWq;fs;.. 3.
(14) Nju;r;rp 5'0. ( tpQ;Qhdf; fUkq;fs;> ehshe;j mYty;fis gaDW tifapy; Mw;Wtjw;F <u;g;Gg;Gy tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5'2. ( kdpjr; nraw;ghLfis epiwNtw;w Gtpapd; <u;g;GGyk; njhlu;ghd mwpit gad;gLj;Jk; re;ju;g;gq;fisj; Njbaha;tu;.. ghlNtis. ( 06. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² <u;gG ; g; Gyk; njhlu;ghf ngwg;gl;l mwpit> xj;j Gtpapd; <u;gG ; Gyj; njhlu;Gfis. ca;j;jwptjw;F gad;gLj;Jtu;. ² nra;kjpapd; ,af;fk; njhlu;ghd fzpaq;fis fhz;gJld;> mt;tif ,af;fq;fspw;fhd epge;jidfis tpgupg;gu;. ² rf;jpr; rkd;ghl;il gad;gLj;jp my;yJ NtWtpjkhf jg;GNtfj;ij fhz;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; my;yJ Gtpf;F ntspapYs;s Gs;spnahd;wpy; <u;g;Gg;. Gyr; nrwpT g. ². ,q;F rGtpapd; ikaj;jpypUe;J mg;Gs;spf;fhd Jhuk; (Gtp Nkw;gug;gpw;F ntspNa). ². ,q;F R Gtpapd; Miu (Gtp Nkw;gu;gpy;). ² Gtpapd; <ug;;G mOj;jk;. ² ² ² ². ,q;F r - Gtpapd; ikaj;jpypUe;J Jhuk;. ^ & <u;g;ghu;KLfy;> <u;g;G Gyr;nrwpT ,ilapyhd njhlu;G Gtpr; nra;kjpfs; Gtprhu; epiyahd nra;kjpfs; (Gtpapd; Rw;Wf;fhyj;ij cilait) jg;G Ntfk;. 4.
(15) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² <u;g;G Gyr; nrwpT. ² ² ² ² ². ,dhy; jug;gLk; vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;. ,q;F r vd;gJ. Gtpapd; ikj;jpypUe;J Jhuk; r Gtpapd; <u;g;G Gyr; nrwpT mjd; ikaj;jpypUe;J khWk; tpjj;ij tiugpd; %yk; tpsf;Fq;fs;. <u;g;G Gyr; nrwpT> <u;g;ghu;KLfy; vd;gtw;wpw;fpilNaahd njhlu;ig> myFfs;> gupkhzq;fs;> ngWkjpfs; vd;gtw;iw xg;gpLtjd; %yk; fhl;Lq;fs;. Gtpia tl;lg; ghijapy; tyk; tUk; nra;kjpf;fhd ika ehl;l tpir Gtpapd; <ug;G tpirapdhy; jug;gLk; vd tpsf;Fq;fs;. Gtp - epiyahd nra;kjpfspw;F Njitahd epge;jidfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. Gtp epiyahd nra;kjpfis VtNtz;ba Ntfj;ijAk; xOf;fpd; MiuiaAk; JzpAq;fs;.. ² jg;G Ntfj;jpw;fhd Nfhitfis ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ² nra;kjpfspd; ,af;fk; njhlu;ghd gpur;ridfis jPu;j;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;.. 5.
(16) myF 6 : epiykpd;Gyk; Nju;r;rp 6'0. ( tpQ;Qhd gzpfisAk;> ehshe;j fUkq;fisAk; gaDilajhf Mw;w epiykpd;Gyj;jpd; tpjpfisAk;> jj;Jtq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6'1. ( Vw; w g; g l; l nghUl; f spdhy; gpwg; g pf; f g; g Lk; epiykpd; G yj; j pd; guk; g iyAk; > gUkidAk; fhz;gjw;F epiykpd;Gyk; njhlu;ghd tpjpfis jFe;jthW gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² nghd;dpiy kpd;fhl;biag; gad;gLj;jp Vw;wq;fis ,dq;fhz;gij. tpsf;Ftu;. ² epiykpd; Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l Vw;wj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; tpiria fhz;gjw;F vDk; rkd;ghl;il gad;gLj;Jtu;. ² gy;NtW kpd;Gyq;fspw;F kpd; tpirf; NfhLfis tiutu;. ² $Nyhkpd; tpjpia gad;gLj;jp kpd;Gyj;jpYs;s Gs;spnahd;wpy; kpd;Gyr;. nrwpit fzpg;gu;. ² tiuigg; gad;gLj;jp Gs;sp Vw;wnkhd;wpypUe;J Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwpT khwiy tpsf;Ftu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² Vw;wq;fis ,dq;fhz nghd;dpiy kpd;fhl;bia gad;gLj;Jq;fs;. ² epiy kpd;Gyj;jpy; Vw;wnkhd;wpy; njhopw;gLk; tpir • ² kpd;Gyr; nrwpT> (E) mjd; myFk;> jpirAk; ². EHT (fLk; caupOit) ,dJ cjtpAld; fPo;tUk; Gyq;fspd; kpd;tpirf; NfhLfis mtjhdpj;J tiuAq;fs;. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;ijr; Rw;wp ² ,U Gs;sp Vw;wq;fisr; Rw;wp ² Vw;wg;gl;l ,U rkhe;ju jl;Lf;fSf;fpilapy; 6.
(17) • • $Nyhkpd; tpjp • ² Clfnkhd;wpd; mDkjpj;jpwd;. rhu;g;G mDkjpj;jpwd; (. ntw;wplj;jpd; mDkjpj;jpwd; (. ). ). • • Gs;sp Vw;wj;jpypUe;J mg;ghYs;s Gs;spapy; Gyr;nrwpT.. vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;.. •. • Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwptpd; khwiy tpsf;Fk; tiuG.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² nghd;dpiy kpd;fhl;bapd; mikg;ig tpgupAq;fs;. ² fPot ; Uk; Kiwfspy; nghd;dpiy kpd;fhl;bf;F Vw;wk; toq;Ftij nra;J. .. ² ². ². ². ². ². fhl;Lq;fs;. ² njhLif %yk; ² Jhz;ly; %yk; Vw;wg;gl;l nghd;dpiy kpd;fhl;bia nfhz;L Vw;wq;fisg; ,dq;fhZq;fs;. Nrhw;wpg; ge;ij gad;gLj;jp jpUk;gy; MdJ Vw;wk; Q ,w;F Neu;tpfpjrkd; vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;. vDk; rkd;ghl;il ngWtJld;> E MdJ kpd;Gyr; nrwpT vd tiuaWq;fs;. Neu; Nrhjid Vw;wj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; tpirapd; jpirNa Gyr;nrwptpd; jpir vd ,dq;fhZq;fs;. kpd;Gyr; nrwptpd; jpirf;fika Neu;> kiw Vw;wq;fs; kPJ njhopw;gLk; kpd;tpirapd; jpiria ,dq;fhZq;fs;. EHT ,dJ cjtpAld; fPo;tUk; Gyq;fspd; kpd;tpirf; NfhLfis mtjhdpj;J tiuAq;fs;. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;ijr; #o ² ,U Gs;sp Vw;wq;fis #o ² Vw;wg;gl;l ,U rkhe;ju flj;Jk; jl;LfSf;fpilapy;. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;jpw;Fk; tise;j jl;bw;Fk; ,ilapy; ² flj;Jk; tisankhd;wpw;F cs;NAk;> ntspNaAk;.. 7.
(18) ² $Nyhkpd; tpjp. ,q;F. ². ² rhu;G mDkjpj;jpwd;. ,q;F. ,id. mwpKfk; nra;Aq;fs;.. - Clfj;jpd; mDkjpj;jpwd;. ,id mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ntw;wplj;jpd; mDkjpj;jpwd;.. • • • $Nyhkpd; tpjpg;gb Gs;sp Vw;wj;jpypUe;J r Jhuj;jpy; kpd;Gyr;nrwpT. vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;. • Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwptpd; khwiy tiuG %yk; fhl;Lq;fs;. • gy Gs;sp Vw;wq;fspd; gadhf jug;gl;l Gs;spnahd;wpy; tpisAs;. Gyr; nrwpit fzpj;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;. • NkNyAs;s rkd;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp gpur;rpidfisj; jPUq;fs;.. 8.
(19) Nju;r;rp 6'0. ( tpQ;Qhd> ehshe;j fUkq;fis gaDilajhf Mw;w epiykpd;Gyj;jpd; tpjpfisAk;> jj;Jtq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6'2. ( gha khjpupiag; gad;gLj;jp epiy kpd;Gyj;ij epu; z apg; g u; .. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp gha khjpupia tpsf;Ftu;. ² gy;NtW Vw;wg;gl;l cly;fis #o> cly;fSf;fpilapy; kpd; tpirf;. NfhLfis tiutu;. ² Vw;wg;gl;l flj;Jk;> flj;jhj rkr;rPu; cly;fis #o> kpd;Gyr; nrwpitf; fhzg;gjw;F Nfhrpd; Njw;wj;ijg; gpuNahfpg;gu;. ² Vw;wg;gl;l Nfhsnkhd;wpd; ikaj;jpypUe;J Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwptpd; khwiy tiuG %yk; fhl;Ltu;. ² ntt;NtW Vw;wg;gl;l cly;fspdhy; cz;lhFk; kpd;Gyr; nrwptpid mjw;Fupa Nfhitfspd; cjtpAld; fzpg;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² kpd;ghak;. ,q;F E kpd;Gyr; nrwpT A-ghaf; NfhLfSf;F. nrq;Fj;jhd gug;G. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;jhy; nkhj;j ghak;. (Fwpg;G :. ,. vd;gjid epak ghak; vd mu;j;jg;gLj;jf; $lhJ.. ,d mwpKfg;gLj;j Ntz;bajpy;iy.) ² Nfhrpd; Njhw;wk; ² kpd;Gyr; nrwpT ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;ijr; #o (Jhuk; r,y;); ² Kbtpyp Vw;wg;gl;l flj;Jk; jl;bw;F mUfpy;. ,q;F. gug;glu;j;jp ² Vw;wg;gl;l flj;Jk; Nfhsj;jpw;F mUfpy;. (R-Nfhs Miu). , r<R 9. ,. Vw;w.
(20) ² rPuhd Vw;wg;gl;l flj;jhj Nfhsj;ijr; #o> ,. > ² ru;trkdhd Vw;wg;gl;l ,U rkhe;ju jl;LfSf;fpilapy;> ² Vw;wg;gl;l Nfhsj;jpd; ikaj;jpypUe;J Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwpT khw;wj;ij. tpsf;Fk; tiuG ² Kbtpyp ePs Vw;wg;gl;l nky;ypa Neupa flj;Jk; fk;gpapypUe;J r Jhuj;jpy; kpd;Gyr;. nrwpT. ,q;F. - myF ePsj;jpYs;s Vw;wk;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² kpd; gha khjpupapd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² kpd; tpirf; NfhLfspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpsf;Fq;fs;.. vd;gjid mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;;fs;.. ². ² Nfhrpd; Njhw;wj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ² ve;j %ba gug;gpDhLk;. .. ,q;F. gug;gpDs; milf;fg;gl;l. Vw;wq;fspd; ml;rufzpj $l;Lj;njhif ² Nfhrpd; Njhw;wj;ij gad;gLj;jp kpd;Gyr; nrwpit (E ) ngWq;fs;. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;ijr; #o. ,q;F r- Jhuk; Q- Vw;wk;. ² Vw;wg;gl;l Kbtpyp flj;Jk; jl;bw;F mUfpy;. ,q;F. Vw;wgug;glu;jj ; p ² Vw;wg;gl;l flj;Jk; Nfhsj;ijr; #o ² Nkw;gug;gp;y;. ,. ,r=R. ² Nfhsj;jpDs; E = 0, r < R ² Vw;wg;gl;l nky;ypa Neupa Kbtpyp ePs fk;gpapypUe;J r Jhuj;jpYs;s. Gs;spapy;. ,q;F. myF ePsj;jpYs;s Vw;wk;.. 10.
(21) ² rPuhf Vw;wp;a flj;jhj Nfhsj;ijr; #o ². ². ². ². , r>R Nfhsj; j pw; F. ntspNa. , r = R Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;gpy; , r < R Nfhsj;jpDs;. Nfhsj;jpd; ikaj;jpypUe;J Jhuj;Jld; kpd;Gyr; nrwptpd; khwiy tiugpdhy; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;.. 11.
