Which competencies do management consultants need? A research study amongst senior management consultants.
Paper submitted to the Management Consultancy Division,
Academy of Management for the 2007 Conference in Philadelphia, USA
Which competencies do management consultants need?
A research study amongst senior management consultants.
When a management consultant wants to get clear in which competencies he is good or weak, he can ask this question to himself, to a colleague or (maybe even more interesting) to a client. The results of this research study on competencies of management consultants,
however, gives him another possibility. On the one hand by offering a language, jargon and a taxonomy to be able to talk about competencies. On the other hand by making explicit the tacit knowledge of experienced management consultants, by which a consultant can compare himself with the ones in this study. Through this study we want to contribute to the theory about interventions and competencies, but we also want to make a practical contribution to the development of the profession of the management consultant.
Introduction
In earlier studies we did research on relations between context variables and objectives and interventions (Reitsma et al., 2003). And we did found some relations. Up to now we did not make the connection to competencies of consultants. That is our focus in this study. The central research question is:
Which competencies does a management consultant need to able to execute certain interventions (in change processes in organizations)?
This study is relevant to give insight in what management consultants need to have: it gives indications for training, development, professionalization and selection of management consultants. It gives this insight also an empirical grounding. Of course we know that the international association of management consultants has developed a Body of Knowledge and Skills (ICMCI), but there is not, as far as we know, any empirical research available.
We made the choice in this study to make explicit the theories in practice of experienced management consultants. Experienced management consultants use implicit or explicit rules, heuristics and models to diagnose situations and to decide which approach or intervention will fit the situation. In most cases this knowledge is hidden in their heads and is „tacit‟. In this study we want to investigate this collective experience. We want to investigate relations and insights that are developed in practice. To put it in other words: we emptied the heads of 40 very experienced management consultants.
To design our research model we used existing literature in this area. We made lists of interventions and competencies from existing sources and literature (see section 1). We used these lists to structure the interviews that we had with these consultants. Of course we also documented remarks and insights that were not categorized in our lists.
We gave the interviewees two, three or four cases, that represent a broad variety of problem situations. With these cases we asked our interviewees their view on the problem, the
essential elements in the case, which interventions he would choose and which competencies are needed here (see section 2).
Of course this study gives new insights and new research questions for further investigations (see section 6).
1. Research model and theoretical framework.
In this study we want to make explicit the connections between: - the context in which the change takes place
- the general approach that is applied - the interventions that are chosen
- and the competencies that the consultant needs to do this approach and these intervention(s).
The research model looks as follows in figur 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Research model: Competencies of management consultants in change processes
Context Approach Competencies Interventions Basic competencies Own repertoire Style of change Background
The reasons for this choice is the following:
A change takes place in a specific situation: the context (this is a combination of objectives of the change and characteristics of the situation). On the basis of this context the consultant decides on an approach and on interventions. To be able to execute these interventions, a consultant needs certain competencies. Some of these competencies are intervention specific (that means they are coupled to this intervention) , some are basic competencies ( that means they are always needed, independent of the context or specific intervention).
The approach that a consultant chooses, the interventions that he does and his competencies are related to background characteristics of the consultant. One can think of the type of training that he followed. The same holds true for the personal style of change of the
consultant and the repertoire of interventions and competencies, that the consultant thinks he is very good in (the own repertoire). We operationalized these variables as follows:
Operationalization of context
We define context as the situation in which the consultants does interventions or in which changes take place. Thinking about context finds its roots in the literature of Lawrence and Lorsch (1967): contingency thinking. The essence of this approach is (see for instance: Lammers, Mijs and Van Noort, 1997) is that the best way to organize is specified by the situation. The “right” way to intervene in organizations is derived from (a cluster of) variables that play a dominant role in the situation. We assume that two main variables play a
significant role in the context: the first has to do with the objectives of the change; the second has to do with the characteristics if the situation in which the change will take place.
There are several theories that describe categories of the objectives and contents of change. We have chosen here for four types of objectives; (1) strategy and structure (2) products, services and processes (3) culture, interaction and leadership and (4) knowledge, skills and attitude (see for instance: Cummings and Worley ( 2005), de Caluwé and Vermaak (2006). We want to build in a variety of objectives in our research. We constructed four cases in which this variety of objectives is reflected.
Context variables
In the literature we found a lot of variables that influence the choice of a specific intervention. We needed however a theory that does not have a lot of variables, that has assumptions on the relationships between those variables and that is the same time rather complete. We found a theory with eight variables, in which each of these variables can take a certain value. The variables are related. Otto (2000), the inventor of this theory, also gives some rules of thumb about the connexion of the variables and about the degree in which certain change strategies are possible or impossible.
