Next
The caveman diet pdf
The caveman diet crossword. The caveman diet meal plan. The caveman diet book. The caveman diet description. The caveman diet by randy shore. The caveman diet pros and cons. The real caveman diet. The caveman diet crossword clue.
In Hankey C (ed.). Archived from the original on 5 November 2019. doi:10.3390/nu11102442. PMID 31631676. 20 (6): 858–862. ^ Shariatmadari 2014. Further reading Bijlefeld M, Zoumbaris SK (2014). 17 May 2013. 1 October 2018. Hum. "Scientific evidence of diets for weight loss: Different macronutrient composition, intermittent fasting, and popular diets". PMID 23332541. "Plant foods and the dietary ecology of Neanderthals and early modern humans". J. S2CID 46780578. Intermittent fasting, also known as intermittent energy restriction, is any of various meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting (or reduced calorie intake) and non-fasting over a given period.[1][2][3]
Methods of intermittent fasting include alternate-day fasting,[4] periodic fasting, and daily time-restricted feeding.[1][5] Intermittent fasting may have similar effects to a calorie-restriction diet,[2] and has been studied in the 21st century as a practice to possibly reduce the risk of diet-related diseases, such as metabolic syndrome.[1][2][6][7][8] The American Heart Association stated in 2017 that intermittent fasting may produce weight loss, reduce insulin resistance, and lower the risk of cardiometabolic diseases, although its long-term sustainability is unknown.[2] A 2019 review concluded that intermittent fasting may help with obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and inflammation.[1] Adverse effects of intermittent fasting have not been comprehensively studied, leading some academics to point out its risk as a dietary fad.[9] The US National Institute on Aging stated in 2018 that there is insufficient evidence to recommend intermittent fasting, and encourages speaking to one's healthcare provider about the benefits and risks before making any significant changes to one's eating pattern.[10] Fasting exists in various religious practices, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, and Judaism.[3][11][12] History Fasting is an ancient tradition, having been practiced by many cultures and religions over centuries.[9][13][14] Therapeutic intermittent fasts for the treatment of obesity were investigated since at least 1915, with a renewed interest in the medical community in the 1960s after Bloom and his colleagues published an "enthusiastic report".[15] Intermittent fasts, or "short-term starvation periods", ranged from 1 to 14 days in these early studies.[16] This enthusiasm
penetrated lay magazines, which prompted researchers and clinicians to caution about the use of intermittent fasts without medical monitoring.[17] A type of periodic fasting known as the 5:2 diet was introduced by Michelle Harvie and Mark Mattson and popularized in the UK and Australia by Michael Mosley around 2012. Intensive Care Medicine.
doi:10.3390/nu8060354. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.06.019. Archived from the original on 24 August 2019. For fasting before a clinical or surgical intervention, see preoperative fasting. "Time-Restricted Eating, Intermittent Fasting, and Fasting-Mimicking Diets in Weight Loss". 39 (5): 727–33. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (Review). Eaton SB, Shostak M, Konner M (1988). In Mahmood T, Arulkumaran S (eds.). Pontzer H, Wood BM, Raichlen DA (1 December 2018). 28 (5): 1476–1493. "Effects of 4- and 6-h Time-Restricted Feeding on Weight and Cardiometabolic Health: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Adults with Obesity". Johnson AR (2015). Wine and other alcoholic beverages are forbidden as well. 38 (1): 48–79. ^ Ismail S, Manaf RA, Mahmud A (June 2019). "A guide to 16:8 intermittent fasting". Neuroscience (Review). "Fasting facts: is the 5:2 diet too good to be true?". doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv041. doi:10.1017/S1368980012005046. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 26 (1): 101–24. National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology (Review). In the 21st century, the sequencing of the human genome and DNA analysis of the remains of early humans have found evidence that humans evolved rapidly in response to changing diet. ^ O'Flanagan CH, Smith LA, McDonell SB, Hursting SD (May 2017). 153 (1): 1–8. Annual Review of Nutrition. ^ de Cabo R, Mattson MP (December 2019). Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. 2 (3): 293–302. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-01-03. "Food myths: what science knows (and does not know) about diet and nutrition". "Paleo-diet debates evolve into something bigger". 4 (12): e2139558–e2139558. S2CID 6162935. S2CID 39700065. (December 2018). doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.214. Milton K (2002). The prescription of this type of fast not only forbids the partaking of meats but also of all dairy products, such as eggs, butter, cheese, and milk. "Cutting through the Paleo hype: The evidence for the Palaeolithic diet".