(22) Nju;r;rp 6'0. ( tpQ;Qhd> ehshe;j fUkq;fis gaDilajhf Mw;w epiykpd;Gyj;jpd; tpjpfisAk;> jj;Jtq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6'3. ( epiykpd;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l Vw;wq;fspd; mOj;j rf;jpia epu;zapg;gu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² Gs;sp Vw;wk;> gy Gs;sp Vw;wq;fspd; guk;gy; fhuzkhf ahjhapDnkhU ². ². ² ². Gs;spapy; kpd; mOj;jj;jpid fhz;gu;. flj;Jk; Nfhsnkhd;wpd; ikaj;jpypUe;J Jhuj;Jld; kpd; mOj;jj;jpd; khwiy tiugpdhy; tpsf;Ftu;. Gs;sp Vw;wq;fspd; guk;gy; fhuzkhf ahjhapDnkhU Gs;spapy; mOj;j rf;jpapid tpgupg;gu;. ntt;NtW kpd;Gyq;fspw;F rkmOj;j Nkw;gug;Gf;fis tiue;J fhl;Ltu;. kpd;Gyr; nrwpT> kpd; mOj;j gbj;jpwd; vd;gtw;wpf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig $Wtu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ². epiy kpd;Gyj;jpy; mOj;jj;jpd; tiutpyf;fzk;.. ². Gs;sp Vw;wj;jpdhy; ahjhapDnkhU Gs;sp;apy; kpd;mOj;jk;. ². Vw;wg;gl;l Nfhsf; flj;jpapdhy; kpd;mOj;jk; ² Nfhsj;jpw;F ntspNa. r>R (R- Nfhzj;jpd; Miu). ² Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;gp;y;. ² Nfhsj;jpDs;. ² ² ². r=R r>R. Jhuj;Jld; mOj;jj;jpd; khwiy tiugpdhy; fhl;ly;. Gs;sp Vw;wq;fspd; guk;gy; fhuzkhf ahjhapDnkhU Gs;spapy; mOj;jk;. kpd;Gynkhd;wpYs;s ,U Gs;spfSf;fpilapy; mOj;j tpj;jpahrk;. 12.
(23) ² ² ². ². ². kpd;Gyj;jpYs;s Vw;wnkhd;wpd; mOj;jrf;jp Vw;wg;guk;gy; njhFjpapd; fhuzkhf Gs;spnahd;wpy; mOj;jr;rf;jp mOj;j NtWghl;bw;Ff; FWf;fhf Vw;wnkhd;W ,aq;Fk; NghJ nra;ag;gl;l Ntiy. ntt;NtW kpd;Gyq;fspy; rkmOj;j Nkw;gug;Gfs;. ² Gs;sp Vw;wj;jpw;F mUfpy; ² xj;j Gs;sp Vw;wq;fSf;F mUfpy; ² xt;thj Gs;sp Vw;wq;fSf;F mUfpy; kpd;Gyr; nrwpT> mOj;jg;gbj;jpwd; vd;gtw;Wf;fpilapyhd njhlu;G. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² ². ². kpd;Gynkhd;wpYs;s Gs;spnahd;wpy; mOj;jj;ij tiuaWq;fs;. Gs;sp Vw;wk; Q ,ypUe;J r Jhuj;jpYs;s Gs;spapy; mOj;jj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. Miu a cila Vw;wg;gl;l Nfhs flj;jpapd; ikaj;jpypUe;J r Jhuj;jpy; mOj;jj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. ,. r > R. ,. ². flj;Jk; Nfhsnkhd;wpd; ikaj;jpypUe;jhd Jhuj;Jld; mOj;jj;jpd; khwiy tiuG %yk; fhl;Lq;fs;. kpd;Gyj;jpYs;s ,U Gs;spfSf;fpilapyhd mOj;j NtWghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. ntt;NtW kpd;Gyq;fspy; rkmOj;j Nkw;gug;Gfis tiue;J fhl;Lq;fs;.. ². vDk; mOj;j gbj;jpwd;> kpd;Gyr; nrwpT vd;gtw;wpw;fpilapyhd. ². ². njhlu;ig ngWq;fs;. ². epiy kpd;dOj;jj;Jld; njhlu;ghd gpurpdq;fis toq;Fq;fs;.. 13.
(24) Nju;r;rp 6'0. ( tpQ;Qhd> ehshe;j fUkq;fis gaDilajhf Mw;w epiykpd;Gyj;jpd; tpjpfisAk;> jj;Jtq;fisAk; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6'4. ( kpd; R w; W fspy; nfhs; s stpfis nghUj; j khfg; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² rkhe;juj; jl;L> nfhs;sstpapd; nfhs;sstpw;fhd Nfhitia ngWtu;. ² nfhs;sstpfs; njhlu;> rkhe;ju epiyapy; ,izf;fg;gbd; mtw;wpd; ² ². ² ². rktY nfhs;ssit ngWtu;. Vw;wg;gl;l nfhs;sstpapy; Nrfupf;fg;gl;l rf;jp;ff ; hd Nfhitia ngWtu;. gy;NtW tbtq;fisAila flj;jpfspd; Vw;wg;guk;giy tiuglq;fs; %yk; tpsf;Ftu;. kpd;dw; flj;jpapd; njhopw;ghl;il tpsf;Ftu;. nfhs;sstpfs; njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² nfhs;ssT ² nfhs;sstpd; tiutpyf;fzk;> ² rkhe;ju jl;L nfhs;sstpfs; ² rkhe;juj;jl;L> nfhs;sstpapd; nfhs;ssT>. ,q;F. (kpd;Dioa khwpyp). ² Nfhsf; flj;jpapd; nfhs;ssT ² nfhs;sstpfspd; Nru;khdk;. ² njhlu;epiy> ² rkhe;juepiy> ². Vw;wg;gl;l nfhs;sstpapy; Nrfupf;fg;gl;l rf;jp.. 14.
(25) ². ² ². ntt;NtW tbt flj;jpfspd; Vw;wg;guk;gy;. ² Nfhsf;flj;jp ² Pear go tbtf; flj;jp (tistpdhiu NtWgLk; Nkw;gug;gpid cila flj;jp) ² rJuKfp flj;jp Gs;sp kpd; ,wf;fk;. kpd;dw; flj;jpapd; nraw;ghL.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². nfhs;sstpapd; njhopw;ghl;il tpgupAq;fs;.. ². nfhs;ssit tiuaWq;fs;.. ². rkhe;juj; jl;L nfhs;sstpia mwpKfg;gLj;jp> nfhs;sstpw;F. .. ,q;F. Nfhitnahd;iw ngWq;fs;.. .. ². Nfhsf; flj;jpapd; nfhs;ssit ngWq;fs;.. ². nfhs;sstpfs; njhlu;> rkhe;ju epiyfspy; ,izf;fg;gLk; NghJ nfhs;sstpw;fhd Nfhitfis ngWq;fs;. ,. ². Vw;wg;gl;l. nfhs;sstpapd; rf;jpf;fhd Nfhitia ngWq;fs;. .. ². ² ². Vw;wg; guk;giy tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² Nfhsf; flj;jp ² Pear go tbtf; flj;jp ² rJuKfp flj;jp Gs;sp kpd; ,wf;fk; kpd;dw; flj;jpapd; nraw;ghl;il glq;fspd; cjtpAld; tpsf;Fq;fs;.. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : ² nfhs;sstpnahd;wpd; kpd;Ndw;wk;> kpd;dpwf;fk; (tiuG) mj;Jld;> vspa gpuNahfq;fs;.. 15.
(26) myF 7 : Xl;lkpd;dpay; Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'1. ( Xl;lkpd;dpay; njhlu;ghd ngsjpff; fzpaq;fis jFe;j Kiwapy; ifahs;tu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;gJ Vw;wg;gha;r;ry; tPjk; vd tpsf;Ftu;. ² kpd;flj;jpfisAk;> kpd;fhtypfisAk; NtWgLj;Jtu;. ² kpd;flj;jYf;fhd nghwpKiw> kpd;Ndhl;l mlu;jj ; p> ,yj;jpud;fspd; efu;T ² ². ² ². Ntfk; vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Ftu;. jil> jilj;jpwd;> flj;Jjpwd;> kPflj;Jj;jpwd; vd;gtw;iw tpgupg;gu;. Xkpd;tpjpia gad;gLj;jp Xkpd;> Xkpd; my;yhj flj;jpfisg; gw;wp tpsf;Ftu;. vspa kpd;tiy Ntiyfspd; rkhdj; jilia ngWtu;. gpur;ridfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² kpd;Ndhl;lk;. ² kpd;flj;jpfs;> kpd; fhtypfspy; RahjPd ,yj;jpud; mlu;j;jp.. ,idg; ngWjy;. ². ² kpd;Ndhl;l mlu;j;jp ² kpd;jil ² jilj;jpwd;. myF MdJ. ,dhy; tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.. . ² flj;Jj; jpwd;. myFfs; 16. ,dJ myF.
(27) ² kPflj;jpfs; ² elj;ijfs; ² ,ay;Gfs; (nka;];du; tpisT- (Meissner effect) ² kPflj;Jk; gjhu;j;jq;fs;. ² cgNahfq;fs; ² Xkpd; tpjpAk; epge;jidfSk; ² V-I t i s a p f s ; ² Xkpd; flj;jpfs; ² Xkpd; my;yhj flj;jpfs; ² ntg;gepiyAld; jilapd; khw;wk; ² rktYj; jil> R ² njhlu; epiy ,izg;G ² rkhe;ju epiy ,izg;G • vspa kpd;Rw;Wfspd; tpisAs; jil • mOj;jg; gFg;gp. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². ². Vw;wg;gl;l nfhs;sstpnahd;iw kpy;yp mk;gpau;khdpapD}L kpd;dpwf;fk; nra;tjd; %yk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij tpsf;Fq;fs;. jFe;j cUit gad;gLj;jp nghwpKiwia tpgupg;gjd; %yk; efu;T Ntfj;jpw;F #j;jpunkhd;iw ngWq;fs;. .. ². kpd;Ndhl;l mlu;j;jpia mwpKfk; nra;Aq;fs;.. ². jilia tiuaWq;fs;;.. ². jilapd; myfhd V A-1 vd;gJ vd mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. flj;jpnahd;wpd; jil (R) mjd; ePsk; (l) FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;G (A) vd;gtw;wpy; jq;fpAs;sJ vd tpgupAq;fs;.. ². ² ² ². vDk; #j;jpuj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;>. - jilj;jpwd;.. jiljpwdpd; myF m vd;gij mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. jilj;jpwid tiuaWq;fs;.. 17.
(28) ². kpd;flj;Jjpwd;. ² ² ² ². kPflj;Jjpwd; vd;gjid tpsf;Fq;fs;. kP;flj;jpfspd; Meissner tpisT vd;gjid tpsf;Fq;fs;. rpy kPflj;jpfspd; ngau;fis toq;Fq;fs;. kPflj;jpfspw;fhd jil - ntg;gepiy tiuig tiuAq;fs;. khWepiy (mtjp) ntg;gepiyia (Tc) tpsf;Fq;fs;.. ². vd;gjid mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. mjd; myF. jputpak;. khWepiy ntg;gepiy ( K). Al. 1.19. Hg. 4.15. Pb. 7.18. YBa2Cu2O. 100. Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10. 125. HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8. 138. ². kPflj;jpfspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijAk;> gad;fisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;. Xkpd; tpjpia toq;Fq;fs;. ² Xkpd; tpjp typjhtjw;fhd epge;jidfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² Xkpd;> Xkpd; my;yhj tiuGfis tiuAq;fs;. ² cNyhf flj;jpfs; ² kpd;Fkpopd; ,io ² Fiwflj;jp ,Uthap ² ePu; Nthy;w;wh kPw;wu;. ntg;gepiyAld; jilapd; khw;wj;ij tpsf;Fq;fs;.. ². vDk; rd;ghl;il mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. ² ². ². ,q;F á jputpaj;jpd; jil ntg;gepiy Fzfk; jil ntg;gepiy Fzfk; Neu; my;yJ kiwahf ,Uf;fyhk;. Fiwflj;jpfs;> fhgd; kiw jilntg;gepiyf; FzfKilad.. 18.
(29) ². rktYj; jil (R) ,w;F rkd;ghLfis ngWq;fs;. ² njhlu;epiy ² rkhe;ju epiy. ² ². ². vspa kpd;Rw;Wf;fspd; rktYj; jilia fzpg;gjw;F khztu;fis topfhl;Lq;fs;. jFe;j RwWg; glq;fspd;; cjtpAld; mOj;j gFg;gpapd; nraw;ghl;il tpgupAq;fs;. NkNy cs;s rkd;ghLfis gad;gLj;jp gpur;rpidfis jPUq;fs;.. 19.
(30) Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'2. ( NeNuhl; l (dc) kpd; R w; W fspy; rf; j p> tYit epu; z apg; g u; .. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² Vw;wg; gha;r;ry; fhuzkhf rf;jp tpuaj;jpw;fhd #j;jpuj;ij vOJtu;. ² rf;jp tpua tPjj;jpw;fhd #j;jpuj;ij vOJtu;. ² ve;jnthU kpd; cgfuzj;jpw;Fk; NkNy cs;s #j;jpuq;fis gpuNahfpg;gu;. ² capu;g;gp;y; jilfspy; (passive resistors) ntg;gtpuaj;ij fhz;gu;. (KOr;. rf;jpAk; ntg;gkhf khw;Wk; jilfs;) ² gpur;ridfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² kpd;rf;jpAk; mjd; myFfSk;. ² Vw;wg;gha;r;ry; fhuzkhf rf;jp tpuak; (W). ² tu;j;jf uPjpahd kpd;rf;jp myF kW h ² kpd;tYTk; mjd; myFfSk;. ² ve;j kpd; cgfuzj;jpw;Fk; rf;jp tpua tPjk; (P) ² capu;g;gpy;jilfspw;fhd #j;jpuj;ij ngWjy;.. ,. ,. ,. 20.