His theory states that the value of each of these variables (and especially the configuration of these variables, combined with the objectives of the change) influences the choice of an intervention. We use the theory and the eight variables as a frame work for our research (see table.1.1). We want to investigate whether we can find empirical evidence for the relations between the objectives, the context variables and the choice for interventions.
Contextvariables What it can mean
1. Time pressure For what deadline must something be solved? Or is it close to the deadline already? Time pressure can be great or absent. But there can also be no time to work on the problem, because all the energy goes to daily operations.
2. Escalation Is the tension between parties high? Are parties capable of collective reflection?
3. Power differences Has one party possibilities to influence the behavior of others? Is there a power centre or an equilibrium between centers? Is approval needed by one of power centers? Can someone take the decision? 4. Dependencies Are the persons involved in their work strongly dependent upon
each other? Or can they work independently?
5. Rules Are there rules and procedures for decision making? Are the authorities clearly described?
6. Identification with the organization
Does one identify with the organization? Or are many people spectators?
7. Capabilities for reflection
Present or absent? High or low?
8. Knowledge and skills
Does one have all the knowledge and skills to cope with the problem? Or is outside expertise needed?
Table 1.1 Context variables and what it can mean.
We constructed four cases in which we have built in these variables systematically. These four cases are the contexts. With these cases we asked our interviewees: what is the problem, what are essential elements, which interventions will you choose and which competencies are needed. Table 1.2 is one example of the cases.
Case: The consultancy firm with financial problems.
A consultancy firm has bad financial results. Inside the company there is an investigation what the causes might be. This investigation is done amongst the senior consultants by means of intensive talks.
From these talks it becomes evident that the strategy of the firm is obsolete and that the internal structure does not fit with the developments in the market. The senior consultants say that we need to reconsider our strategy and to adapt our internal structure.
Financial results go down further. Management is faced with a fast decision, because the firm will not live long when things go on like this. There is a lot of unrest within the organization: many consultants do not have enough work. Most of them feel very involved in the club and do not leave the firm. But the situation is precarious. People start looking at each other: do you spend enough time on acquisition and marketing? And are you too much internal work? Are we looking enough to the outside world?
The various groups are doing selfassessments: what can we do to face this situation? They make analyses of the market and the conversations among one another is what every person can do the clear up this situation. Most of the people are experts in the area of strategic questions and in the area of the target groups they want to work for.
The discussions are very interesting and valuable. But they did not result in a new strategy or structure. The management does not know how to cope with this problem and is considering to call for external help.
Contextvariables: time pressure: yes; escalation is high; small power differences; dependency low; high identification with the organization; high capability for reflection; much knowledge and skills.)
Table 1.2 Example of one case and the variables in the context.
Operationalization of approaches
We define approach as a generic coping with the (problem) situation.
In the literature we find a lot of categories of these approaches. They have different
assumptions about change, different ways of steering the change process, different actors are involved. we listed some important authors in table 1.3.
Author Approaches Boonstra (2000) Design Develop Beer and Nohria (2000) Theory E Theory O Weick and Quinn (1999)
Episodic/Planned change Continuous/Emergent change
Huy (2001)
Commanding Engineering Teaching Socializing Chin &
Benne (1970)
Power/cocrcion Empirial-rational Barter/rewarding Normative-re-educative Van der
Zee (1995)
Reitsma cs. (2003)
Directive Tell-sell Negotiating Developing
De Caluwé and Vermaak (2002)
Yellowprint Blueprint Redprint Greenprint Whiteprint
Table 1.3 Scheme of change approaches
We make a clear distinction between two approaches: design of change and development of change. The first is a planned process with a lot of influence from the change manager and with not much attention to interaction .The second is a more evolving and emerging process with a lot of actors that can have influence and with very much attention to participation.
If we look at the different categories of interventions (see further on in the text) we discovered that for all interventions one can choose for each of the two approaches. You can do for instance a strategy intervention expert wise, in a small group, from the drawing table. But you can also do this through participation, in a large group setting and as an emergent process. This we call a generic approach.
In our study we use this dichotomy in the degree of participation on a ten point scale. The one end of this scale is: expert wise; small group, judgment or proposal of an expert. The other end is process approach, participative and involvement of employees (see table 1.4).
Expert approach Process approach One or small group 1 --- 10 Participative
Judgment or proposal Involvement of employees of expert
Table 1.4 Operationalization of the general approach
Operationalization of interventions
We define interventions as: one or a series of intended change activities aimed at the
improvement of the functioning of the organization (Cummings and Worley, 2005; de Caluwé and Vermaak, 2006).
Interventions can be aimed at the individual level, the group level or organization. We emphasize the group and organization level here.