JAMA Internal Medicine. Modern hunter-gatherers tend to exercise considerably more than modern office workers, protecting them from heart disease and diabetes, though highly processed modern foods also contribute to diabetes when those populations move into cities.[30] A 2018 review of the diet of hunter-gatherer populations found that the dietary provisions of the palelothic diet had been based on questionable research, and were "difficult to reconcile with more detailed ethnographic and nutritional studies of hunter-gatherer diet".[31] Researchers have proposed that cooked starches met the energy demands of an increasing brain size, based on variations in the copy number of genes encoding amylase.[32] Health effects The paleolithic diet is controversial in part because of the exaggerated health claims made for it by its supporters.[33] In general, methodological quality of research into the diet has been poor to moderate.[34] The aspects of the paleolithic diet that result in eating fewer processed foods and less sugar and salt are consistent with mainstream advice about diet.[35] Diets with a paleolithic nutrition pattern have some similarities to traditional ethnic diets such as the Mediterranean diet that have been found to be healthier than the Western diet.[36] Following the paleolithic diet, however, can lead to nutritional deficiencies such as those of vitamin D and calcium, which in turn could lead to compromised bone health;[37] it can also lead to an increased risk of ingesting toxins from high fish consumption.[38] There is some evidence the diet helps achieve weight loss, possibly because of the increased satiety from the foods typically eaten.[39] One trial of obese postmenopausal women found
improvements in weight and fat loss after six months, but the benefits had ceased by 24 months; side effects among participants included "weakness, diarrhea, and headaches". Appetite. For information on the dietary practices of Paleolithic humans, see Paleolithic § Diet and nutrition. ISBN 978-1-5072-1056-7. Springer Netherlands. "Time-Restricted Eating to Prevent and Manage Chronic Metabolic Diseases". ^ "News analysis: Does the 5:2 intermittent fasting diet work?". 18 (1): 421. Carrera-Bastos P, Fontes-Villalba M, O'Keefe J, Lindeberg S, Cordain L (2011). 26 (1): 1–22. "Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Health, Aging, and Disease". 16 (2): 507–547. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-30. PMID 26374764. Whoriskey P (7 March 2016). "Ramadan The Practice of Fasting". Retrieved 2020-02-17. PMID 31337389. Our Sunday Visitor. Archived from the original on 29 September 2019. Washington Post. PMID 28137935. Retrieved 11 February 2021. PMID 24345130. doi:10.1249/JSR.0000000000000614. "Vegan vs Paleo:
Carbon Footprints and Diet Quality of 5 Popular Eating Patterns as Reported by US Consumers". British Dietetic Association. doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0873-x. "Hype or Reality: Should Patients with Metabolic Syndrome-related NAFLD be on the Hunter-Gatherer (Paleo) Diet to Decrease Morbidity?". Clinical guidelines for weight management in New Zealand adults (National guidelines). "Influence of Paleolithic diet on anthropometric markers in chronic diseases: systematic review and meta-analysis". ^ Levitsky DA, Sewall A, Zhong Y, Barre L, Shoen S, Agaronnik N, et al. ^ Decker 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |lay-url= (help) ^ Aird TP, Davies RW, Carson BP (May 2018). S2CID 53712116. ^ Manheimer et al. Nutrition Bulletin. ^ a b c d Hart K (2018). PMID 29877877. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Furthermore, the practicality of maintaining these interventions over long periods of time is doubtful. ^ Gibbons 2014. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners.
PMID 26135345. doi:10.1038/s41366-018-0204-0. "Food for Thought: Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports (Meta-analysis). 2019; Manheimer et al. "Metabolic Effects of Intermittent Fasting". hdl:10757/624649. (March 2020). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013496.pub2. Chang ML, Nowell A (September 2016). Skeptic. ^ "No proof 5:2 diet prevents cancer". PMID 27867892. 67 (4): 557–571. 23 (5). Research Reports in Clinical Cardiology: 15. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.08.037. ^ O'Malley et al. doi:10.1016/S0025-7125(16)33406-X. Harvard School of Public Health. "Chapter 4.6 Fad diets and fasting for weight loss in obesity.". ^
"How to diet". "Fuel metabolism in starvation". Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology (Review). Greenwood Publishing Group. Stone has said that humans have adapted in the last 10,000 years in response to radical changes in diet. "Correction of Obesity by Fasting". PMC 3946160. Ministry of Health NZ (National guidelines). S2CID 46984630.
"Dietary Treatment of Obesity". doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.018. ^ a b Fleming M (27 January 2015). One of the studies was on the !Kung, whose diet was recorded for a single month, and one was on the Inuit.[27] Due to these limitations, the book has been criticized as painting an incomplete picture of the diets of Paleolithic humans.[28] It has been noted that the rationale for the diet does not adequately account for the fact that, due to the pressures of artificial selection, most modern domesticated plants and animals differ drastically from their Paleolithic ancestors; likewise, their nutritional profiles are very different from their ancient counterparts. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816- 064634. doi:10.1007/s13679-021-00424-2. Some recent paleo diet variants emphasize the consumption of unprocessed animal products. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, Chiuve SE, Johnson HM, Kris-Etherton P, Varady K, et al. ^ Stravinskas PM, Shaw RB (1 September 1998). JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and
Implementation Reports. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4451. 2005 ^ Ungar, Grine & Teaford 2006. American Journal of Perinatology. Retrieved 8 November 2019. (August 2015). ISSN 2162-4968. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz047.P03-007-19. Aust Fam Physician. 32 (2): 198–225. Retrieved 2019-10-23. Hill R (1996). ^ a b Gabel, Kelsey; Cienfuegos, Sofia; Kalam, Faiza; Ezpeleta, Mark; Varady, Krista A. It is the strictest form of intermittent fasting because there are more days of fasting per week.[2][5] There are two subtypes:[9][25] Complete alternate-day fasting (or total intermittent energy restriction), where no calories are consumed on fasting days. National Geographic Magazine. p. 773.
S2CID 204815279. Retrieved 2019-06-26. PMID 30829975. foodinsight.org. "Intermittent or continuous feeding: any difference during the first week?". ^ Michalsen A (April 2010). PMC 7419159. 2019: "The Paleolithic diet has been gaining ground in the field of fad diets. Retrieved from " 2Umbrella term for various meal timing schedules cycling between voluntary fasting and non-fasting over a given period This article is about intentional fasting. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. pp. 67–. Environmental Nutrition (7).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) "Top 5 Worst Celebrity Diets to Avoid in 2015". Knowable Magazine. ISSN 0002-9165. ^ Collier R (June 2013).