(31) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². ². ² ². .. ². ². vspa nraw;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp> kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ntg;g tpisitf; fhl;Lq;fs;. Vw;wg; gha;r;ry; fhuzkhf rf;jp tpuaj;jpw;fhd Nfhitfis ngWq;fs;. tu;j;jf rf;jp myfhd kW h ,id tpsf;Fq;fs;. rf;jp tpua tPjj;jpw;fhd (P) Nfhitia ngWq;fs;. ehshe;jk; gad;gLk; tPl;L kpd; cgfuzq;fspd; kpd;tYf;fis Njb xg;gplr; nra;Aq;fs;. capu;g;gpy; jilfspy; rf;jp tpuaj;;jpw;fhd rkd;ghLfis ngWq;fs;. >. ². capu;g;gpy; jilfspy; rf;jp tpua tPjj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghLfis ngWq;fs;. ,. ². ,. Nkw;jug;gl;l rkd;ghLfis cgNahfpj;J gpur;rpidfisj; jPUq;fs;.. Ma; T f; $ l gupNrhjid ² a+ypd; fNyhupkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp jputnkhd;wpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssit Jzpjy;.. 21.
(32) Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'3. ( kpd; Rw;Wfspd; tY Kjiy epu;zapg;gu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² vspa fyj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp tof;fpYs;s kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpiria ² ². ² ². tpsf;Ftu;. ntt;NtW tif kpd;Kjy;fspy; rf;jp khw;wj;ij tpgupg;gu;. %ba Rw;nwhd;wpy; mfj;jilAila kpd;dpaf;ftpir Kjnyhd;wpw;F FWf;Nfahd mOj;j tPo;r;rpf;fhd rkd;ghl;il vOjpf; fhl;Ltu; fyq;fspd; Nru;f;ifapd; tpisT kpd;dpaf;f tpiria jUtu; tY vjpu; jil (jilf;F vjpuhf tYtpd;) tiuig gad;gLj;jp> cau;tY ,lkhw;wj;jpw;fhd epge;jidia tpsf;Ftu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² ntt;NtW kp.,.tp. Kjy;fs;. ² gy;NtW kp.,.tp. Kjy;fspypUe;J ntt;NtW tif rf;jp epiy khw;wq;fs;. ² kpd; ,urhad fyj;jpd; kp.,.tp> kpd;tha; mOj;jk; ² tof;fpYs;s kpd;Ndhl;lj; jpir ² kpd;,af;f tpir Kjnyhd;wpd; mfj;jil ² kp.,.tp. ,dJ tiutpyf;fzk;. ² kp.,.tp. Kjiyf; nfhz;L kpd;Rw;wpw;F rf;jpf; fhg;G tpjp ² vspa %ba Rw;wpw;fhd rkd;ghLfs; ² kp.,.tp Kjy;fspd; Nru;khdk; ² njhlu;epiy ,izg;G ² rktY kp.,.tp (Ee ) ² rktY mfj;jil (re, ). 22. > V=E-Ir.
(33) ² ru;trk Kjy;fspd; rkhe;ju ,izg;G ² rktY kp.,.tp (Ee) ² rktY mfj;jil (re, ). ,q;F ² ². - fyq;fspd; vz;zpf;if. tY vjpu; jil tiuG cau;tY ,lkhw;wj;jpw;fhd epge;jid (mfj;jil = tpisAs; Gwj;jil). fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². ². ². ² ². kp.,.tp Kjy;fspd; ntt;NtW rf;jp khw;wj;ij tpgupAq;fs;. cjhuzk; : kpd; ,urhad fyk;> Qhapw;Wf;fyk;> ijdNkh> ,Wf;fkpd;gspq;F (Piezoeletric Crystal) ntg;g,iz> xspkpd;fyk;. vspa fyj;jpd; mOj;j NtWghl;il tpgupg;gJld; tof;fpYs;s kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpiria mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. kp.,.tp mOj;j NtWghl;il tiuaWq;fs;. ² kp.,.tp mOj;j NtWghl;il xg;gpLq;fs;. mfj;jilia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. %ba Rw;nwhd;wpw;F vt;thW rf;jp fhg;G tpjpia gpuNahfpf;fyhk; vd tpsf;Fq;fs;.. ². vspa %ba Rw;wpw;F V=E-Ir >. vDk; rkd;ghLfis ca;jj ; wpAq;fs;.. ². kp.,.tp Kjy;fspd; rktY kp.,.tp rktY mfj;jilf;F Nfhitfis toq;Fq;fs;. ² njhlu;epiy. ² rkhe;ju epiy (ru;trk Kjy;fs;) , ² ². (n fyq;fspd; vz;zpf;if ). jil> tY njhlu;ig tiugpy; fhl;Lq;fs;. Nkw;$wpa njhlu;ig cgNahfpj;J cau;tY ,lkhw;wj;jpw;fhd epge;jidia tpsf;Fq;fs;.. Ma; T f; $ l gupNrhjid ² fynkhd;wpd; kp.,.tp mfj;jilia Jzpjy; (tiuG Kiw). 23.
(34) Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'4. ( kpd; R w; W fis tbtikg; g jw; F xl; l kpd; d pay; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fis gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 12. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² Vw;wf;fhg;G vd;gjdbg;gilapy; Nfr;Nrhtpd; KjyhtJ tpjpia tpsf;Ftu;. ² rf;jpf;fhg;gpd; Xu; tbtk;; jhd; Nfr;Nrhtpd; ,uz;lhtJ tpjp vd;gjid. tpgupg;gu;. ² ctPj;jdpd; ghyk; rkepiyapy; cs;sNghJ jilfspw;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig ngWtu;. ² jilfis msf;f /xg;gpl kPw;wu; ghyj;ij nrk;ikahf gad;gLj;Jtu;. ² gpur;rpisfisj; jPu;f;f kpd;tiyNtiyfl;F Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpfisg; gpuNahfpg;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² Nfr;Nrhtpd; Kjyhk; tpjp. Vw;wf;fhg;G Nfr;Nrhtpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjp ² rf;jpf; fhg;G kpd;tiyNtiyfl;L Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpfspd; gpuNahfk; ctP;j;jdpd; ghyk; rkepiyapYs;s NghJ> jilfspw;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;G ctPj;jdpd; ghyj;jpd; nra;Kiw xOq;F kPw;wu; ghyk; ² kPw;wu; ghyj;ij gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ ftdj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;ba fhuzpfs;. ² fy;tNdhkhdpapd; ghJfhg;G ² Kidj;jpUj;jk;. ² tOf;fis ,opthf;Ftjw;fhd Kd;ndr;rupf;if. ². ². ² ². ². 24.
(35) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² ² ² ² ² ². ² ². Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. (Kirchhoff’s law) Nfr;Nrhtpd; Kjyhk; tpjp Vw;wf;fhg;gpd; tbtk; vd tpsf;Fq;fs; Nfr;Nrhtpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjp rf;jpfhg;gpd; tbtk; vd tpsf;Fq;fs;. kpd;Rw;W tiy Ntiyfspw;F Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpfisg; gpuNahfpAq;fs;. ctPjj ; dpd; ghyr; rkepiyapy; jilfsp;wF ; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig ngWq;fs;. ctPjj ; dpd; ghyj;jpd; nra;Kiw tbtNk kPww ; u; ghyk; vd mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ² kPww ; u; ghyk; cgNahfpf;Fk; NghJ fUj;jpw; nfhs;s Ntz;ba fhuzpfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² fy;tNdhkhdpapd; ghJfhg;G ² Kid jpUj;jk; ² tOf;fis ,opthf;f Kd;ndr;rpupf;iffs; kPw;wu; ghyj;jpd; mD$yq;fs;> gpujp$yq;fisf; $Wq;fs;. kPw;wu; ghyj;jpd; gad;fis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² ,U jilfis xg;gply; ² ntg;gepiy jilFzfj;ij Jzpjy;.. Ma; T f; $ l gupNrhjid : ² jilfis xg;gply;. ² ntg;gepiy jil Fzfj;ij kPw;wu; ghyj;ij gad;gLj;jp Jzpjy;.. 25.
(36) Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'5. ( mstplg; g Lk; fzpaj; j pw; N fw; w thW fUtpfis Nju; T nra; t Jld; > kpd; mstP l ; L fUtpfis nrk;ikahfTk; ghJfhg;ghfTk; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² NjitfSf;Nfw;g mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia mk;gpau;khdpahf ². ² ². ². my;yJ Nthy;w;khdpahf khw;Wtu;. NjitfSf; f ika mk; g pau; k hdp> Nthy; w ; k hdpfis rupahfTk; > ghJfhg;ghfTk; gad;gLj;Jtu;. Xk;khdpapd; gaidAk; mjd; fl;likg;igAk; tpgupg;gu;. mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia mk;gpau;khdp> Nthy;wk ; hdp> Xk;khdpahf khw;WtJ njhlu;ghd vz; gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;. nghUj;jkhd epiyikfspy; gy;khdpia rupahf gad;gLj;Jtu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia mk;gpau;khdpahf khw;Wjy;. ² mk;gpau;khapd; tPr;ir khw;Wjy;. ² ,yl;rpa mk;gpau;khdpapd;; ,ay;Gfs;. ² mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia Nthy;w;khdpahf khw;Wjy;. ² Nthy;w;khdpapd; tPr;ir khw;Wjy;. ² ,yl;rpa Nthy;w;khdpapd; ,ay;Gfs;. ² ,aq;F RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia Xk;khdpahf khw;Wjy;. ² gy;khdp (mk;gpau;khdp> Nthy;w;khdp> Xk;khdpfspd; Nru;khdk;). 26.
(37) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². ². ². ² ² ². jFe;j gf;ftopia gad;gLj;jp mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia mk;gpau;khdpahf jpupGgLj;Jtij tpsf;Fq;fs;. jFe;j ngUf;fpia gad;gLj;jp mirAk; RUs; fy;tNdhkhdpia Nthy;w;Wkhdpahf jpupGgLj;Jtij tpsf;Fq;fs;. nghUj;jkhd kpd;Rw;Wf;fis gad;gLj;jp gy;tPr;R> mk;gpau;khdp> Nthy;w;khdpia tpgupAq;fs;. ,yl;rpa mk;gpau;khdp> ,yl;rpa Nthy;wW ; khdpapd; ,ay;Gfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. Xk;khdpapd; Rw;iwAk; mjd; mstpiliaAk; tpsf;Fq;fs;. gy;khdpia gad;gLj;jp kpd;Ndhl;lk;> Nthy;w;wsT> jilapid msTq;fs;.. 27.
(38) Nju;r;rp 7'0. ( Xl;lkpd;dpaypd; tpjpfs;> jj;Jtq;fs; tpisTfs; vd;gtw;iw nghUj;jkhfTk; gaDW tifapYk; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7'6. ( jFe;j Rw;WfSf;F mOj;jkhdpia nghUj;jkhfg; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. ghlNtis. ( 12. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² mOj;jkhdpapd; jj;Jtj;ij tpgupg;gu;. ² mOj;jkhdpapid gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ fUjg;gl Ntz;ba fhuzpfis. tpsf;Ftu;. ² mOj;jkhdpia gad;gLj;jp kp.,.tpirfis xg;gpLtu;> jilfis xg;gpLtu;. ² rpwpa kp.,.tp> fyq;fspd; mfj;jil vd;gtw;iw mOj;jkhdpia gad;gLj;jp Jzptu;. ² mOj;jkhdp njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² mOj;jkhdpapd; jj;Jtk;. ² mOj;jkhdpiaj; juq;fzpj;jy;. ² mOj;jkhdpia gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ fUj Ntz;ba Kf;fpa fhuzpfs; ² mOj;jkhdpapd; gad;fis tpgupg;gu;. ² kp.,.tpirfis xg;gply; ² jilfis xg;gply; ² mfj;jilfisj; Jzpjy; ² rpwpa kp.,.tp Jzpjy; ² mOj;jkhdpapd; mD$yq;fSk;> gpujp$yq;fSk;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² ² ². mOj;jkhdpapd; jj;Jtj;ij tpgupAq;fs;. jFe;j kpd;Rw;W glq;fspd; cjtpAld; mOj;jkhdpia juq;fzpj;jiy tpsf;Fq;fs;. mOj;jkhdpia gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ fUjNtz;ba fhuzpfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² czu;jpwd; ² fyq;fis rupahd Kiwapy; ,izj;jy;. ² Kid jpUj;jk;. ² rkepiy Gs;spia ngWtjpy; Kw;fhg;Gfs;. 28.
(39) ². ². nghUj;jkhd Rw;Wg; glj;jpd; cjtpAld; mOj;jkhdpapd; gad;fis tpsf;fy;. ² kp.,.tpirfis xg;gply;. ² jilfis xg;gply;. ² fyj;jpd; mfj;jil jzpjy;. ² rpwpa kp.,.tp Jzpjy;. mOj;jkhdpapd; mD$yq;fSk;> gpujp$yq;fSk;.. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : ² mOj;jkhdpapd; gad;fs;. - kp.,. tpiria xg;gply; - jilfis xg;gply; - fyj;jpd; mfj;jilia Jzpjy; - kpfr; rpwpa kp.;,.tpiria Jzpjy;.. 29.