The literature on this subject is abundant. We were inspired by several authors and books: Kubr (2000). Cummings and Worley (2005), Schein (1969,1999), Boonstra (2004), Keuning and Eppink (2004). We developed from this literature a categorization that is presented in table 1.5. We show the relevant authors and their main thoughts that contributed to this categorization.
Category interventions
Cummings & Worley
Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink Boonstra Interventions aimed at Organizationa l diagnosis Learning and research
Category interventions
Cummings & Worley
Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink Boonstra orientation and awareness and problem solving techniques in action Interventions aimed at strategic questions and images of the future Strategic programs Strategy formation Interventions aimed at (temporarity) adaptation of the structure or ways of cooperation Technostruc-tural Structural arrangements Compaign type, action-oriented change programs Design of organizatio n structure Structuring organization s Interventions aimed at the improvement of business performance and business processes Technostruc-tural Compaign type, action-oriented change programs Business performance Interventions aimed at motivation of employees (with HRM instruments) Human resources manage- ment Compaign type, action- oriented change programs HRM-instruments Employee motivation Interventions aimed at governance and control Directive Interventions aimed at training and development Human process Coaching and counseling Training and developing people Leadership and culture Interventions aimed at (social) processes between people Human process Agenda setting intervention s Feedback Structural suggestions Organizationa l development techniques Group Dynamics Interventions aimed at continuous Inquiring, dialogue and narrative
Category interventions
Cummings & Worley
Schein Kubr Keuning & Eppink Boonstra changing by means of interaction and research in action
Table 1.5 Scheme of categories of interventions and the relevant authors
In table 1.6 we have listed the interventions, the definitions and examples.
Type of intervention Description of the intervention and examples 1.Interventions aimed at
orientation and awareness. The acknowledgement of the nature and cause of a problem and the awareness of the need for change.
SWOT analysis: mapping the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of the own achievements and that of the competitors and to know the developments in the
environment and to decide upon the strategy.
Benchmarking: comparing own achievements with those of the best competitors to see on which parts the organization can improve.
Balanced Score Card: mapping or measuring indicators for performance on finance, business processes, innovation and customers to see on which parts the organization performs according the expectations.
Causal loop diagrams: mapping cause-effect relations to see repetitions and patterns. The diagrams show which factors can be influenced easily or only in a very complicated way.
Other examples: Porter‟s model; Environment scan. 2. Interventions aimed at
strategic questions and images of the future. The formation of images of the future of the
organization and sharing of the images.
Strategic change plan: making of a plan with objectives and means to realize a desired long term positioning of the
organization in its environment, starting from where we are now. Search conference: using a conference method (large scale intervention) to create a well considered desired and reachable future.
Strategic culture change: developing a strong and shared collective culture that is different of what we have now, but is important for the continuation of the organization
3. Interventions aimed at the (temporarily) adaptation of a structure or way of
cooperation.
The making of provisions and circumstances that are fit to make changes possible.
Project organization: a person, group or entity that executes a clear defined assignment within the organization.
Temporary groups: task forces that have clear defined tasks (developing new ideas; making priorities).
Pilot project: experimenting on a small scale with one or some changes.
New organization entities: the creation of one or more new parts of the organization for example to offer new services
Type of intervention Description of the intervention and examples
the division of tasks, responsibilities and mechanisms for coordination.
Outsourcing: placing activities that were executed within the organization outside.
Other examples: mergers, joint ventures, reorganizations 4. Interventions aimed at the
improvement of business performance and business processes.
Changing the business processes in order to improve results.
Business process redesign: a (large) shift or change in the working processes.
Total quality: a permanent process to raise customer satisfaction by systematic work on the improvement of products or services. The conference model: using a conference method to reconsider working processes and to improve the relations with customers, following the strategy of the organization
5. Interventions aimed at the motivation of employees with HRM instruments. Enhancing the motivation of workers to improve the flexibility or the
achievements of the organization.
Rewarding system: a system to improve the performance and satisfaction of employees and to decrease undesired behavior by rules for rewards and promotion.
Selection: placing the right man or woman on the right place. Career development: supporting people in their careers in the organization and the formulation of career goals.
Task enlargement: expand parts of tasks on the same level. Task enrichment: expand parts of tasks with higher level work and more room for decision making.
6. Interventions aimed at governance and control. Developing insight in the progress, quantity and quality of the work.
Control: see to it that the work is done properly.
Report: making and giving reports on the performance or progress of activities for e certain period.
Time sheets: reporting on how much time is spent on activities. 7. Interventions aimed at
training and development. Learning van new thoughts, concepts, skills or insights.
Training: learning of skills by managers or employees.
Workshops: making people sensible for the need to change, for trends, for different options or for certain methods or concepts. Feedback: letting individuals, groups or the organization see what the effect is of their behavior or performance on others. Coaching or counseling: giving individuals feedback to improve the personal effectiveness, to create more self confidence and to provide them with knowledge and skills.