Boyd; Sebastian, Anthony; Mann, Neil; Lindeberg, Staffan; Watkins, Bruce A.; O’Keefe, James H.; Brand-Miller, Janette (2005). Running Press. ^ Hou, Lee & Lewis 2014: "Even less evidence exists for the efficacy of the SCD, FODMAP, or Paleo diets. PMID 27609363. 24 (4): 256–261. "Diet in Early Homo: A Review of the Evidence and a New Model of Adaptive Versatility". Many paleolithic cookery books have been bestsellers.[61] As of 2019[update] the market for products with the word "Paleo" in their name was worth approximately $US500 million, with strong growth prospects despite pushback from the scientific community. doi:10.1007/s11883-021-00922-7. "Cancer and Fasting / Calorie Restriction". American Physiological Society. S2CID 204948008. Annual Review of Anthropology. S2CID 159039594. PMID 27810402. Current Obesity Reports (Review). "ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit" (PDF). Further reading Brody JE (17 February 2020). Obesity: Its Pathogenesis And Management (Monograph). The Independent. doi:10.1016/S1262-3636(07)70097-6. Some products were taking advantage of the trend by touting themselves as "paleo-approved" despite having no apparent link to the movement's tenets.[62] Like many other diets, the paleolithic diet is promoted by some by an appeal to nature and a narrative of conspiracy theories about how nutritional research, which does not support the supposed benefits of the paleolithic diet, is controlled by a malign food industry.[63] Paleolithic diet advocate John Durant has blamed suppression of the truth about diet in the United States on "the vegetarian lobby".[64] Politically, the paleolithic diet has found favour with the alt-right as a point of opposition to what is seen as more left-wing veganism.[65] See also List of historical cuisines List of diets Low carbohydrate diet Modern primitive Nutritional genomics Paleoconservatism Paleo Foundation Peganism Raw foodism Evolutionary biology portal Food portal Citations ^ de Menezes et al. Hall H (2014). PMID 30683819.
doi:10.1038/s41430-019-0522-x. "Flipping the Metabolic Switch: Understanding and Applying the Health Benefits of Fasting". PMID 19627662. ^ Zubrzycki A, Cierpka-Kmiec K, Kmiec Z, Wronska A (October 2018). Gorski D (18 March 2013). UCSF Osher Center for Integrative Medicine. 25 (1): 43–47. doi:10.1055/s-2005-923435. ^ Rynders, Corey A.;
Thomas, Elizabeth A.; Zaman, Adnin; Pan, Zhaoxing; Catenacci, Victoria A.; Melanson, Edward L. CMAJ. 19 (2): 181–92. ABC Everyday. ^ British Dietetic Association 2014. "Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake".
PMID 25857868. ^ Balani J, Hyer S, Wagner M, Shehata H (2019). ^ "Popular diets review". Retrieved 2019-10-28. "Lifestyle factors and high-risk atherosclerosis: Pathways and mechanisms beyond traditional risk factors". nhs.uk. Retrieved 28 August 2019. (eds.). "A dissenting view on the Paleo Diet". S2CID 24033290. BBC Health. PMC 5043510. ^ Lindholm C (2019). ^ "Not so fast: Pros and cons of the newest diet trend". Archived from the original on 16 February 2019. ^ Ekmekcioglu C (21 October 2019). 27 (4): 394–406. Circulation. 17 (2): 396–406. Archived from the original on 1 November 2019. (April 2019). PMC 6304782. PMID 22818735. ^ Boyers L (2019). Even less evidence exists for the efficacy of the SCD, FODMAP, or Paleo diets. Eaton and Konner, for example, wrote a 1988 book The Paleolithic Prescription with Marjorie Shostak, and it described a diet which is 65% plant-based. "What the science says about the 5:2 intermittent fasting diet". doi:10.1111/nure.12039. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014.
S2CID 25607885. 32 (3): 366–378.e3. "The effects of calorie restriction, intermittent fasting and vegetarian diets on bone health". ^ Arbolario K (26 August 2019). PMID 28539118. Nutr. S2CID 37653149. The Seattle Times. Furthermore, the practicality of maintaining these interventions over long periods of time is doubtful." ^ Longe 2008, p. 182.
This has a negative effect on health in the long run as medical studies have shown that it can lead to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease.[43] Genetics Melvin Konner, co-author of a 1985 paper setting out a hypothetical basis for the paleolithic diet. (2019-10-14). "The Imporance of Dietary Carbohydrate in Human Evolution". This is because milking did not occur until animals were domesticated, sometime after the Paleolithic age. "Hunter-gatherers as models in public health" (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.12.008. Evol. ^ a b Kannan S, Mahadevan S, Seshadri K, Sadacharan D, Velayutham K (2016). ISBN 978-91-7685-018-3. For Cordain's qualifications see Chang & Nowell 2016.
PMID 29321682. Jabr F (3 June 2013). "Insights into Chrononutrition: The Innermost Interplay Amongst Nutrition, Metabolism and the Circadian Clock, in the Context of Epigenetic Reprogramming". Harper and Row. ^ Ask EN 2010. Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard University Medical School. PMID 31659243. 69: 110549. S2CID 54489120.
PMID 24440038. Retrieved 30 September 2019. PMID 29700718. 42 (3): 316–323. ^ Mattson MP, Moehl K, Ghena N, Schmaedick M, Cheng A (February 2018). p. 467. doi:10.7748/ns2013.12.28.16.26.s28. ^ Smith LA, O'Flanagan CH, Bowers LW, Allott EH, Hursting SD (April 2018). Retrieved 2019-10-16. doi:10.1186/s12937-019-0457-z.