(40) myF 08 - kpd;fhe;jtpay; Nju;r;rp 8'0. ( kpd; d pay; > fhe; j tpay; > vd; g tw; W f; f pilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;gpd; tpisit tpQ;Qhdg; gzpfSf;Fk;> ehshe;j NjitfSf;Fk; gad; g Lj; J thu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8'1. ( fhe; j g; G yj; j py; itf; f g; g l; l kpd; N dhl; l j; i jf; fhTk; flj; j p> ,aq; F k; Vw; w k; vd; g tw; w py; njhopw;gLk; tpiria fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; khwpfis ifahs; t hu; .. ghlNtis. ( 14. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; flj;jpapy; njhopw;gLk; fhe;jtpiria tpsf;Ftu;. • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; Vw;wj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; tpirf;fhd Nfhitia ca;jj ; wptu;. • gpnskpq;fpd; ,lf;if tpjpiag; gad;gLj;jp Nkw;$wpa tpirapd; jpiria fhz;gu;. • N`hypd; tpisit tpsf;Ftu;. • gpuNahfq;fspy; NkNy ngwg;gl;l mwpitg; gad;gLj;Jtu;. • gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl; b fs; : • kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;jtpisT • fhe;jGyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; flj;jpapy; njhopw;gLk; tpir.. • fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jp • gpnskpq;fpd; ,lf;iftpjp •. 30.
(41) • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; Vw;wj;jpy; jhf;Fk; tpir • N`hypd; tpisT • N`hypd; Nthy;w;wsT • gpuNahfq;fs;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • Oersteade ,dJ gupNrhjidiag; gad;gLj;jp kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisit tpsf;Fq;fs;. • kpd;Ndhl;lj; juhir gad;gLj;jp fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; flj;jpapy; njhopw;gLk; tpir jq;fpAs;s fhuzpfis nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;. • • fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jpia. ,id gad;gLj;jp tiuaWq;fs;.. • myFfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • gpnskpq;fpd; ,lf;if tpjpia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • fhe;jg;Gyj;Jld; flj;jp. Nfhzk; mikj;jhy;. vd;gij. mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; Vw;wj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; tpir. ,id. ca;jj ; wpAq;fs;. • N`hypd; tpisit tpsf;Fq;fs;. • N`hypd; Nthy;w;wsT. vd;gij ngWq;fs;.. • N`hypd; tpistpd; gpuNahfq;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;. • Nkw;$wpa rkd;ghLfs; njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gJld;> gpuNahfq;fis tpgupAq;fs;. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : • kpd;Ndhl;lj; juhir gad;gLj;jp kpd;fhe;j tpirapd; ,ay;ig nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;.. 31.
(42) Nju;r;rp 8'0. ( kpd; d pay; > fhe; j tpay; > vd; g tw; W f; f pilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;gpd; tpisit tpQ;Qhdg; gzpfSf;F> ehshe;j NjitfSf;F gad; g Lj; J thu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8'2. ( NjitfSf; f hd khwpfis ifahs; t jdhy; nghUj;jkhd fhe;jg;Gyj;ij gpwg;gpg;gu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • jFe;j Nfhitiag; gad;gLj;jp gpNah-rth (Biot-savart) tpjpia tpsf;Ftu;. • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij fhTk; tl;lr;RUspd; ikaj;jpy; fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jpf;fhd Nfhitia jUtpg;gu;. • kpd; N dhl; l j; i jf; fhTk; Kbtpyp eP s Neupa flj; j pf; F ntspNaAk; > kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; ePz;l tupr;RUspd; mr;rpd; topNaAk; fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jpf;fhd Nfhitfis jUtu;. • ,U rkhe;ju kpd;Ndhl;l ; j;ij fhTk; Kbtpyp ePs Neupa flj;jpfspy; njhopw;gLk; tpirf;fhd Nfhitia ngWtu;. • gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl; b fs; : • gpNah-rth tpjpAk; (Biot - Savart) mjw;Fupj;jhd NfhitAk; • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; flj;jpfspdhy; fhe;jtpir NfhLfs;. • Neupa flj;jpia #o • tl;l RUspDhL • tupr;RUspDhL • fhe;jg;gha mlu;;j;jp • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij fhTk; Kbtpyp ePs Neupa flj;jpf;F mg;ghYs;s Gs;spapy;> • kpd;Ndhl;;lj;ij fhTk; tl;lf;flj;jpapd; ikaj;jpy;. • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; ePz;l. tupr;RUspd; mr;rpd; topNa. 32.
(43) • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; Kbtpyp ePs rkhe;ju flj;jpfspy; tpir. • mk;gpaupd; tiutpyf;fzk;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • gpNahrhthtpjpia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. ,q;F. kpd;Ndhl;l %yfk; ,ypUe;J r Jhuj;jpYs;s Gs;spapy; fhe;jg;gha mlu;jj ; p kpd;Ndhl;;l %yfj;jpd; kpd;Ndhl;l jpirAld;> kpd;Ndhl;l %yfj;ij Gs;spAld; ,izf;Fk; NfhL mikf;Fk; Nfhzk;. • gpNahrth tpjpf;fhd Nfhit. vd toq;Fq;fs;. ,q;F. RahjPd ntspapd; fhe;j cl;GftpLk; ,ay;G. • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; tl;lr;RUspd; ikaj;jpy; fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jpf;fhd Nfhit. ,id jUtpAq;fs;. ,q;F N - RUs;fspd; vz;zpf;if.. • fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jpf;fhd Nfhitfis fPo;tUk; re;jug;;gq;fspw;F toq;Fq;fs;. • Kbtpyp ePs kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; flj;jpapypUe;J rJhuj;jpy; • ePz;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; tupr;RUspd; mr;rpd; topNa (epWty;fs; mtrpakpy;iy) • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij fhTk; ,U flj;jpfspy; gpd;tUk; re;ju;g;gq;fspy; njhopw;gLk; tpirifis tpsf;Fq;fs;. • kpd;Ndhl;lq;fs; xNu jpir. • kpd;Ndhl;;lq;fs; vjpu; jpir. • kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; ePz;l Neupa rkhe;ju flj;jpfspd; l ePsj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; tpiria. vd ngWq;fs;.. • ,jpypUe;J mk;gpaiu tiuaWj;J • gpur;rpidfis jPUq;fs;.. 33. ,dJ ngWkhdj;ij nfhLq;fs;..
(44) Nju;r;rp 8'0. ( kpd; d pay; > fhe; j tpay; vd; g tw; W f; f pilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;gpd; tpisit tpQ;Qhdg; gzpfSf;F> ehshe;j NjitfSf;F gad; g Lj; J thu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8'3. ( kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;Fk;> fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;G fhuzkhf Row;rp tpisit Njbaha;tu;.. ghlNtis. ( 10. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • rPuhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;;lj;ijf; fhTk; nrt;tf RUspy; njhopw;gLk; KWf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhitiag; ngWtu;. • ,aq;F RUs; fy;tNdhkhapd; fl;likg;igAk;> njhopw;ghl;ilAk; tpgupg;gu;. • NeNuhl;l Nkhl;lupd; fl;likg;igAk> njhopw;ghl;ilAk; tpgupg;gu;. • gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl; b fs; : • rPuhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; nrt;tf flj;jpapy; njhopw;gLk; KWf;fk; > ,q;F α > fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;Fk;> flj;jpapd; jsj;jpw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk;. • Miuad; fhe;jg; Gyj;jpy; ,aq;FRUs; fy;tNdhkhdpapd; jpUg;gYf;fhd njhlu;G ,q;F C myF jpUk;gYf;fhd kPs;jU - KWf;fk; (KWf;fy; khwpyp) - RUspd; jpUk;gw; Nfhzk; • NeNuhl;l kpd;Nkhl;lupd; fl;likg;Gk; njhopw;ghLk;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • rPuhd fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; cs;s kpd;Ndhl;lj;ijf; fhTk; nrt;tf RUspy; njhopw;gLk; KWf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhit ,id ngWq;fs;. ,q;F fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;Fk;> RUspd; jsj;jpw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk;. • RUspd; jsj;jpw;fhd nrt;tDld; fhe;jg;Gyk; mikf;Fk; Nfhzk; vdpd; Nkw;$wpa njhlu;G. vd;gij tpsf;Fq;fs;.. • ,aq;F RUs; fyh;tNdhkhdpapd; fl;likg;G> njhopw;ghL> vd;gtw;iw fye;JiuahLq;fs;. ,q;F RUspd; jpUk;gw; Nfhzk;. 34.
(45) • Miuad; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpd; NjitapidAk; fPo;tUtdtw;iw gad;gLj;jp mjid cUthf;FtijAk; tpsf;Fq;fs;. • cUis Kid fhe;jq;fs;. • cUis tbt nky;ypUk;gfk;. • kpd;Ndhl;;l czu;jpwd; jq;fpAs;s gpd;tUk; fhuzpfis tpsf;Ff. • RUspd; vz;zpf;if • RUspd; gug;gsT • fhe;jg;gha mlu;j;jp • KWf;fy; khwpyp /myF jpUfYf;fhd kPs;jU KWf;fk;. • NeNuhl;l kpd;Nkhl;lupd; mikg;G> njhopw;ghl;il tpgupAq;fs;.. 35.
(46) Nju;r;rp 8'0. ( kpd; d pay; > fhe; j tpay; > vd; g tw; W f; f pilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;gpd; tpisit tpQ;Qhdg; gzpfSf;F> ehshe;j NjitfSf;F gad; g Lj; J thu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8'4. ( njhopy;El;g NjitfSf;F kpd;fhe;j Jhz;ly; tpjpfis gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 18. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • kpd;fhe;j Jhz;ly; tpjpfis nra;Jfhl;Ltu;. • fhe;jg;Gynkhd;wpy; ,aq;Fk; my;yJ RoYk;> Nfhy;> jl;L> nrt;tf RUspy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;ftpirf;fhd Nfhitfis ngWtu; • MlNyhl;l> NeNuhl;l kpd; gpwg;ghf;fpfspd; fl;likg;G> njhopw;ghL vd;gtw;iw tpgupg;gu;. • epiykhw;wpapd; fl;likg;G> njhopw;ghl;il tpsf;Ftu;. • MlNyhl;l kpd;Ndhl;;lj;jpd; %yfq;fis tpsf;Ftu;. • gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl; b fs; : • kpd;fhe;jj; Jhz;ly; Njhw;wg;ghL. • kpd;fhe;jj; Jhz;ly; tpjpfs;. • guNlapd; tpjp • nyd;rpd; tpjp •. ,q;F. Jhz;lg;gl;l kp.,.tp gha ,izg;G. • Neupa Nfhypy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kpd;,af;f tpir (E.m.f) • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf ,aq;Fk; flj;jp • nghJj; njhlu;G • gpnskpq;fpd; tyf;if tpjp • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; NeupaNfhypy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kp.,.tp. • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; jl;nlhd;wpy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kp.,.tp 36.
(47) • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; nrt;tf RUspy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kp.,.tp • cau;ngWkhdk; • Mly; kpd;Ndhl;l gpwg;ghf;fp • fl;likg;G • Neuj;Jld;> kpd;dpaf;f tpirapd; khwiy tpsf;Fk; tiuG. • Neu; kpd;Ndhl;l gpwg;ghf;fp • fl;likg;G • Neuj;Jld; kp.,.tp khwiy tpsf;Fk; tiuG • Ropg;Nghl;lKk; mjd; gad;fSk;. • kpd;Nkhl;lupd; gpd; kpd;dpaf;ftpir . • MNkr;ru; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpy; gpd; kp.,.tpirapdJ tpisT • Muk;g kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;jy; njhlf;f Mspahf ,iwNahjw;W • epiykhw;wpfs;. • fl;likg;G • Kjd;ik> Jiz RUs;fspy; Nthy;w;wsTfs;> RUs;fspd; vz;zpf;if vd;gtw;wpw;fpilNaahd njhlu;G • gb$l;L> gbFiw epiykhw;wpfs; • epiykhw;wpapy; rf;jp ,og;Gfs;. • a+ypd; ntg;gtpisthy;. • Ropg;Nghl;lj;jpdhy; • epiykhw;wpfspd; gad;fs;. • NeNuhl;l tY toq;fpfs;> xl;LNtiy> C R O > tY CLflj;jy;. • kpd;tY CLflj;jy;. • MlNyhl;lj;jpd; %yfq;fs;. • ird; tisap Nthy;w;wsT kpd;Ndhl;lk;. • cr;r ngWkhdk;> tu;f;f ,il%yg; (rms) ngWkhdk;.. 37.