Coaching or counseling: giving individuals feedback to improve the personal effectiveness, to create more self confidence and to provide them with knowledge and skills.
Gaming/simulations: experiencing through gaming what consequences or effects one‟s own behavior has.
Survey feedback: gathering information and knowledge in an active process about problems and solutions and then execute activities based on that information
Other examples: 360 degrees feedback 8. Interventions aimed at
(social) processes between people.
Process consultation/teambuilding: helping a group to analyze its own functioning, to find solutions for dysfunctional group
Type of intervention Description of the intervention and examples Improving social processes
in organizations: interpersonal relations, functioning of a team, the relations between teams
Search conference: an organization wide meeting in order to find important values and to develop new ways to solve problems. Process management: facilitating decision making in complex situations.
Third party: an independent third party helps the interaction and problem solving between parties.
Other examples: T-groups; Organization confrontation meeting; intergroup relations; agenda setting.
9. Interventions aimed at continuous learning and changing by means of interaction.
Keeping up the process of interaction and
communication.
Action learning: creating a context in which one can learn with others.
Essential is the exchange of experiences and collective reflection.
Action research: creating cooperation between researchers and other actors to do research and to learn together.
Dialogue: creating various ideas about reality, sharing them and constructing new realities on the basis of interaction.
Narratives/ story telling: creating and finding stories, looking for different views and contradictions, reading between the lines and so creating new stories.
Table 1.6 Interventions, descriptions and examples per intervention
Operationalization of competencies
Like Hoekstra and Van Sluijs (1999, 2003) we define competence as: something that someone is good at. That sounds simple. But there is a lot of discussion and confusion about the
concept of competence. Is it skill, expertise, attitude, capabilities or knowledge? Competences has to do with generic characteristics of a person, with skills and attitude. The concept is not clear in detail. But we wanted to use this language and jargon to be able to communicate with our interviewees about the essential capabilities of a consultant. We collected several
theoretical notions and lists of competencies from literature and assembled these to one list of competencies that might be important in the execution of a change process by a consultant. This list is a taxonomy that is based on the domains and competencies of Hoekstra and Van
Sluijs (2003), Yukl et al (1993), Volz et al (2000). We have also used many of their definitions. See table 1.7.
Domain Competencies Description
Enterprising 1. Boldness Taking certain risks in order to gain expected long-term benefits.
2. Individuality Seeking opportunities and taking action to exploit them. Acting on one‟s own initiative rather than passively awaiting events.
3. Independence Acting on the basis of one‟s convictions rather than on a desire to please others. Steering one‟s own course.
4. Intrapreneurship Identifying business opportunities and undertaking action, including calculated risks, to take advantage of them.
5. Market oriented Being well informed about developments in the market and technology. Using this information effectively in actions.
Showing resilience
6. Adaptability Acting appropriately by expedient adaptation to changing environments, tasks or responsibilities and to different people.
7. Flexibility Changing one‟s style or approach when new opportunities require such a change.
8. Stress tolerance Performing steadily and effectively under time pressure, regardless of setbacks, disappointments or opposition. Reacting calmly and in proportion to the significance of the issue at hand
9. Restraint Being able to adequately control one‟s emotions and react effectively to those of others, even in
emotionally taxing situations. Avoiding undesirable commitments and escalations.
Organizing 10. Monitoring progress
Effectively monitoring progress in one‟s work and that of others, given the available time and
resources, anticipating future developments and taken appropriate timely measures
11. Planning Determining objectives and priorities effectively, planning timely measures in order to attain stated goals.
12. Organizing ability Identifying and recruiting people and other resources in order to carry out a plan; allocating them in such a way that the intended results are achieved.
13. Making coalitions Seeking and using support, help and sponsors to convince a person or a group.
Performing 14. Result orientation Focusing one‟s actions and decisions on intended results and giving priority to the realization of stated
Domain Competencies Description objectives. 15. Attention to
details
Paying attention to detail; being able to focus on and deal with detailed information in a sustained way. 16. Persistence Sticking to a chosen approach or position until the
intended results have been achieved 17. Quality
orientation
Setting high demands with respect to the quality of one‟s own work and that of others, striving
continuously for improvements.
18. Energy Being able to be extremely active for long periods when necessary. Working hard; having stamina. 19. Ambition Demonstrating an aspiration to be successful in
one‟s career; investing in personal development in order to achieve this.
20. Legitimating Showing the legitimacy of a request by the authority or claiming the right to do the request or showing that the request is in accordance with the policy, the rules or traditions in an organization.
21. Problem solving Signalizing of (potential) problems and solving these one self or with others.
Analysing 22. Analytical skills Breaking a problem down into its component parts; describing its source and structure. Seeking possible causes and gathering relevant data.