PMID 12469653. ^ "The UK's Hot New 5:2 Diet Craze Hits The U.S. - Weight Loss Miracle?". 35: 83–103. Current Developments in Nutrition. "The Evolution of Diet". The Guardian. doi:10.1017/S0007114516003160. "The Silicon Valley execs who don't eat for days: 'It's not dieting, it's biohacking'". PMID 26591850. A review of the literature" (PDF).
S2CID 1058038. ^ Zimmer 2015; Hardy et al. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182351. November 2017. 2019. PMID 16450268. Another Person's Poison: A History of Food Allergy. "Popular Weight Loss Strategies: a Review of Four Weight Loss Techniques". doi:10.4103/2230-8210.192921. Current Opinion in Critical Care (Meta-analysis).
PMID 23865796. ^ Zuk 2013, p. 114. 28 (16–18): 26–7. 2015 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHardyBrand-MillerBrownThoma2015 (help). 90 (3): 251–68. ^ Whoriskey 2016; Zuk 2013, p. 133: "No one [...] can legitimately claim to have found the only 'natural' diet for humans. fed state on fat and carbohydrate metabolism in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis". ^ Tarantino, Citro & Finelli 2015. Tarantino G, Citro V, Finelli C (September 2015). ISBN 9780944235713. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2018. "Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease". Ungar PS (17 April 2017). Zuk M (2013). The New Yorker. Retrieved 20 January 2016. "A life history perspective on skin cancer and the evolution of skin pigmentation". PMID 31000505. PMC 5442682. ^ Veronese N, Reginster JY (June 2019). 21 (10): 304–6. Ageing Research Reviews. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.02.018. "Why is intermittent fasting so popular?". ^ NHS 2008. "Paleolithic diets: a sceptical view".
PMID 29124370. S2CID 198280773. "Why fasting is now back in fashion". ^ a b Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, Garvey WT, Lau KH, MacLeod J, et al. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. "Fasting". "Intermittent energy restriction and weight loss: a systematic review". Ghaedi E, Mohammadi M, Mohammadi H, Ramezani-Jolfaie N,
Malekzadeh J, Hosseinzadeh M, Salehi-Abargouei A (July 2019). "Alternate-day versus daily energy restriction diets: which is more effective for weight loss? pp. 26–27. Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341. ^ British Dietetic Association 2014; Pitt 2016. ^ Elton 2008, p. 9. "Intermittent fasting and obesity-related health outcomes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials". PMID 26269362. "The effect of Ramadan fasting during pregnancy on perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". ^ a b Monnier L, Colette C, Lapinski H, Boniface H (April 2004). doi:10.1002/ajpa.22408. 102 (4): 922–32. Descendants of populations with different diets have different genetic adaptations to those diets, such as the ability to digest sugars from starchy foods. Human Diet: Its Origins and Evolution. ^ a b c d e f Tinsley GM, La Bounty PM (October 2015). International Business Times. "Rationale for novel intermittent dieting strategies to attenuate adaptive responses to energy restriction". Osborne DL, Hames R (2014). ^ Fung J (11 April 2015). Retrieved 29 November 2021. doi:10.1007/s40520-019-01174-x. Retrieved 1 February 2015. "Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century". The Nutrition Source. Intermittent fasting in poultry appears to increase food consumption but reduce appetitive behaviors such as foraging.[75] Religious fasting The Christian season of Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, which is observed through fasting and the public imposition of ashes, as in this Lutheran celebration of the Mass. Obesity (Review). 12 (10): 1592–600. S2CID 24189275. S2CID 52933736. Retrieved 25 December 2015. doi:10.1046/j.1467-3010.2000.00019.x.
Newton DE (2019). Retrieved 5 February 2016. Obesity Reviews. "Translating Mechanism-Based Strategies to Break the Obesity-Cancer Link: A Narrative Review". ^ "Réseau NACRe - Réseau National Alimentation Cancer Recherche - Rapport NACRe jeûne regimes restrictifs cancer 2017". Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine.
PMID 29315892. S2CID 85456777. PMC 6628854. ^ a b c Freire R (January 2020). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (Review). "Obituary: Dr Richard Mackarness". Advanced nutrition and dietetics in obesity. Retrieved 17 March 2018. ^ Goldstein 2010; Wilson 2015. 60 (18): 3063–3082. Intermittent fasting in chickens: Physiological mechanisms and welfare implications for broiler breeders. Hardy K, Brand-Miller J, Brown KD, Thomas MG, Copeland L (September 2015). doi:10.26402/jpp.2018.5.02. 2018. ^ a b Patikorn, Chanthawat; Roubal, Kiera; Veettil, Sajesh K.; Chandran, Viji; Pham, Tuan; Lee, Yeong Yeh; Giovannucci, Edward L.; Varady, Krista A.; Chaiyakunapruk, Nathorn (2021-12-17). Nutrition Reviews (Mini-review). ^ Trepanowski JF, Kroeger CM, Barnosky A, Klempel MC, Bhutani S, Hoddy KK, et al. This is because milking did not exist until animals were domesticated after the Paleolithic era.[24] Ancestral diet Adoption of the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet.
PMID 30511512. ISSN 0002-9483. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-7155-7_5. Linköping University Electronic Press. ISSN 2574-3805. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. 26 April 2018. ^ Marik PE, Hooper MH (March 2016). In Ungar, Peter S., Teaford, Mark F. Current Gastroenterology Reports (Review). Q Rev Biol. 25 (4): 356–362. 37 (1): 371–393.