(48) • jilAs;s Rw;wpy; ruhrup tY thw;Wfspy;>. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : kpd;fhe;j Jhz;liy tpsf;Ftjw;fhd nraw;ghLfis nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;. guNlapd; tpjpia $Wq;fs;. nyd;rpd; tpjpia $Wq;fs;. fhe;jrl;lk;> ikag;g+r;rpa fy;tNdhkhdp> tupr;RUs; cjtpAld; kpd;fhe;j Jhz;ly; tpjpfis nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;. • gpd;tUk; re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Jhz;lg;gl;l kpd;dpaf;f tpirapd; gUkid jUk; Nfhitfis ngWq;fs;. • Neupa flj;Jk;Nfhy; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; ,aq;Fk; NghJ • • • •. • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; Nfhy;> • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; jl;L (NkYs; Nthy;ww ; sT Mdhy;> mfj;jil Ps = VmNj rms × I rms. P = ( I rms )2 R. rpwpaJ). •. • •. • • •. •. (Vrms ) 2 P= • fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; RoYk; nrt;tf RUs; (cau; ngWkhdk;) R Ma;T $lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; NeNuhl;l gpwg;ghf;fpapd; khjpupapid gad;gLj;jp mjd; fl;likg;ig tpsf;Fq;fs;. • Neuj;Jld; kpd;dpaf;f tpirapd; khwiy tiugpy; fhl;Lq;fs;. Ropg;Nghl;lk; vt;thW cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij tpsf;Fq;fs;. Ropg;Nghl;lj;jpd; gad;fis tpgupAq;fs;. • jzp;jj ; Yf;F • ntg;gNkw;Wtjw;F kpd;Nkhl;lupy; gpd; kp.,.tpirapid tpsf;Fq;fs;. Muk;g kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; njhlf;f Mspia tpsf;Fq;fs;. Kjw;RUs;> Jizr;RUs;fspd; vz;zpf;if> Nthy;w;wsT vd;gtw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig fye;JiuahLq;fs;. • Kjw; RUspy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpirf;F mikthf Jizr;RUspy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; jpiria tpsf;Fq;fs;. • gb$l;L> gbFiw epiykhw;wpfs;. a+ypd; ntg;gk;> RopNahl;lk; fhuzkhf rf;jp ,og;ig fye;JiuahLq;fs;. 38.
(49) • tY ,og;gpid ,opthf;Ftjw;fhd gupfhuq;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;. • epiykhw;wpfspd; cgNahfq;fis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • xl;ly; (fha;r;rpapizj;jy;) Ntiy> NeNuhl;l tY toq;fy; myF. • MlNyhl;l tY guk;gy;. • kpd;tY CLflj;jiy fye;JiuahLq;fs;. • Njrpa nea;aupAk; mjd; Mw;WifAk;. • MlNyhl;l Kjypd; ird;tisap Nthy;w;wsT kpd;Ndhl;;lk; vd;gtw;iw fye;JiuahLq;fs;. •. , vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Fq;fs;.. • rkd;ghLfis toq;Fq;fs;.. • jilfspy; ntg;gk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk; cgfuzq;fspw;F vDk; #j;jpuq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;. (,t;tif jilfs; capu;g;gpy; jilfs; vdg;gLk;) Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : • kpd;fhe;jj; Jhz;ly; tpjpfis nra;J fhl;Ltu;.. 39.
(50) myF 09 - ,yj;jpudpay; Nju;r;rp 9'0. Njitfis jpwDilajhf ( kdpj epiwNtw; W tjw; F ,yj; j pudpay; Rw; W f; f isg; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 9'1. ( Fiwflj;jpapd; ,Uthapapd; jj;Jtj;ij Njb Muha;tu;.. ghlNtis. ( 06. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. nraw;ghL. • Fiwflj;jpfspd; ,ay;Gfis gad;gLj;jp p-n re;jpapd; njhopw;ghl;il tpgupg;gu;. • ,Uthapd; rpwg;gpay;Gfis tiugpy; Fwpg;gu;. • ,Uthapfspd; gpujhd gad;ghL rPuhf;fy; vd;gjid jFe;j cUf;fspd; cjtpAld; tpsf;Ftu;. • NtW tif ,Uthapfis mtw;wpd; FwpaPLfs;> cgNahfq;fSld; tpgupg;gu;. • ,Uthapfs; njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : • cs;sPl;Lf; Fiwflj;jpfs; • ntspaPl;Lf; Fiwflj;jpfs;. • ngUk;ghd;ik> rpWghd;ik Vw;wf; fhtpfs;. • n- tif Fiwf;flj;jp • p- tif Fiwf;flj;jp • p-n re;jp • twpjhf;fw;; gpuNjrk; . • jLg;G mOj;jk; • Kd;Kf Nfhly;. • gpd;Kf Nfhly;. • ,Uthapapd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;. • nka;> ,yl;rpa ,UthapfSf;fhd I-V tiuGfs;.. 40. ;.
(51) • ,Uthapfspd; gad;fs;. • Mspahf • rPuhf;fpahf • miu miy rPuhf;fk; • KOmiy rPuhf;fk;. • xg;gkhf;Fk; Rw;Wfspy; gad;gLj;Jjy;. • CRO ,idg; gad;gLj;jp rPuhf;fy;> xg;gkhf;fypid nra;Jfhl;ly;. • NtW tif ,UthapfSk;> mtw;wpd; gad;ghLfSk;. • Nrdu; ,Uthap • cilT mOj;jk; (Nrdu; mOj;jk;) • Nthy;w;wsT xOq;fhf;fy;. • xspfhYk; ,Uthap • xsp ,Uthap;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • • • •. •. • • • • •. miw ntg;gepiyapy; jilj;jpwd; mz;zsthf 10-3 Ω m ,ypUe;J 105 Ωm tiuAs;s Fiwflj;jpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. gspq;F rhyfj;ij gad;gLj;jp Si my;yJ Ge ,y; Jis ,yj;jpud; Nrhb gpwg;gpf;fg;gLtij tpsf;Fq;fs;. cs;sPl;L Fiwflj;jpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. cs;sPl;L Fiwflj;jpf;F khRf;fis gad;gLj;jp khRgLj;Jtjdhy; cUth;Fk; p- tif n- tif ntspaPl;Lf; Fiwflj;jpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ntspaPl;Lf; Fiwflj;jpfspy; ngUk;ghd;ik - rpWghd;ik Vw;wf; fhtpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • p- tif> n-tif Fiwflj;jpfspy; ngUk;ghd;ik Vw;wf; fhtpfs;. • jhdp mZr;nrwpT ( ND) Vw;ghd; mZr;nrwpT (NA) miwntg;gepiyapy; rpypf;fdpd; cs;sPl;L Vw;wf;fhtp mlu;j;jp Ni =1010 cm-3 vd;gjid $Wq;fs;. rpypf;fdpd; mZ mlu;;j;jp 1023 cm-3 Mjyhy; 1 ppm kh#l;ly; kl;lj;jpdhy; NA=1017 cm-3 vd khw;wkilfpd;wJ vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;. cs;sPl;L Fiwflj;jpapd; ntg;gepiyia mjpfupg;gjhy;> ,yj;jpud; Jis Nrhb cUthtJ mjpfupf;Fk; vd tpsf;Fq;fs;. Fiwflj;jpfspd; ,ay;Gfisg; gad;gLj;jp> p-n re;jpapd; njhopw;ghl;il tpgupAq;fs;. nghUj;jkhd cUf;fspd; cjtpAld; p-n re;jpapd; njhopw;ghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. 41.
(52) • • • • • •. • • •. • • • • • •. •. ngUk;ghd;ik> rpWghd;ik Vw;wf; fhtpfspd; guty;> efu;T fhuzkhf cUthf;fg;gLk; twpjhf;fw; gpuNjrj;ij tpsf;Fq;fs;. p-n re;jpf;F FWf;Nf kpd;Gyk;> mOj;jk;> Vw;w mlu;j;jp khwiy tiugpd; %yk; vLj;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;. Vw;wf; fhtpfspd; guty;> efu;tpw;fpilapy; ,af;ftpay; rkepiy cUthf;Fg;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; mOj;j NtWghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. Rw;Wg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; ,Uthap vt;thW Kd;KfNfhlypy; cs;sJ> gpd;Kff; Nfhlypy; cs;sJ vd;gij tpsf;Fq;fs;. Gw Nthy;w;wsit gpuNahfpg;gjdhy; jLg;G mOj;jk; kPwg;gLtjdhy; Kd;KfNfhlypy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; gha;tjid tpsf;Fq;fs;. gpd;Kff; Nfhly; epge;jidfspd; fPo;> twpjhf;fy;g; gpuNjrj;jpd; mfyk; mjpfupg;gjdhy;> ngUk;ghd;ik Vw;wf; fhtpfspd; gha;r;ry; eilngwhJ. rpWghd;ikf; Vw;wf; fhtpfs; fhuzkhf frpT kpd;Ndhl;lk; fhzg;gLk; vd;gjid tpsf;Fq;fs;. re;jp ,Uthapapd; FwpaPl;il mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. re;jp ,Uthapapd; I-V rpwg;gpay;G tisapid vLj;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;. I-V tisapapd; gpujhd mk;rq;fis tpsf;Fq;fs;. • ,af;ftpay; jil( RF and RR ) ( Kd;Kf NfhlYWk; jil> gpd;Kf NfhlYWk; jil) • Knee Voltage • cr;r Neu;khW Nthy;w;wsT (PIV) ,yl;rpa ,Uthapapd; I-V tisapia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ,yl;rpa ,Uthapapd; njhopw;ghL Mspia Nghd;wJ vd;gij tpsf;Fq;fs;. nghUj;jkhd Rw;W tupg;glj;ij gad;gLj;jp ,Uthapapd; miu miy rPuhf;fj;ij tiugpdhy; tpsf;Fq;fs;. nghUj;jkhd Rw;W tupglj;ij cgNahfpj;J ghyr; rPuhf;fpapd; KO miyr; rPuhf;fj;ij tiuigf; nfhz;L tpsf;Fq;fs;. rPuhf;fpa miy tbtj;ij nfhs;sstpapdhy; xg;gkhf;Fk; topKiwfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. xg;gkhf;fypd; gpd; rPuhf;fpa miy tbt khw;wj;ij tiugpdhy; fhl;Lq;fs;. • rPuhf;fp xg;gkhf;fpa miy tbtj;jpd; Fw;wiy mOj;jk;. • Fw;wiy kPbwd; (tiugpypUe;J) miu miy> KO miy rPuhf;fpa Rw;Wfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,Uthapfspd; cr;r Neu;khW Nthy;ww ; stpid (PIV) vt;thW rupahf Nju;en ; jLg;gJ vd;gij tpgupAq;fs;.. 42.
(53) •. • •. • xg;gkhf;Fk; nfhs;sstp ,y;yhj NghJ • xg;gkhf;Fk; nfhs;sstpAld; Nrdu; ,Uthapapd; nraw;ghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. • FwpaPL • Nrdu; Nthy;w;wsT(Vz) • Ngupwq;fp> Nrdu; cilT Nthy;w;wsT xOq;fhf;fpahf Nrdu; ,Uthap gad;gLtij tpsf;Fq;fs;. ,w;Fg; nghUj;jkhd ngWkhdk; vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;.. vd;gjhy; jug;gLk;. ,q;F V s -. • • • •. xOq;fhf;fg;glhj NeNuhl;l mOj;j NtWghL.. Rs -. ghJfhg;Gj;jil. RL -. tY toq;fpf;F ,izf;fg;gl;l Rik. Im-. Nrdu; ,Uthapapid ghjpf;fhjthW mjDhL ghaf; $ba cau; kpd;Ndhl;lk;.. xspfhYk; ,UthapapdJ ( LED )FwpaPL> ntspj;Njhw;wk; (External View) mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. LED ,dJ njhopw;ghl;il RUf;fkhf tpgupAq;fs;. LED ,dJ gad;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;. (xsp Kjy;fs;;> fhl;bfs; ...) xsp ,Uthap> #upafyk; vd;gtw;wpd; njhopw;ghl;il tpgupf;f.. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : • nka; ,Uthapapw;fhd I-V tisap • rPuhf;fy;> xg;gkhf;fy; vd;gtw;iw CRO ,id gad;gLj;jp nra;J fhl;ly;. • Nrdu; ,Uthap Nthy;w;wsT xOq;fhf;fpahf gad;gly;. • (Three terminal ) Kk;Kid IC Nthy;ww ; sT xOq;fhf;fpapd; gad;ghL (cjhuzk; 78xx , 79xx njhlu;fs;). 43.