23. Conceptual thinking
Providing wider or deeper understanding of
situations or problems by applying another frame of reference or by connecting them with other
information 24. Learning
orientation
Showing an interest in new information, taking in new ideas and developments and applying them effectively.
25. Creativity Suggesting original solutions for problems related to one‟s work; devising new ways of doing things. Considering 26. Balanced
judgment
Comparing possible courses of action and assessing available information, applying relevant criteria. Making realistic judgments and decisions based on such assessments.
27. Awareness of the external environment
Keeping well informed about societal and political developments and relevant issues in the
environment; using this knowledge to the advantage of the organization.
28. Generating vision Identifying the main direction for the organization in relation to its environment; formulating long-term objectives and strategies.
29. Innovating Creating new and original ideas, ways of working and applications by combining formal and informal information, existing and new solutions and
approaches
Domain Competencies Description
organizational context in an organization, taking the consequences for one‟s own organization and that of the customer into account in one‟s action.
Facilitating 31. Customer orientation
Enquiring about the needs and wishes of customers and clients and showing that one‟s thinking and actions reflect them.
appropriately and, where necessary, asking further questions.
Achieving results without a waste of energy and resources.
32. Coaching Supporting others in the execution of their work. Motivating others and making them think about improving their own behaviour. Being a partner for talking and listening.
33. Co-operation Contributing actively to achieving a common aim, even when this is not in one‟s personal interest; fostering helpful communication.
34. Listening Picking up important signals and messages in oral communication and giving space to others to express themselves, paying attention to their reactions, responding
35. Sensitivity showing that you recognize feelings, attitude and motivation of others and be open for it.
Understanding one‟s own influence on others and taking that into account.
36. Accuracy Acting careful and punctual. aimed at the anticipation of failures. Detailed execution of activities
37. Inspiring Creating enthusiasm for a request or proposal by evoking values, ideals and aspirations of a group or person or showing that a person or group has the qualities to do a task or achieve a goal.
38. Awareness of costs
Taking into account returns and costs in short and long term. Recognize costs.
39. Personal appeal Making a personal appeal upon the loyalty or sympathy of a person or group.
Influencing 40. Communication Communicating ideas and information clearly and correctly so that the essential message comes across and is fully understood.
41. Presentation Presenting oneself in such a way that the first impression is positive, turning such an impression into lasting respect or sympathy.
42. Persuasion Presenting ideas, points of view or plans convincingly to others so that they agree and approve, even after initial hesitation.
43. Sociability Making contacts easily and maintaining relations with others, when required for work purposes;
Domain Competencies Description
mixing easily with all kinds of people.
Managing 44. Decisiveness Making decisions by taking action or expressing an opinion, even when the situation is unclear or inherently hazardous.
45. Leadership Giving direction in an inspiring way. Being a role model. Encouraging and bringing about teamwork and maintaining good cooperation to achieve an intended goal.
46. Delegation Assigning clearly delimited tasks and responsibilities to the appropriate individual(s) when necessary, being able to entrust one‟s work to others. 47. Communicating
vision:
Communicating the direction in which the
organization is developing in an appealing way and creating support for strategic objectives.
48. Consultation Letting people participate in the strategy, activity and change when support and assistance of them is required. Changing a proposal in such a way that interests and suggestions are taking in.
49. Negotiating skills Acting in the interest of one‟s own unit or
organization in direct contacts with counterparts, in such a way that profitable results are attained without loss of mutual respect.
50. Diplomatic Capability to recognize interests of others, to assess them and take them in account tactfully.
51. Awareness of risk Recognize and assess risks and hindrances. Assessing the influence of them on persons, organization or environment.
52. Networking Developing and maintaining contacts and cooperation with others.
Inspiring confidence
53. Integrity Maintaining social and ethical standards at work, even when under pressure to be less particular. Inspiring confidence in one‟s professional integrity. 54. Reliability Keeping to arrangements and promises and
accepting their consequences. If things don‟t work out, taking responsibility for their consequences and, whenever possible, avoiding a negative impact on others.
55. Loyalty Complying with the policies and interests of the organization and group to which one belongs. In situations where there are conflicting interests, supporting the position of one‟s own group or at least avoiding damage to that position.
56. Creating a favourable atmosphere
Giving compliments, seducing, being friendly or helpful to create a good mood with a person or a group.
Table 1.7 Domains, competencies and their definitions.
Operationalization of other variables
We looked for three variables in the background.
First we documented characteristics of the interviewee: gender, age, experience, specialization, market sector.
Second we gave the interviewees a test that measures their change preferences (through the so-called: puntentest).
Thirdly we asked our interviewees, which interventions and competencies are part of their own repertoire. Our assumption is that these preferences might influence the choice of interventions and competencies.