70 (3): 292–9. 19 (12): 61. ^ Lechner K, von Schacky C, McKenzie AL, Worm N, Nixdorff U, Lechner B, et al. The stated rationale for the paleolithic diet is that human genes of modern times are unchanged from those of 10,000 years ago, and that the diet of that time is therefore the best fit with humans today.[44] Loren Cordain has described the paleo diet as "the one and only diet that ideally fits our genetic makeup".[45] The argument is that modern humans have not been able to adapt to the new circumstances.[46] According to Cordain, before the agricultural revolution, hunter-gatherer diets rarely included grains, and obtaining milk from wild animals would have been "nearly
impossible".[47] Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by these changes in diet, but others have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them.[48] According to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, "many chronic diseases and degenerative conditions evident in modern Western populations have arisen because of a mismatch between Stone Age genes and modern lifestyles."[49] Advocates of the modern paleo diet have formed their dietary recommendations based on this hypothesis. ^ von Bubnoff, Andreas (29 January 2021). PMID 26556615. Shariatmadari D (22 October 2014). ^ Papamichou D, Panagiotakos DB, Itsiopoulos C (June 2019). PMID 26405708. 16 (1): 371. This article is about a modern-day diet. 24 (3): 359–68. It is perceived as welfare-reducing and thus illegal in several European countries including Sweden. As with any other diet regime, the paleolithic diet leads to weight loss because of overall decreased caloric intake, rather than a special feature of the diet itself.[40] There is no good evidence that following a paleolithic diet lessens the risk of cardiovascular disease or metabolic syndrome.[41] As of 2014 there was no evidence the paleolithic diet is effective in treating inflammatory bowel disease.[42] The paleolithic diet similar to the Atkins diet encourages the consumption of large amounts of red meat, especially meats high in saturated fat. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. ^ Mosley M (5 September 2012). "Continuous feeding versus intermittent bolus feeding for premature infants with low birth weight: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". 10 (4): 634–46. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2013.09.063. PMC 6202808. The so-called black fast refers to a day or days of penance on which only one meal is allowed, and that in the evening. doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1676698. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and a Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of Us. Pegasus Books. ^ NHS 2008; Kolbert 2014; Hall 2014: "Fad diets and 'miracle' diet supplements promise to help us lose weight effortlessly. ^ a b c Drăgoi CM (10 July 2019).
"Fasting in mood disorders: neurobiology and effectiveness. 177 (7): 930–938. Bloomberg News. Medical News Today. Nutrition. ^ Renold AE (1965). The British Journal of Nutrition (Meta-analysis). S2CID 54552826. ^ Carrera-Bastos et al. Elton S (2008). BMC Medicine (Mini-review). 18 (1): 41. 25 (5): 228–31. PMC 8092432. {{cite web}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |lay-url= (help) ^ Régime et évolution d'un cancer. "Dietary Fat Quality and Coronary Heart Disease Prevention: A Unified Theory Based on Evolutionary, Historical, Global, and Modern Perspectives". Elsevier. In the 1970s Walter L. pp. 164–166. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey. It also became popular in Australia.[18][19][20]
Types Three methods of intermittent fasting are time-restricted feeding, alternate-day fasting, and periodic fasting:[1][3][5][9][21][22] Time-restricted feeding involves eating only during a certain number of hours each day, often establishing a consistent daily pattern of caloric intake within an 8–12 hour time window. Public Health Nutrition. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1186/s12884-018-2048-y. PMID 15223983. "Intermittent fasting". PMC 4516560. ^ Turner & Thompson 2013. PMC 5869082. 11 (10): 2442. (2009). The Telegraph. "A systematic review and meta-analysis of nutrition interventions for chronic noncancer pain". Live Well - NHS Choices. Buddha's Diet: The Ancient Art of Losing Weight Without Losing Your Mind. 45 (1): 35–38. doi:10.1007/s11916-010-0104-z. doi:10.1111/jhn.12601. Voegtlin advocated a meat-based diet, with low proportions of vegetables and starchy foods, based on his declaration that humans were "exclusively flesh-eaters" until 10,000 years ago.[12] In 1985 Stanley Boyd Eaton and Melvin Konner published a controversial article in the New England Journal of Medicine proposing that modern humans were biologically very similar their primitive ancestors and so "genetically programmed" to consume pre-agricultural foods. It is based on food patterns of human Paleolithic ancestors, about 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago, a period that precedes the advent of industrial agriculture and is different from today's modern society". 81 (2): 341–54. ABC-CLIO. PMC 6647066. pp. 177–182. PMID 16848698. 6 August 2012. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-082018-124320. 7 (2): 172–185. "Kung Bushmen Subsistence: An Input-Output Analysis". 2016. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017. 23 (1): 21–
4. "Paleo Diet: Is the paleo diet here to stay, or a short-lived trend?". ^ British Dietetic Association 2014 - "The Paleo diet (also known as the Paleolithic Diet, the Caveman diet and the Stone Age Diet) is a diet where only foods presumed to be available to Neanderthals in the prehistoric era are consumed and all other foods, such as dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, 'processed' oils, salt, and others like alcohol or coffee are excluded." ^ Ask EN 2010; Johnson 2015; Fitzgerald 2014. ^ Mosley M (5 August 2012). 3 October 2018. ^ Fanti, Maura; Mishra, Amrendra; Longo, Valter D.; Brandhorst, Sebastian (2021-01-29). doi:10.1186/s12967-018-1748-4. ^ a b c d e Anton SD, Moehl K, Donahoo WT, Marosi K, Lee SA, Mainous AG, et al. ^ Alhamdan BA, Garcia-Alvarez A, Alzahrnai AH, Karanxha J, Stretchberry DR, Contrera KJ, et al. "Intermittent fasting interventions for treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). Katz DL, Meller S (2014). 2017. Kolbert E (20 July 2014). PMC 2249073.