(54) Nju;r;rp 9'0. ( kdpj Njitfis jpwDilajhf epiwNtw;Wtjw;F ,yj;jpudpay; Rw;Wf;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 9'2. ( jpuhd;rpw;wupid gad; g Lj; J tu; .. ghlNtis. ( 06. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • • • • • •. nra;Kiw. Njitfl;F. nghUj;jkhd tupg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; npn, pnp jpuhd;rpw;wu;fspd; Nfhliy tpsf;Ftu;. jFe;j tupg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; nghJf;fhyp> nghJmb> nghJ Nrfupg;ghd; cUtikg;Gfis tpgupg;gu;. nghJfhyp jpuhd;rpw;wu; cUtikg;gpd; nga;g;G> gag;G ,lkhw;w rpwg;gpay;Gfis tiugpdhy; tpsf;Ftu;. nghJf;fhyp jpuhd;rpw;wu; cUtikg;Gr; Rw;W tpupayhf;fpahf> Mspahf njhopw;gLtij tpgupg;gu;. xU KidT jpuhd;rpw;wupd; (FET.) fl;likg;G> njhopw;ghL> rpwg;gpay;G Nthy;w;wsT eak; vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Ftu;. jpuhd;rpw;wu; njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfis jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : •. • • •. • •. jpuhd;rpw;wu; vd;gJ ,uz;L p-n re;jpfis nfhz;l cgfuzk;. • npn jpuhd;rpw;wu; • pnp jpuhd;rpw;wu; jpuhd;rpw;wupd; mb> Nrfupg;ghd;> fhyp npn , pnp jpuhd;rpw;wupd; Rw;Wf; FwpaPL ehd;F Kbtpl cgfuzkhf jpuhd;rpw;wupd; gad;ghLk;> mjd; Rw;wikg;Gk;. • nghJ mb • nghJf;fhyp • nghJ Nrfupg;ghd;. nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpy; jpuhd;rpw;wupd; nraw;ghL> nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;. • ngag;G rpwg;gpay;G , IB Vs VBE • gag;G rpwg;gpay;G , IC Vs VCE • ,lkhw;W rpwg;gpay;Gfs; ,Ic Vs VBE IC vs VBE 44.
(55) • jpuhd;rpw;wupd; nraw;ghl;L tiffs; (capu;g;G> Jz;bg;G> epuk;gy;) • jpuhd;rpw;wu; Nfhlypd; mtrpak; (nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;ig gad;gLj;jy;) • jdpNthy;w;wsT KjypypUe;J Nfhlyply;. • mbjil Kiw (Base biased resistor) • mOj;jg;gFg;gp (Potential divider) • npn jpuhd;rpw;wu; Xl;l tpupayhf;fk; (nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;G) • Ic Vs IB tiuig gad;gLj;jp Xl;l tpupayhf;fk; •. Neu;Xl;l eak;. •. nghJf;fhyp tpupayhf;fp Rw;wpy; IB,IC,VC,VBE VCC ,ilapyhd njhlu;G (Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpia gad;gLj;jy;) Nkhdg; Gs;sp (Q-Point). • • • • • • •. • Nfhly; epge;jid RC ,DhL Nthy;w;wsT khw;wk;. Nthy;w;wsT tpupayhf;fk;. • RC ,w;F FWf;Nfahd Nthy;w;wsT khwy;. nga;g;G> gag;gpw;F ,izf;Fk; nfhs;stpfspd; Njit. jpuhd;rpw;wu; Mspahf xU KidT jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs; kpd;Gy tpisT jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs; (FETs) re;jp FET f;F kl;Lk; kl;Lg;gLj;Jf. ) • mwpKfk; • FwpaPL (n- channel p- channel) (n-top > p- top ) • Kbtplq;fs; (Kjy;> gliy Drain) rpwg;gpay;G tisapfs; • IDS Vs VDS • n- channel - (n-top) FET ,dJ nraw;ghL • FET ,id gad;gLj;jp Nthy;w;wsT tpupthf;fk;. (gz;gwp uPjpapy;). fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • • • •. jFe;j tupg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; ,U p-n re;jpfspd; Nru;itahf npn pnp ,UKid jpuhd;rpw;wu;fis tpgupAq;fs;. mb> Nrfupg;ghd;> fhyp vd;gtw;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. npn, pnp jpuhd;rpw;wu;fspd; Rw;Wf; FwpaPLfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. npn jpuhd;rpw;wiu NfhlYwr; nra;Ak; topfis tupg;glq;fspdhy; nfhLq;fs;. 45.
(56) •. •. •. • • •. •. jFe;j tupg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; fPo;tUk; Rw;wikg;Gfis tpgupAq;fs;. • nghJ - mb • nghJ-fhyp • nghJ - Nrfupg;ghd;. nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpd; nga;;g;G> gag;G> ,lkhw;wk; rpwg;gpay;Gfis tiugpdhy; tpsf;Fq;fs;. • ngag;G rpwg;gpay;G IB Vs VBE • gag;G rpwg;gpay;G IC Vs VCE • ,lkhw;W rpwg;gpay;Gfs; Ic Vs IB Ic Vs VBE gag;G> ,lkhw;Wk;> rpwg;gpay;G tisapfis gad;gLj;j Jz;bg;G> capu;g;G> epuk;gy; gpuNjrq;fis ,dq;fhZq;fs;. • IC = β IB capu;g;G gpuNjrk; • IC < β IB epuk;gy; gpuNjrk; • IC = 0 Jz;bg;Gg; gpuNjrk;. jpuhd;rpw;wupd; nraw;ghl;L tiffis (capu;gG ; > Jz;bg;G> epuk;gy;) tpsf;Fq;fs;. npn jpuhd;rpw;wu; nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpy; capu;g;G tifapy; njhopw;gLk; NghJ mjd; nraw;ghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. jpuhd;rpw;wiu NfhlypLtjd; Njitia tpsf;Fq;fs;. • gpuNahfpf;fpd;w mb - fhyp Nthy;ww ; sT jLg;G mOj;jj;ij kPw Ntz;Lk;. • Si jpuhd;rpw;wu;fSf;F mz;zsthf 0.7 V • Ge jpuhd;rpw;wu;fSf;F mz;zsthf 0.3 V jdp Nthw;wsT Kjiy gad;gLj;jp nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpy; npn jpuhd;rpw;wupid NfhlypLk; gad;kpF Kiwfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. • mbj;jil Kiw • mOj;jg;gFg;gp Kiw • IC Vs IB tiuig gad;gLj;jp Nkhdg;Gs;spia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. • Nkhdg; Gs;sp Mf Nju;T nra;tjd; mD$yq;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;. • Ic vjpu; IB tiuig gad;gLj;jp Xl;l tpupayhf;fj;ij tpgupAq;fs;. • NeNuhl;l eak; (â ), ,id. vd mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. • Nfr;Nrhtpd; tpjpfs;> Xkpd; tpjpia gad;gLj;jp> VC,VB,Nghd;w Nthy;w;wsTfspw;F rkd;ghLfis ngWq;fs;.. 46.
(57) cjhuzk; 1. mb jilfis gad;gLj;jp. Mfj; njupT nra;f. I C = β IB. 2 . mOj;jgFg;gpid gad;gLj;jp. jpuhd;rpw;wupdhy; gpwg;gpf;fg;gl;l xl;l tpupayhf;fj;ij Nrfupg;ghd; jilia gad;gLj;jp Nthw;wsT tpupayhf;fkhf khw;Wk; topKiwia tpsf;Fq;fs;. • jug;gl;l ird;tisap nga;g;gpw;F Neuj;Jld; gag;G Nthy;w;wsT khwiy tiugpd; %yk; tpsf;Fq;fs;. • nga;g;G> gag;G miytbtq;fis xg;gpLq;fs;. • mtj;ij khwiy tpsf;fy;. • Nthy;w;wsT eaj;ijf; fye;Jiuahly;. • Rw;W tupg;glq;fspd; cjtpAld; nga;g;G> gag;gpw;F ,izf;Fk; nfhs;sstpfspd; Njitia tpgupAq;fs;. • jFe;j Rw;W tupg;glj;jpd; %yk; nghJf;fhyp Rw;wikg;gpy; jpuhd;rpw;wu; Mspahf njhopw;gLjypd; cgNahfj;jpid tpsf;Fq;fs;. • ,UKidT> xU KidT jpuhd;rpw;wu;fspd; nraw;ghl;il NtWgLj;Jq;fs;. • ,U KidT jpuhd;rpw;wu; ,Utif Vw;wq;fspd; nraw;ghl;by; jq;fpAs;sJ (Jisfs;> ,yj;jpud;fs;) • xU KidT jpuhd;rpw;wu; xU tif Vw;wf;fhtpfspd; nraw;ghl;by; jq;fpAs;sJ (Jisfs; my;yJ ,yj;jpud;fs;) •. 47.
(58) • • • • •. kpd;Gy tpisT jpuhd;rpw;wiu (FET) xUKidT jpuhd;rpw;wuhf mwpKLfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. [re;jpFET (JFET) ] JFET fspd; tiffis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. (n-top > p- top ) JFET ,dJ (n-top > p- top )Kbtplq;fs;> fl;likg;ig vLj;Jf; fhl;Lq;fs;. JFET ,dJ n-top ,d; nraw;ghl;il tpsf;Fq;fs;. rpwg;gpay;G tisapfs; .. •. epuk;gy; gpuNjrk;. Linear region. Jz;bj;jy; gpuNjrk;. • •. FET ,id cgNahfpj;J Nthy;w;wsT tpupayhfj;ij tpsf;Fq;fs;. (nghJ Kjy; Rw;wikg;G) JEET, MOSFET gpujhd NtWghl;ilf; $Wq;fs;.. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : • nghJf;fhyp cUtikg;Gr; Rw;wpy; rpwg;gpay;Gfis Muha;tu;. • nghJfhyp jpuhd;rpw;wu; tpupayhf;fp •. jpuhd;rpw;wu; Mspahf> vspa gpuNahfq;fs;.. 48.
(59) Nju;r;rp 9'0. Njitfis jpwDilajhf ( kdpj epiwNtw; W tjw; F ,yj; j pudpay; Rw; W f; f isg; gad; g Lj; J tu; .. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 9'3. ( nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpapd; cgNahfq;fis Njb Muha; t hu; .. ghlNtis. ( 08. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • • • • •. juTj;jhis cgNahfpj;J nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpapd; ghfq;fis ,dq;fhz;gu;. nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpapd; jpwe;j jl rpwg;gpay;ig tpgupg;gu;. Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yhj nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpfspd; njhop;w;ghl;il jFe;j Rw;Wtupg;glq;fSld; tiuG Kiwapy; tpsf;Ftu;. nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fp njhlu;ghd nghd;dhd tpjpfs; I. II (Golden Rules I. II) I tpsf;Fthu;. (%ba Rw;Wepiy) nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpapd; cgNahfq;fs;> rpwg;gpay;Gfs; njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : •. •. •. xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fs; (ICs) • SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI • RUf;fkhd tpsf;fk;. • mD$yq;fs;. • ghjq;fspd; vz; ,Lk; Kiw. IC fspd; tiffs;. • xg;Gsp • ,yf;f nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fp (Op-Amp ) • Rw;Wf; FwpaPL • Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yhj nga;g;Gfspd; fUj;J.. 49.
(60) •. •. gag;G Nthy;w;wsT. V 0 = A(V+-V--) ,q;F V 0 - gag;G Kbtpl Nthy;w;wsT V + - Neu;khW my;yhJ> nga;g;G Kbtpl Nthy;ww ; sT. V - Neu;khW nga;g;G Kbtpl Nthy;w;wsT A - jpwe;j jl Nthy;w;wsT eak;. nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpapd; ,ay;Gfs; (,yl;rpa) • Nthy;w;wsT eak; (jpwe;j jlk;) • nga;g;G jil • gag;G jil • gl;il mfyk; (Band W idth). •. 741 IC ,dJ juTj;jhis cgNahfpj;J> mjd; ghjq;fis ,dq;fhzy;.. • •. ,yl;rpa> nka; nraw;ghl;L tpupahyhf;fpfspd; ,ay;Gfis xg;gply;. jpwe;j jilepiyapy;; Op -Amp ,dJ rpwg;gpay;Gfs;. • Vfgupkhzepiy nraw;ghl;by; cau;nga;g;G Nthy;w;wsT NtWghL. • Vfgupkhz> epuk;gpa gpuNjrq;fs;.. • • •. kiw gpd;Dhl;lypd; Njit. nghd;dhd tpjpfs; (Golden rules) Op-Amp ,dJ gag;G Nthy;w;wstpw;fhd Nfhit • Neu;khW tpupayhf;fp. • Neu;khW my;yh tpupayhf;fp gpd;Dhl;ly; jil Gw nga;g;G jil •. Op-Amp ,dJ cgNahfq;fs;. • Mspahf • tpupayhf;fpahf • Nthy;w;wsT xg;ghsp (Voltage Comparator). 50.