2. Methodology
We used four cases. We have constructed and written the cases on the basis of two main variables: (1) different objectives of the change and (2) eight variables in the situation. These four cases give a wide variety of problem situations that management consultants might encounter.
For almost all interventions there is the fundamental choice for an expert approach or a
participative approach. We used a simple ten point scale with each approach on one end of the scale.
We made a list of interventions under 9 main categories. In each category we had several examples. All terms and concepts are defined. In the same way we constructed a list of competencies. This list has 10 domains. Each domain has several competencies that are defined. The list has 56 competencies.
We measured the background characteristics if the interviewees, their change preferences and their own repertoire of interventions and competencies.
Selection of respondents (interviewees)
The 40 management consultants that were interviewed are selected from the a list of members of the Dutch Association of Management Consultants and from the network of the researchers themselves. We used a reputation method for the selection. A minimum of 10 years of
experience was needed. Nobody that was asked, refused to cooperate. Together these consultants represent more than 900 years of consultancy experience.
Interviews
The interviews took each 1,5 to 2 hours. Dependent upon the available time and pace we did 2, 3 or 4 cases per interviewee.
After the interviewee had read one case, we asked what the essentials are according to him in this case. Then we asked what approach he would choose. After that, which intervention(s). And then what competencies are needed. This process was repeated for each case.
Finally we asked for the basis competencies of a consultant. And we asked for the own repertoire of the consultant.
Processing of the data
We used three methods.
All the answers from the quantitative section are part of an interview protocol. These data are transformed through a code book in coded data. We then used statistical methods.
The interview transcripts are analyzed by atlas.ti. Finally we used several citations from the interviews.
3. Analysis and results
With the help of SPSS we looked for significant relationships between the variables. We also looked how strong this relationship is. The lines in Figure 3.1 give significant relationships (p<0,05) . A non dotted line means that more than 60 % of our respondents mentions this relationship.
Figure 3.1 Overview of significant relations in the research model
Basic competencies Context Approach Competencies Interventions Own repertoire Style of change Background
The direction of the relationship is drawn as the direction of the arrows in the Figure 3.1.
Most of the relations that we find here were expected. But there is one relation that we did not find in our analysis and which is remarkable: that between approach and intervention. They are not connected.
The choice for an generic approach and for an intervention is very loose. As we stated before: most interventions can be done in either of both generic approaches.
We now go to the core of our research: Which competencies does a management consultant need?
Relation between approach and competencies
We found several relations between approach and competencies. These are shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1 The competencies that consultants need in three approaches
analytisch, omgevingsbewustzijn, visie ontwikkelen, overtuigingskracht en gunstige sfeer creëren
analytisch, omgevingsbewustzijn, visie ontwikkelen, overtuigingskracht en gunstige sfeer creëren
‘Midden’ aanpak ‘Midden’ aanpak Expertmatige aanpak Expertmatige aanpak
durf, onafhankelijkheid, ondernemerschap, marktgericht,
resultaatgericht, kwaliteitsgericht, analytisch, conceptueel denken, visie ontwikkelen, overtuigingskracht, leiderschap, consulteren, risicobewust, betrouwbaarheid, loyaliteit en gunstige sfeer creëren
Procesmatige aanpak
Procesmatige aanpak
analytisch, omgevingsbewustzijn, visie ontwikkelen, overtuigingskracht en gunstige sfeer creëren
‘Midden’ aanpak ‘’Middle approach ’ Expertmatige aanpak Expert approach Procesmatige aanpak
Boldness, Independence, Intrapreneurship, Market oriented, Result orientation, Quality orientation, Analytical Skills, Conceptual thinking, Generating vision, Persuasion, Leadership, Consultation, Awareness of risk, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favourable atmosphere
Analytical skills, Awareness of the external environment, Generating vision, Persuasion, Creating a favourable atmosphere
Process approach
Restraint, Organizing ability, Making coalitions, Energy, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Awareness of organizational context, Coaching, Listening, Sensitivity, Personal appeal, Decisiveness.
Relation between interventions and competencies
We found three patterns:
- The „hard‟ interventions which are more instrumental (in the area of structure, business processes, HRM instruments, governance and control) correlate with competencies from the domains: Organizing and Performing.
- The interventions aimed at diagnosing and direction seeking (orientation, awareness and strategy) correlate with competencies from the domains: Analyzing, Considering and Facilitating.
- The „soft‟ interventions aimed at people (training and development, processes between people and continuous learning and changing) correlate with the domains: Considering and Facilitating.
Table 3.2 gives a summary of the competencies that management consultants need for the execution of an intervention.