PMID 24612646. 1 (3): CD013496. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. (July 2017). ^ Howard AN (1975). The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the idea that diets based largely on plant foods promote health and longevity, at least under conditions of food abundance and physical activity."[25] Ideas about Paleolithic diet and nutrition are at best hypothetical.[26] The data for Cordain's book only came from six contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, mainly living in marginal habitats. ^ a b Cienfuegos, Sofia; Gabel, Kelsey; Kalam, Faiza; Ezpeleta, Mark; Wiseman, Eric; Pavlou, Vasiliki; Lin, Shuhao; Oliveira, Manoela Lima; Varady, Krista A. "Eat, Fast & Live Longer". doi:10.1086/682587. "Paleo isn't a fad diet, it's an ideology that selectively denies the modern world". doi:10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-003248. Some contend that it cures autoimmune diseases, others that it reverses diabetes." ^ Pitt 2016; Obert et al. ^ a b c Van Dyck L, Casaer MP (August 2019). UK National Health Service - NHS Choices. Hall H (15 December 2015). Lee R (1969). Retrieved 28 October 2019. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases (Systematic review). 39 (1): 291–315. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2019.02.004. hdl:10344/6776. doi:10.1002/evan.21504. The basis of the diet is a re-imagining of what paleolithic people ate, and different proponents
recommend different diet compositions. Obert J, Pearlman M, Obert L, Chapin S (2017). "Continuous or intermittent feeding: pros and cons". Retrieved 6 October 2019. PMC 7011201. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-08. 39: 46–58. Diabetes Care (Professional society guidelines). ^ Cordain et al. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. The Gale Encyclopedia of Diets: A Guide to Health and Nutrition. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ Katz & Meller 2014. 26 (2): 254–268. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2017.08.112. Voegtlin popularized a meat-centric "Stone Age" diet; in the 21st century the best-selling books of Loren Cordain popularized the Paleo diet.[3] As of 2019[update] the paleo-diet industry was worth approximately US$500 million. "Fast and effective?". "Intermittent Fasting and Human Metabolic Health". This is not typical of more recently devised paleo diets; Loren Cordain's – probably the most popular – instead emphasizes animal products and an avoidance of processed food.[19] Diet advocates concede the modern paleolithic diet cannot be a faithful recreation of what paleolithic people ate, and instead aim to "translate" that into a modern context, avoiding such likely historical practices as cannibalism.[20] Foodstuffs that have been described as permissible include: "vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, meat, and organ meats";[21] "vegetables (including root vegetables), fruit (including fruit oils, e.g., olive oil, coconut oil, and palm oil), nuts, fish, meat, and eggs, and it excluded dairy, grain-based foods, legumes, extra sugar, and nutritional products of industry (including refined fats and refined carbohydrates)";[22] and "avoids processed foods, and emphasizes eating vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds, eggs, and lean meats".[23] The diet forbids the consumption of all dairy products. (September 2016). "Environments, Adaptation, and Evolutionary Medicine: Should We be Eating a Stone Age Diet?". Advocates promote the paleolithic diet as a way of improving health.[5] There is some evidence that following it may lead to improvements in body composition and metabolism compared with the typical Western diet[6] or compared with diets recommended by some European nutritional guidelines.[7] On the other hand, following the diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies such as an inadequate calcium intake, and side effects can include weakness, diarrhea, and headaches.[8] History and terminology Adrienne Rose Johnson writes that the idea that the primitive diet was superior to current dietary habits dates back to the 1890s with such writers as Emmet Densmore and John Harvey Kellogg. "Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardiometabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". "The Paleo Diet and the American Weight Loss Utopia, 1975–2014". PMC 5913738. PMID 24641555. Contributions to Anthropology: Ecological Essays. S2CID 195828287. "The when of eating: The science behind intermittent fasting". On this basis Zuk dismisses Cordain's claim that the paleo diet is "the one and only diet that fits our genetic makeup".[54] Paleoanthropologist Peter Ungar has written that the paleo diet is a "myth", on account both of its invocation of a single suitable diet when in reality humans have always been a "work in progress", and because diet has always been varied because humans were spread widely over the planet.[55] Anthropological geneticist Anne C.
Encyclopedia of Diet Fads: Understanding Science and Society (2nd ed.). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1202-106. ISBN 978-0-89789-736-5. 35: 14–20. Retrieved 14 January 2019. (September 2020). 30 (2): 113–9. "Section 5: Adipose Tissue". doi:10.1007/s00134-015-4131-4. 69 (5). 9 May 2008. JAMA Network Open. PMID 28459931. ^ Cottrell T, Zigmond D (2016-09-06). "Time-Restricted Eating to Improve Cardiovascular Health". Retrieved 2018-11-05. Medical Daily. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. ISBN 978-1-60598-595-4. February 2018. doi:10.1007/s13679-018-0308-9. This story, which was originally written by Pamela Wilson and published by ABC Health and Wellbeing, has been reviewed by Dr Rosemary Stanton OAM, nutritionist and visiting fellow, School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, and was updated in 2019. (May 2019). ISSN 1550-4131. doi:10.2147/RRCC.S16919. NHS. doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000617. PMID 23182306. PMC 3680567. 71 (8): 501–10. American Cancer Society. ^ Ghaedi et al.
Horizon. 25 (4): 239–245. doi:10.15403/jgld.2014.1121.243.gta. PMID 21139123. Nutrition Reviews. International Food Information Council. PMID 28975722. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 8 December 2014. Journal of Translational Medicine (Systematic review). PMID 31525701. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1963.tb07474.x.