(61) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : • •. • •. •. • • • •. xUq;fpize;j Rw;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. Chips ,w;Fg; ngaupLq;fs;. • SSI (rpwpa mstPl;L xUq;fpize;j Rw;W) < 102 jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs;. • MSI (eLj;ju mstPl;L xUq;fpize;j Rw;W); fmz;zsthf 102-103 jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs;. • LSI (ngupa mstPl;L xUq;fpize;j Rw;W) ;mz;zsthf 103-105 jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs;. • VLSI (kpfg; ngupa xUq;fpize;j Rw;W); mz;zsthf 105-106 jpuhd;rpw;wu;fs;. • IC fis cgNahfpg;gjd; mD$yq;fs;. • IC fspd; ghjq;fis vz;zpLq;fs;. nraw;ghl;L tpupayhf;fpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. jpwe;j jl Op - Amp ,dJ rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpgupAq;fs;. • Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yhj nga;g;Gfis tpsf;Fq;fs;. • ngag;G> gag;G Nthy;w;wsTfSf;fpilapy; njhlu;ig tpgupAq;;fs;. V 0 = A(V+-V-) ,yl;rpa Op - Amp ,dJ ,ay;Gfis tpgupAq;fs;. • ngag;G jil Kbtpyp • gag;G jil g+r;rpak; • Nthy;w;wsT eak; Kbtpyp • gl;il mfyk; Kbtpyp (Band W idthisinfinite) gag;G Nthy;w;wsit fl;Lg;gLj;j gpd;Dhl;lypd; Njitia tpsf;Fq;fs;. Op - Amp ,dJ %ba jl epiyia tpsf;Fq;fs;. Nfhy;ld; tpjpfs; I.II ,id mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. (Golden rules) Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yh tpupayhf;fpfspy; gag;G Nthy;w;wsT Nfhitfis ngWq;fs;. •. • • •. Nthy;w;wsT eaj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghl;il ngWq;fs;.. 741 IC-juTj; jhisg; gad;gLj;jp ghjq;fis ,dq;fhzy;> ghjj; njhFjpfspd; cgNahfk; Op - Amp ,dJ Rw;Wf; FwpaPL vd;dtw;iw tpsf;Fq;fs;. 51.
(62) •. •. Op - Amp ,dJ cgNahfq;fis tpgupAq;fs;. • Mspahf • tpupayhf;fpahf (Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yh) • Unity gain amplifier • Nthy;w;wsT xg;ghsp Op - Amp njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;f;f khztiu topg;gLj;Jq;fs;.. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjifs; : • Neu;khW> Neu;khW my;yh tpupayhf;fpfspd; nraw;ghLfis Muha;jy;.. 52.
(63) Nju;r;rp 9'0. ( kdpj Njitfis jpwDilajhf epiwNtw;Wtjw;F ,yj;jpudpay; Rw;Wf;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 9'4. ( ,yf;fr; Rw;Wf;fspd; nraw;ghl;il fl;Lg;gLj;j jUf;f gliyfis cgNahfpg;gu;.. ghlNtis. ( 08. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. • AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR jUf;f gliyfSf;fhd cz;ikml;ltiz> g+ypad; Nfhitfis vOJtu;. • ,uz;L my;yJ %d;W nga;g;Gf;fisf; nfhz;l vspa ,yf;f jUf;f Rw;Wf;fhd jUf;f Nfhitfis cUthf;Ftu;. • jug;gl;l jUf;f Nfhitfis cz;ik ml;ltizfshfTk;> jUf;f Rw;Wf;fshfTk; khw;Wtu;. • jug;gl;l epge;jidfSf;F mikthf vspa jUf;f Rw;Wf;fis tbtikg;gu;. • NAND/NOR gliyfis nfhz;L jdp Qhgf %yfq;fis tpsf;Ftu;. • mbg;gil SR (set Reset) vOtpOkpd; Rw;iw tpgupg;ghu; (<UWjpepiy )[flipflop(bistable)]. topfhl;bfs; : ² xg;Gsp> ,yf;f mwpFwpfSf;fpilapyhd NtWghL. ² Jtpj vz;fis cgNahfpj;J jUf;f epiy. ² Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fSld; Jtpj vz;fspd; tiff;Fwpg;G. ² mbg;gil jUf;f gliyfs; (Mff; $baJ %d;W nga;g;Gfs;) ² AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR jUf;f gliyfs; ² FwpaPL ² cz;ik ml;ltiz ² g+ypad; Nfhitfs;. ² cz;ik ml;ltiz> jUf;f Rw;W> g+ypad; Nfhit vd;gtw;wpf;fpilapy; ². ² ² ². khw;wL P . jug;gl;l epge;jidfSf;Nfw;g vspa jUf;f Rw;Wf;fis tbtikj;jy; (Mff; $baJ 6 jUf;f gliyfs;) ,yj;jpudpay; epidtfk; NAND/NOR gliyfSld; jdp epidtf %yfk; mbg;gil SR flip-flop vO - tpOkpd;Rw;W (<UWjpepiy). 53.
(64) fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ². tiuigg; gad;gLj;jp xg;Gsp> ,yf;f mwpFwpfis NtWgLj;Jq;fs;. cjhuzk; : xg;Gsp mwpFwpfs; - EZf;F gd;dpapypUe;J ngwg;gl;l Nthy;w;wsT. ,yf;f mwpFwpfs; - mwpFwp gpwg;ghf;fpapypUe;J ngwg;gl;l nrt;it miy.. ,yf;f ,yj;jpudpay; Jtpj vz;fis cgNahfpg;gjd; mD$yq;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;. ² Jtpj vz;fis Nthy;w;wsT kl;lq;fSld; tiff; FwpAq;fs;. ² ,U NtWgl;l Nthy;ww ; sT kl;lq;fis cgNahfpj;J> rpy ,yf;f mwpFwpfis tifFwpAq;fs;. ² jrk vz;fis Jtpj vz;fshf khw;Wq;fs;. ² mbg;gil jUf;f gliyfshd AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, EX-OR, EXNOR. vd;gtw;iw mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ² xt;nthU jUf;f gliyf;Fkhd g+ypad; Nfhitfs;> cz;ik ml;ltizfs;> FwpaPLfs; vd;gtw;iw nfhLq;fs;. ² juTj; jhis cgNahfpj;J gliyfspd; Kbtplq;fSf;Fupa IC fspdJ ghjq;fis ,dq;fhZq;fs;. ² jUf;f FLk;gq;fis ,dq;fhZq;fs;. • TTL -(Transistor- Transistor Logic Circuit) • CMOS (Complimentary metaloxide semiconductor logic Circuit) kpif epug;G cNyhf xl;irl; Fiw flj;jp jUf;fk; ) ² ,Uthap jpuhd;rpw;wu; cgNahfpj;J fPo;tUk; gliyfis fl;bnaOg;Gq;fs;. • OR, AND (,U thapfis cgNahfpj;J) • NOT (jpuhd;rpw;wu;fis cgNahfpj;J) ² jug;gl;l g+ypad; Nfhitf;fhd cz;ik ml;ltizia ngWq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l cz;ik ml;ltizf;F g+ypad; Nfhitia vOJq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l cz;ik ml;ltizf;F jUf;f gliyRw;iw tbtikAq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l jUf;f Rw;wpw;F cz;ik ml;ltiziag; ngWq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l jUf;f gliyr; Rw;wpw;F g+ypad; Nfhitia vOJq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l g+ypad; Nfhitf;F jUf;f gliy Rw;iw tbtikAq;fs;. ² jug;gl;l Njitfis epiwNtw;Wk; Kfkhf vspa jUf;fRw;Wfis tbtikAq;fs;. (Mff; $baJ 6 jUf;f gliyfs;) ² njhlup jUf;f Rw;Wfs;> Nru;khd jUf;f Rw;Wfs; vd;gtw;iw NtWgLj;Jq;fs;. ² NAND my;yJ NOR gliyfis cgNahfpj;J vO-tpO kpd;Rw;iw tpgupAq;fs;. (S-R-flip-flop) ² flip-flop ,id Xu; Rw;whf mwpKfg;gLj;jp ,q;F gag;G jw;Nghija nga;g;G kl;Lkd;wp Kd;ida nga;g;gpYk; jq;ftpy;iy vd;gij mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ². 54.
(65) ². ² ². cz;ik ml;ltizia cgNahfpj;J S-R-flip-flop ,dJ njhopw;ghl;il tpgupAq;fs;. S-R-flip-flop ,dJ Neu tupg;glj;ij tiuAq;fs;. S-R-flip-flop ,dJ gpuNahfkhf epidT%yfk; (Memory element) vd;gjid fye;JiuahLq;fs;. ² flip- flop- vO tpOkpd;Rw;W. Ma;$lg; gupNrhjidfs; : ² mbg;gil jUf;f gliyfspd; cz;ik ml;ltizfis Muha;jYk;> mtw;wpd; gpuNahfq;fSk;.. 55.
(66) myF 10 : rlg;nghUl;fspd; nghwp ,ay;Gfs; Nju;r;rp 10'0. ( tpQ;Qhd nraw;ghLfs;> ehshe;j fUkq;fSf;F rlj;jpd; nghwpKiw ,ay;Gfs; njhlu;ghd mwpit mstwpuPjpapy; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 10'1. ( kPs;jd;ik mwpit gad;gLj;jp tpQ;Qhd nraw;ghLfs;> ehshe;j tho;f;if Njitfl;F nghUj;jkhd jputpaq;fis njupT nra;tu;.. ghlNtis. ( 12. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² kPs;jd;ik> kPs;jd;ikaw;w jputpaq;fis NtWgLj;Jtu;. ² Rik> ePl;rp tiugpd; Kf;fpa gz;Gfis tpsf;Ftu;. ² cNyhff; fk;gpnahd;wpd; aq;fpd; Fzfj;ij Jzptu;. ² ,Oitf;Fl;gl;l fk;gp my;yJ neUf;fYf;F cl;gl;l Nfhypy; Nrfupf;fg;gl;l. rf;jpf;fhd Nfhitia jUtu;. ² jifg;G> tpfhuk; aq;fpd;kl;L rk;ge;jg;gl;l fzpg;Gfis Nkw;nfhs;tu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² kPs;jd;ik> kPs;jd;ikaw;w jputpaq;fs; ² ,Oit ePl;rp ² RikAld; ePl;rpapd; khwiy tpsf;Fk; tiuG ² kPs;jd;ik> gpshj;jpf;F cUkhw;wk; ² tpfpjrk vy;iy. ² kPs;jd;ik vy;iy. ² ,WGs;sp ² cilGs;sp ² `_f;fpd; tpjp ² gjq;fs; ² ,Oitj; jifg;G ² neUf;fy; jifg;G ² ,O tpir tpfhuk; ² neUf;fy; tpfhuk; ² aq;fpd;kl;bd; tiutpyf;fzk;>. (tpfpj rk vy;iyf;Fs;) 56.
(67) ² jifg;Gld; tpfhu khwiy tpsf;Fk; tiuG ² cNyhff; fk;gpapd; aq;fpd;kl;il Jzpjy; ² ,Oitf;Fl;gl;l ,ioapy; Nrfupf;fg;gl;l rf;jp> ² ,U Gs;spfSf;fpilapy; ,izf;fg;gl;l fk;gp my;yJ nghUj;jg;gl;l Nfhypy;. ntg;gepiy khw;wk; fhuzhf cUthd tpir>. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² kPs;jd;ik> kPs;jd;ikaw;w jputpaq;fis NtWgLj;Jq;fs;. ² fk;gpnahd;wpy; RikAld; ePl;rp khw;wj;ij tpsf;Fk; tiuig tiuAq;fs;. ² Rik - ePl;rp tiuig gad;gLj;jp tpsf;Fq;fs;.. kPs;jd;ik> gpshj;jpf;F cUkhw;wk;. ² tpfpjrk vy;iy. ² kPs;jd;ik vy;iy ² ,WGs;sp ² cilGs;sp Cf;fpd; tpjpia mwpKfg;gLj;Jq;fs;. gjq;fis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² ,Oitj; jifg;G ² neUf;fy;; jifg;G ² ,O tpir tpfhuk; ² neUf;fy; tpfhuk; aq;fpd; Fzfj;ij tiuaWj;J mjd; myF> gupkhzq;fis Fwpg;gpLq;fs;. jifg;Gld; tpfhuk; khWtij fhl;l tiuG tiuAq;fs;. ². ² ². ² ². ² <u;f;fg;gl;l ,ioapy; Nrkpf;fg;gl;l rf;jpf;fhd Nfhit. ,id ngWq;fs;;.. ² ,io> Nfhypy;> ntg;gepiy khw;wj;jhy; Vw;gl;l tpirf;fhd Nfhitia. ngWq;fs;. ² cNyhff; fk;gpnahd;wpd; aq;fpd;kl;il gupNrhjid %yk; Jzpa khztu;fSf;F topfhl;Lq;fs;. ² jpz;kq;fspd; kPs;jd;ik njhlu;ghd vspa gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;f;f cjTq;fs;. ² ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; kPs;jd;ikapd; gy;NtW gpuNahfq;fs; njhlu;ghf khztUld; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.. Ma;T$lg; gupNrhjid ² cNyhf fk;gpnahd;wpid cgNahfpj;J> cNyhfnkhd;wpd; aq;fpd;kl;il Jzpjy;.. 57.