Table 3.2 The competencies needed for an intervention
Basic competencies
We asked all our respondents which competencies all management (independent from amount of experience) consultants need in change processes. Table 3.3 gives a summary. We listed the basic competency, when it was mentioned by at least 40 % of our respondents.
Domain Basic competency
Enterprising -
Showing resilience Flexibility
Organizing -
Performing -
Analyzing Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Creativity Considering Balanced judgment, Awareness of external environment, Generating
analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn
plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen Verkenning en bewustwording Verkenning en bewustwording Strategie en toekomstbeelden Strategie en toekomstbeelden Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Beheersing en controle Beheersing en controle
organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit
coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren
Training en ontwikkeling Training en ontwikkeling Processen tussen mensen Processen tussen mensen Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie
analytisch, conceptueel denken, luisteren en sensitiviteit
coachen en inspireren
analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn Analytical skills, Generating vision, Awareness of
Organizational context
plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht Planning, Organizing ability, Result orientation
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen
Boldness, Planning, Result orientation, Attention to details, Problem solving
Verkenning en bewustwording Strategie en toekomstbeelden Strategy and Images of the Future Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Structure Business process, HRM-instruments Beheersing en controle Governance and Control
organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit
Awareness of organizational context, Listening, Sensitivity
coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren Coaching, Sensitivity and Inspiring
Training en ontwikkeling Training and Development Processen tussen mensen Process between people Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie Continuous Learning and Changing
Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Listening, Sensitivity
Coaching and Inspiring
Orientation and Awareness
analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn
plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen Verkenning en bewustwording Verkenning en bewustwording Strategie en toekomstbeelden Strategie en toekomstbeelden Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Beheersing en controle Beheersing en controle
organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit
coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren
Training en ontwikkeling Training en ontwikkeling Processen tussen mensen Processen tussen mensen Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie
analytisch, conceptueel denken, luisteren en sensitiviteit
coachen en inspireren
analytisch, visie ontwikkelen en organisatiebewustzijn Analytical skills, Generating vision, Awareness of
Organizational context
plannen, organiseren en resultaatgericht Planning, Organizing ability, Result orientation
durf, plannen, resultaatgericht, omgang met details en problemen oplossen
Boldness, Planning, Result orientation, Attention to details, Problem solving
Verkenning en bewustwording Strategie en toekomstbeelden Strategy and Images of the Future Structuur Bedrijfsproces HRM-instrument. Structure Business process, HRM-instruments Beheersing en controle Governance and Control
organisatiebewustzijn, luisteren en sensitiviteit
Awareness of organizational context, Listening, Sensitivity
coachen, sensitiviteit en inspireren Coaching, Sensitivity and Inspiring
Training en ontwikkeling Training and Development Processen tussen mensen Process between people Duurzaam leren en veranderen door interactie Continuous Learning and Changing
Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Listening, Sensitivity
Coaching and Inspiring
Orientation and Awareness
vision
Facilitating Listening, Sensitivity
Influencing Communication, Presentation, Persuasion
Managing -
Inspiring confidence
Integrity, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favorable atmosphere
Table 3.3 Basic competencies of management consultants
Total overview of basic competencies, approach specific competencies and intervention specific competencies
By combining table 3.1 and 3.3 we can have the overview of the competencies that
management consultants need as basic competencies and for execution of certain approaches and interventions.
Table 3.4 gives the result for our main research question.
Approach specific competencies Intervention specific competencies – Expert approach:
Intrapreneurship, Market orientation, Boldness, Independence, Result orientation, Quality orientation, Leadership,
Consultation, Awareness of risk – Process approach:
Restraint, Organizing, Making coalitions, Energy, Awareness of organizational context, Coaching, Personal appeal, Decisiveness
– Interventions aimed of strategy, images of future, processes between people:
Awareness of organizational Context – Interventions aimed at adaptation of
structure, improvement of business processes, motivation by HRM instruments:
Planning, Organizing ability, Result orientation
– Interventions aimed at governance and control:
Boldness, Planning, Result orientation, Attention to details, Problem Solving
learning and changing: Coaching, Inspiring Basic competencies
– Showing resilience: flexibility
– Analyzing: Analytical skills, Conceptual thinking, Learning orientation, Creativity – Considering: Balanced judgment, Awareness of external environment, Generating
vision
– Facilitating: Listening, Sensitivity
– Influencing: Communication, Presentation, Persuasion
– Inspiring confidence: Integrity, Reliability, Loyalty, Creating a favorable atmosphere
Table 3.4 Overview of basic competencies and approach specific and intervention specific competencies
Some basic competencies are also listed under an intervention. All competencies for interventions aimed at orientation and awareness are part of the basic competencies:
Analytical Skills, Conceptual Thinking, Listening and Sensitivity. In table 3.4 we listed them under basic competencies. The intervention: orientation and awareness is not shown in the table, because we think that this intervention obviously a basic intervention: something that every consultant must be able to apply.