PMID 14069065. ISSN 2072-6643. Molecular biologist Marion Nestle argues that "knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and that there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. ^ Stockman MC, Thomas D, Burke J, Apovian CM (June 2018). Densmore proclaimed that "bread is the staff of death", while Kellogg supported a diet of starchy and grain-based foods in accord with "the ways and likings of our primitive ancestors".[9] Arnold DeVries advocated an early version of the Paleolithic diet in his 1952 book, Primitive Man and His Food.[10] In 1958, Richard Mackarness authored Eat Fat and Grow Slim, which proposed a low-carbohydrate "Stone Age" diet.[11] In his 1975 book The Stone Age Diet, gastroenterologist Walter L. Intermittent fasting is a strategy for scheduling the times of meals. ^ "Fasting Guidelines" (PDF). 73 (10): 661–74. Gander K (21 December 2017). The Gale Group. ^
Dinning JS (October 1963). ^ Mirghani HM, Hamud OA (January 2006). "How to make stone soup: Is the "Paleo diet" a missed opportunity for anthropologists?". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Meta-analysis). PMID 29086496. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-10-30. Manheimer EW, van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz Z, Pijl H (October 2015).
^ Russell J, Rovere A, eds. ^ Kohok S (3 June 2019). Retrieved 2019-11-01. PMID 30583725. They argue that modern humans should follow a diet that is nutritionally closer to that of their Paleolithic ancestors. 2. PMC 5105573. 2018-08-14. Retrieved 14 August 2015. Adv Nutr. ISBN 9780879736699. PMID 30476522. Obesity. ^ Jabr 2013. Annual Review of Public Health. Farmacia. Diabetes & Metabolism (Mini-review). S2CID 12918685. "Effects of fasted vs fed-state exercise on performance and post-exercise metabolism: A systematic review and meta-analysis". PMID 24107394. PMC 5959807. 14 (2): 80–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2018. Posted 5 Feb 2020, updated 10 Feb 2020 ^ a b "Diet Review: Intermittent Fasting for Weight Loss". 116 (7): 1153–1164. ISBN 978-0-231-16484-9. "Unraveling the metabolic health benefits of fasting related to religious beliefs: A narrative review". Nutrition in Clinical Practice. A systematic review and meta-analysis". 10 (2): 70–80. Lay summary. "Intermittent Fasting and Metabolic Health: From Religious Fast to Time‐Restricted Feeding". Retrieved 17 March 2015. Simon and Schuster. (2021-03-26). ^ Obert et al. 28 (S1). PMID 30294938. ISSN 0084-6570. doi:10.1111/sms.13054. 19 (Suppl 1): 47–60. Many vegetables, such as broccoli, did not exist in the Paleolithic period; broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and kale are modern cultivars of the ancient species Brassica oleracea.[29] Trying to devise an ideal diet by studying contemporary hunter-gatherers is difficult because of the great disparities that exist; for example, the animal-derived calorie percentage ranges from 25% for the Gwi people of southern Africa to 99% for the Alaskan Nunamiut. Archived from the original on 5 August 2019. The New York Times. p. 79. PMC 4924195. Eat Right: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 74 (5): 121–9. Current Obesity Reports. Leonard WR (1 December 2002). ISBN 9780762460465. External links Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016). "The modern take on the Paleo diet: is it grounded in science?". ^ Hicks C (13 April 2015). International Journal of Obesity. 135 (9): e96–e121. PMID 33512717. "Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health". ^ Longo VD, Mattson MP (February 2014). PMID 29419624. S2CID 23760594.
doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.113613. Archived from the original on 2018-11-05. ^ Longe 2008, p. 180: "No dairy products are allowed while on this diet. In 2016 she was quoted as saying "It drives me crazy when Paleo-diet people say that we've stopped evolving — we haven't".[56] Melvin Konner has said the challenge to the hypothesis is not greatly significant since the real challenges to human non-adaptation have occurred with the rise of ever-more refined foodstuffs in the last 300 years.[57] Environmental impact A 2019 analysis of diets in the United States ranked consumption of a paleolithic diet as more environmentally harmful than consumption of an omnivorous diet, though not so harmful as a ketogenic diet.[58] Elizabeth Kolbert has written the paleolithic's emphasis on meat consumption is a "disaster" on account of meat's comparatively high energy production costs.[59] Popularity A lifestyle and ideology have developed around the diet.[60] "Paleolithic" products include clothing, smartphone apps, and cookware. Pitt CE (2016). ^ Vieira AF, Costa RR, Macedo RC, Coconcelli L, Kruel LF (October 2016). doi:10.1111/obr.12785. Cell Metabolism. 31 (6): 753–758. 19 (2): 63–80. "Fasting for weight loss: an effective strategy or latest dieting trend?". American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed.). p. 10.
Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us about Sex, Diet, and How We Live. For example, wild almonds produce potentially fatal levels of cyanide, but this trait has been bred out of domesticated varieties using artificial selection. 381 (26): 2541–2551. PMID 30348463. "Effects of aerobic exercise performed in fasted v. Zimmer C (13 August 2015).