(68) Nju;r;rp 10'0. ( tpQ;Qhd nraw;ghLfs;> ehshe;j fUkq;fl;L rlj;jpd; nghwpKiw ,ay;Gfs; njhlu;ghd mwpit mstwpuPjpapy; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 10'2. ( tpQ;Qhd uPjpahd nraw;ghLfSf;Fk;> ehshe;j fUkq;fSf;Fk; gpRf;Fik mwpit gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 14. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² cUf;fis gad;gLj;jp cWjp> nfhe;jspg;G gha;r;ry;fis tpsf;Ftu;. ² jput ghar;;rYf;F Ntfg; gbj;jpwd;> njhlyp;j;jpir jifg;G vd;gtw;iw ² ². ². ². njhlu;GgLj;Jtu;. jput gha;rrYf;fhd GtNrapd; #j;jpuj;ij vOJtu;. kapu;j;Jis gha;r;ry; Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp> ePupd; gpRf;Fik Fzfj;ij JzpAk; gupNrhjidia nra;J fhl;Ltu;. gpRf;Fik Clfj;jpD}L ,aq;Fk; clnyhd;wpd; v-t tiuig gad;gLj;jp KbT Ntfj;ij tpsf;Ftu;. gpRf;Fik Clfj;jpy; KbT Ntfj;ij tpsf;Ftu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² cWjpg;gha;r;ry;. ² mlu; gha;r;ry;. ² nfhe;jspg;Gg; gha;r;ry;. ² epa+l;ldpd; rkd;ghL ² gpRf;Fik Fzfj;jpd; tiutpyf;fzk;. ² GtNrapd; #j;jpuk;; ² typjhtjw;fhd epge;jid ² gupkhzj;ij gad;gLj;jp rupghu;j;jy;. ² kapu;Jis gha;r;ry; Kiwapdhy; gpRf;Fik Fzj;ij Jzpjy;. ² gpRf;Fik Clfj;jpD}L clnyhd;wpd; ,af;fk;. ² clypy; njhopw;gLk; tpirfs; ² ,af;fj;jpw;fhd v-t tiuG. 58.
(69) ² KbT Ntfk;. ² ];Nuhf;fpd; tpjp> ² typjhtjw;fhd epge;jid ² gupkhzj;ij gad;gLj;jp rupghu;j;jy;. ² nghUnshd;W ghapapDhL <u;g;gpd; fPo; ,aq;Fk; NghJ> KbT Ntfj;jpw;fhd. Nfhitfis ² nghUs; Nky;Nehf;fp ,aq;Fk; NghJ ² nghUs; fPo;Nehf;fp ,aq;Fk; NghJ ngWq;fs;. ² ];Nuhf; /GtNrapd; KbTfis gad;gLj;jp ntt;NtW jputq;fspw;fhd gpRf;Fik Fzfq;fis xg;gply;. ² ntg;gepiyAld; gpRf;Fik khw;wk;. ² gpRf;Fikapd; gpuNahfq;fs;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² cWjp> nfhe;jspg;G gha;r;ry;fis tpsf;Fq;fs;. ² mlu;gg ; ha;rr ; ypy; ,U neUf;fkhd jput glyq;fSf;fpilNaahd Ntfg;gbj;jpwid. mwpKfk; nra;Aq;fs;. ² jputnkhd;wpd; mlu;gha;r;rYf;fhd rkd;ghlhd ,id nfhLj;J> epa+l;ldpd; rkd;ghL vd Fwpg;gpLq;fs;. ² gpRf;Fik Fzfj;ij tiuaWj;J> mjd; myF> gupkhzq;fis toq;Fq;fs;. ² rPuhd FWf;Fntl;il cila xLq;fpa fpilf;FohapD}L jputnkhd;wpd; cWjp gha;r;rYf;fhd GtNrapd; #j;jpukhd. ,id toq;Fq;fs;.. ² gupkhzj;ij gad;gLj;jp #j;jpuk; rupnadf; fhl;Lq;fs;. ² kapu;j;Jis gha;r;ry; Kiw %yk;> ePupd; gpRf;Fik Fzfj;ij khztd;. Jzptjw;fhf mtid topelj;Jq;fs;. ² gpRf;Fik Clfj;jpD}L ,aq;Fk; Nfhs tbtg; nghUnshd;wpd; ,af;fj;jpid fye;Jiuahb gpd;tUtdtw;iw Nfhbl;Lf; fhl;Lq;fs;. ² clypy; njhopw;gLk; tpirfs;. ² ,af;fj;jpw;fhd v-t tiuG ² KbT Ntfk;. ² ];Nuhf;fpd; tpjpia typjhtjw;fhd epge;jidfSld; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;. ² gupkhzj;ij gad;gLj;jp #j;jpuk; rupnad fhl;Lq;fs;. ² gpRf;Fik Clfj;jpD}L ,aq;Fk; rpwpa Nfhs clypd; KbT Ntfj;jpw;fhd. Nfhitia tpgupAq;fs;.. 59.
(70) ² ];Nuhf; /GtNrapd; Kiwfis gad;gLj;jp ntt;NtW jputq;fspd; gpRf;Fik. Fzfq;fis xg;gpLk; Kiwfis tpgupAq;fs;. ² ntg;gepiyAld;; gpRf;Fik vt;thW khWfpd;wJ vdf; fhl;Lq;fs;. ² gpRf;Fikapd; gpuNahfq;fis fye;JiuahLq;fs;.. Ma;T$lg; gupNrhjid ² GtNrapd; #j;jpuj;ij gad;gLj;jp gpRf;Fik Fzfj;ij Jzpjy;.. 60.
(71) Nju;r;rp 10'0. ( tpQ;Qhd nraw;ghLfs;> ehshe;j fUkq;fl;L rlj;jpd; nghwpKiw ,ay;Gfs; njhlu;ghd mwpit mstwpuPjpapy; gad;gLj;Jtu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 10'3. ( ehshe;j fUkq;fis Mw;wTk;> ,aw;if Njhw;wg;ghLfis tpsf;fTk; Nkw;gug;gpOit njhlu;ghd mwpit gad;gLj;Jtu;.. ghlNtis. ( 14. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² vspa nraw;ghLfis cgNahfpj;J jputnkhd;wpd; RahjPd Nkw;gug;gpd; ² ². ². ². ². ². elj;ijia nra;J fhl;Ltu;. cUf;fspd; cjtpAld; njhLiff; Nfhzj;ij tpsf;Ftu;. Nkw;gug;gpOtpir vDk; Njhw;wg;ghl;bd; cjtpAld; kapu;j;Jis Vw;wj;ij tpsf;Ftu;. Nfhs gpiwAUtpw;F FWf;Nfahd mKf;f NtWghl;bw;fhd Nfhitia Nkw;gug;gpOtpir> gpiwAUtpd; Miu rhu;ghf ngWtu;. kapu;jJ ; is Vw;wj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia Nkw;gug;gpOtpir> njhLiff;Nfhzk;> gpiwAUtpd; Miu rhu;ghf ngWtu;. Nkw;gug;gpOtpiria Jzpa kapu;Jis Vw;w Kiw> N[fupd; Kiw gupNrhjidfis elhj;Jtu;. Nkw;gug;gpOtpir njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfisj; jPu;g;gu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² %yf;$w;W tpirfs; rhu;ghf jputnkhd;wpd; RahjPd Nkw;gug;gpd; elj;ij ² Nkw;gug;gpOtpirapd; tiutpyf;fzk; ² njhLiff; Nfhzk;. ² RahjPd Nkw;gug;Gr; rf;jp ² rkntg;g Kiwapy; jputg; glynkhd;wpd; Nkw;gug;ig mjpfupf;fr; nra;ag;gLk;. Ntiyf;fhd Nfhit. ² Nkw;gug;Gr; rf;jp> Nkw;gug;gpOtpir ,ilNaahd njhlu;G ² Nfhsg; gpiwAUtpw;F FWf;Nf mKf;f NtWghL>. .. ² rtu;f;fhuf; FkpopDs; Nkyjpf mKf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhit. 61.
(72) ² kapu;j;Jis Vw;wj;jpw;fhd Nfhit> ² Nkwgug;gpO tpiriaj; Jzpjy;. ² EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpiag; gad;gLj;jp ² rl;lnkhd;wpy; rtu;f;fhu glyj;ij gad;gLj;jp> ² kapu;j;Jis Vw;wKiw ² N[fupd; Kiw ² Nkw;gug;gpO tpir gpuNahfq;fs;.. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;; : ² vspa nraw;ghLfspd; cjtpAld; jputnkhd;wpd; RahjPd Nkw;gug;gpd; elj;ijia ². ² ² ². ². ² ². nra;J fhl;Lq;fs;. %yf;$w;W tpiria fUj;jpw; nfhz;L jputnkhd;wpd; RahjPd Nkw;gug;gpd; elj;ijia tpsf;Fq;fs;. Nkw;gug;gpO tpiria tiuaWf;f. njhLif Nfhzj;Jld; jput gpiwAUtpid njhlu;GgLj;Jq;fs;. Nkw;gug;gpO tpir Njhw;wg;ghl;bidg; gad;gLj;jp kapu;j;Jis Vw;wk;> ,wf;fk; vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Fq;fs;. rkntg;g Kiwapy; jput glyj;jpd; gug;gsit mjpfupf;f nra;ag;gl Ntiyf;fhd Nfhitia vOJq;fs;. Nkw;gug;G rf;jp> Nkw;gug;gpOtpir vd;gtw;iw njhlu;GgLj;Jq;fs;. Nfhsg; gpiwAUtpw;F FWf;Nfahd mKf;f NtWghl;bw;fhd Nfhitia ngw;Wf; fhl;Lq;fs;>. ² rtu;f;fhuf; FkpopDs; Nkyjpf mKf;fj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia capj;jwpAq;fs;.. ² kapu;j;Jis Vw;wj;jpw;fhd Nfhitia ngw;Wf; fhl;Lq;fs;. ² Neub Kiw %yk; Nkw;gug;gpO tpiria Jzpa khztUf;F topfhl;Lq;fs;. ² EZf;fhl;b tOf;fpia gad;gLj;jp> ² rl;lk; xd;wpy; rtu;f;fhu glyj;ij gad;gLj;jp ² Nkw;gug;gpO tpiria Jzptjw;F khztUf;F topfhl;Lq;fs;.. kapu;j;Jis Vw;w Kiw ² N[fupd; Kiw ² Nkw;gug;gpOtpir njhlu;ghd gpur;rpidfisj; jPuf ; f ; khztUf;F topfhl;Lq;fs;. ² Nkw;gug;gpO tpirapd; gpuNahfq;fis khztUld; fye;JiuahLq;fs;. ². 62.
(73) Ma;T$lg; gupNrhjid ² Nkw;gug;gpO tpiriaj; Jzpjy;. ² EZf;Ff; fhl;b tOf;fpia gad;gLj;jp> ² rl;lk; xd;wpy; rtf;fhu glyj;ij gad;gLj;jp ² kapu;j;Jis Vw;w Kiw. ² N[fupd; Kiw. 63.
(74) myF 11 - rlKk; fjpu;g;Gk;. Nju;r;rp 11'0. ( etPd ngsjpff; nfhs;iffisj; Njbaha;thu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 11'1. ( fUk;nghUl; fjpu;g;gpd; nrwpTg; guk;giy tpsf;f nrhl;Lf; nfhs;ifiag; gpuNahfpg;gu;. ghlNtis. ( 06. fw;ww; NgWfs;. khztu;. (. ² ntg;gf; fjpu;g;ig tpsq;Ftu;. ² fUk;nghUl; fjpu;g;G> fUg;nghUl;fjpu;g;G jpUrpaj;jpd; nrwpTg; guk;gy; ² ² ² ². vd;gtw;iw tpsf;Ftu;. fUk;nghUsy;yhj nghUl;fSf;F ];nugdpd; tpjpia gpuNahfpf;Fk; Kiwia tpgupg;gu;. gupNrhjid uPjpahf ngwg;gl;l fjpu;g;gpd; nrwptpw;Fk;> miy ePsj;jpw;Fk ,ilapyhd tiugpd; Kf;fpa gz;Gfisg; gFj;jhuha;tu;. fUk;nghUl;fjpu;g;gpid tpsf;Ftjpy; gioa ngsjpfj;jpd; Njhy;tpia tpgupg;gu;. rf;jp nrhl;L> rf;jp kl;lk; fjpug;gpd; nrhl;L> Nghl;Nlhd;fs; Nghd;w gjq;fis gad;gLj;jp gpshq;fpd; tpjpia tpsf;Ftu;.. topfhl;bfs; : ² ntg;gf;fjpu;g;G> fUk;nghUl; fjpu;g;G> fUk;;nghUs;> fUk;;nghUl; fjpu;g;gpd;. rpwg;gpay;Gfs;. ² ];nugdpd; tpjp> fUk;nghUsy;yhj nghUl;fSf;F ];nugdpd; tpjp. ² fUk;nghUnshd;wpd; miy ePsj;jpw;F (kPbwd;) vjpuhd nrwpTg; guk;gypd;. tisapapd; Kf;fpa rpwg;Gf;fs;. ² tPdpd; ,lg;ngau;r;rp tpjp> ² fUk;nghUl; fjpu;g;gpy; gioa ngsjpfj;jpd; Njhy;tp. ² Nwyp> [Pd;];> tPd; MfpNahu; gioa ngsjpf vz;zf;fUf;fspd;. mbg;gilapy;; nrwpTg; guk;giy tpsf;f vLj;j Kaw;rp. ² gpshq;fpd; fUJNfhSk; > fUk;nghUl; fjpu;g;ig tpsf;Ftjpy; mtupd; mZFKiwAk;.. 64.
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