We found four clusters of interventions with similar competencies. They are:
- Orientation and awareness, strategy and images of the future - Structure, business processes and HRM instruments
- Training and development, processes between people, continuous learning and development through interaction.
Table 3.4 can be read as follows:
At the bottom are the basic competencies that every consultant needs. At the left are the two generic approaches: expert and process. The competencies needed for these approaches are listed. At the right are the four clusters of interventions that are related. The competencies needed for each of these clusters are mentioned.
Context variables
We found the following results from our quantitative data:
- In contexts with low time pressure and high escalation, one chooses for a process approach. - In contexts with high time pressure, reasonable degree of escalation, great power
differences, high dependencies and low identification, low ability to reflect, and low knowledge, one chooses clearly for an expert approach.
From our qualitative data we found that:
- Management consultants look always and primarily for two of our variables: time pressure (if not present, there is not a problem!) and power differences (if there is not a powerful management, the consultant cannot help). Escalation is sometimes a relevant variable.
4. Discussion and conclusions
We ourselves learned a lot from this study. And many others also. The conceptualization of the study was a discovery trip in itself through relevant literature. Especially the construction of acceptable cases and acceptable lists of interventions and competencies was an enormous learning process. But almost all the interviews produced learning moments for all participants. We developed a self test for consultants based on the materials from this research.
Some typical questions arise often about the area of this study. We will try to answer them. And we can draw the following conclusions:
Is every consultant capable for all approaches and interventions?Or are there clusters of competencies that are needed for certain interventions and certain types of consultants?
The basic competencies are important for every consultant. They must be part of every training program for consultants. We have indications that every consultant needs to know both approaches and be aware of the choice between them. That does not mean that one has to be strong in both approaches: one can choose not to do certain change process, because one knows already that the effectivity will be low.
Interventions need intervention specific competencies. These competencies are related to clusters of interventions and thus to profiles of consultants. We think that some clusters fit a profile better than others.
Certain contexts ask for specific approaches, interventions and competencies. We did find strong relations. But we do not have simple prescriptions or recipes. The overview in table 3.4 is the clearest picture we can make.
Are background characteristics of influence on the choice of approach or intervention?
No. The choice of intervention is situational in this group of experienced consultants. They choose interventions, independent from their own style, preferences or repertoire. They make similar choices in similar situations. There must be something as a profession.
Can we develop a typology of profiles for consultants with the related competencies?
Yes, that is the outcome of this study. We found basic competencies, that everybody needs: young, old, experienced and new. Every consultant needs to know the two generic approaches and, if possible, execute them. Every consultant should have one or some dominant (clusters of) interventions in his repertoire and have the competencies that are needed for these.
5. Restrictions and future research
In the four cases of our study not all the competencies were mentioned. Nevertheless we do not want to restrict the list of 56 competencies. Because our four cases is a selection in itself, that does not cover all the possible problem situations for consultants. We want to gain some more experience with the present list and reconsider this in a later phase.
An important disadvantage of our study is, that it studies „espoused theory‟ i.e.: what consultants say that they are going to do. Not: what they do. We have tried to minimize this disadvantage through the use of real practice based cases and to stimulate the respondents to paraphrase the text in their own words and understandings. We noticed that all of the
respondents could see the cases as real.
In a future study we want study consultants in a simulated environment, in which the
consultancy process is done by role play. Then it is better possible to study what they actually do.
We selected very experienced consultants. Experience is an important aspect for this study. But it could mean that we select a biased part of the world of consultants: the older consultant that was trained and got experience in the past. The younger generation might look different.
6. Implications for practice
We expect that this study can be used by consultants, training institutions and firms. Many aspects of this study can be used for learning purposes: introspection; duo-learning; intervision, coaching, action research, reflective talks, assessments and so on.
To support this, we made a self test. This is a 360 degree feedback instrument. A consultant fills in the lists of interventions and competencies and questions for reflection. He asks the same to do this about him by a colleague, his boss, his employees. By comparing the lists and by opening the dialogue about the differences and similarities one can find out strengths and weaknesses and discover chances and points for development and learning.
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Abstract
When a management consultant wants to get clear in which competencies he is good or weak, he can ask this question to himself, to a colleague or (maybe even more interesting) to a client. The results of this research study on competencies of management consultants,
however, gives him another possibility. On the one hand by offering a language, jargon and a taxonomy to be able to talk about competencies. On the other hand by making explicit the tacit knowledge of experienced management consultants, by which a consultant can compare himself with the ones in this study. Through this study we want to contribute to the theory about interventions and competencies, but we also want to make a practical contribution to the development of the profession of the management consultant.