^ a b c d e f g Cioffi I, Evangelista A, Ponzo V, Ciccone G, Soldati L, Santarpia L, et al. Smith M (2015). "Effects of intermittent versus continuous dieting on weight and body composition in obese and overweight people: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". This is akin to alternating days with normal eating and days with a very-low-calorie diet.[27] Periodic fasting or whole-day fasting involves any period of consecutive fasting of more than 24 hours, such as the 5:2 diet where there are one or two fasting days per week, to the more extreme version with several days or weeks of fasting.[1] During the fasting days, consumption of approximately 500 to 700 calories, or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake, may be allowed instead of complete fasting.[1][2][5][25][28] The science concerning intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain due to an absence of studies on its long term effects.[1][2][10][29][30] Preliminary evidence indicates that intermittent fasting may be effective for weight loss, may
decrease insulin resistance and fasting insulin, and may improve cardiovascular and metabolic health, although the long term sustainability of these effects has not been studied.[1][2] Research A 2021 review found that moderate alternate-day fasting for two to six months was associated with reductions of body weight, body mass index, and
cardiometabolic risk factors in overweight or obese adults.[31] Body weight There is limited evidence that intermittent fasting produces weight loss comparable to a calorie restricted diet.[6][7][32][33][34] Most studies on intermittent fasting in humans have observed weight loss, ranging from 2.5% to 9.9%.[35][36] The reductions in body weight can be attributed to the loss of fat mass and some lean mass.[37][38] For time restricted eating the ratio of weight loss is 3:1 for fat mass to lean mass, respectively.[38] Alternate-day fasting does not affect lean body mass,[5][39] although one review found a small decrease.[40] Alternate-day fasting improves cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to a calorie restriction diet in people who are overweight, obese or have a metabolic syndrome.[6][8][22][28][41] As of 2021, it remains uncertain whether intermittent fasting could prevent cardiovascular disease.[42] A 2021 review found that intermittent fasting may help people lose more weight than regular eating patterns, but was not different than energy restriction diets.[42] Intermittent fasting has not been studied in children, elderly, or underweight people, and may be harmful in these populations.[6][8][10][43] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for people who are not overweight, and the long-term sustainability of intermittent fasting is unknown as of 2018[update].[10]
[44][45] Other effects Night-time eating is linked to impaired sleep quality.[25] Intermittent fasting is not recommended to treat cancer in France,[46][47] the United Kingdom,[48] or the United States,[49] although a few small-scale clinical studies suggest that it may reduce chemotherapy side effects.[50][51] Periodic fasting may have a minor effect on chronic pain and mood disorders.[52][53][54] In preliminary research, intermittent fasting has shown signs of reducing risk factors for certain disorders, including insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease.[31][28] Intermittent fasting does not affect bone health.[55] Athletic performance does not benefit from intermittent fasting.[56] Overnight fasting before exercise increases lipolysis, but reduces performance in prolonged exercise (more than 60 min).[57][58] Adverse effects Reviews of preliminary clinical studies found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of hunger, irritability, dizziness, nausea, headaches, and impaired thinking, although these effects disappear within a month from the fasting practice.[59][26] However, the data remains sparse, as most of the studies did not analyze adverse effects specifically.[6][33][60][61] A 2018 systematic review found no major adverse effects.[6] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, growing children and adolescents, the elderly, or individuals with, or vulnerable to, eating disorders.[21] Tolerance Tolerance of a diet is a determinant of the potential effectiveness and maintenance of benefits obtained, such as weight loss or biomarker improvement.[33] A 2019 review found that drop-out rates varied widely from 2% to 38% for intermittent fasting, and from 0% to 50% for calorie restriction diet.[6] Possible mechanisms Preliminary research indicates that fasting may induce a transition through four states: The fed state or absorptive state during satiety, when the primary fuel source is glucose and body fat storage is active, lasting for about 4 hours;[62][63] The
postabsorptive state, lasting for up to 18 hours, when glucagon is secreted and the body uses liver glucose reserves as a fuel source;[5][22][62] The fasted state, transitioning progressively to other reserves, such as fat, lactic acid, and alanine, as fuel sources, when the liver glucose reserves are depleted, occurring after 12 to 36 hours of continued fast;[63][64][65] The shift from preferential lipid synthesis and fat storage, to the mobilization of fat (in the form of free fatty acids), metabolized into fatty acid-derived ketones to provide energy.[22][63][66][67] Some authors call this transition the "metabolic switch".[1][22][68] A 2019 review of weight-change interventions, including alternate day fasting, time-restricted feeding, exercise and overeating, found that body weight homeostasis could not precisely correct "energetic errors" – the loss or gain of calories – in the short-term.[69] Intermittent feeding Other feeding schemes, such as hypocaloric feeding[70] and intermittent feeding, also called bolus feeding were under study.[71] A 2019 meta-analysis found that intermittent feeding may be more beneficial for premature infants, although better designed studies are required to devise clinical practices.[72] In adults, reviews have not found intermittent feeding to increase glucose variability or gastrointestinal intolerance.[73][74] A meta-analysis found intermittent feeding had no influence on gastric residual volumes and aspiration, pneumonia, mortality nor morbidity in people with a trauma, but increased the risk of diarrhea.[71][74] Food production Intermittent fasting, or "skip-a-day" feeding, is supposedly the most common feeding strategy for poultry in broiler breeder farms worldwide, as an alternative to adding bulky fibers to the diet to reduce growth. ISBN 978-1-4200-5134-6. Annual Review of Nutrition (Narrative Review). Retrieved 18 January 2018. "Hunter-gatherer diets: wild foods signal relief from diseases of affluence (PDF)" (PDF). ^ a b Johnston WM (2013-12-04). "Dietary patterns and management of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials". "The role of low-calorie diets and intermittent fasting in the treatment of obesity and type-2 diabetes". This type of fasting would be hazardous for pregnant women, as it is associated with risks of inducing labor and causing gestational diabetes, although it does not appear to affect the child's weight.[85][86][87] For these reasons, pregnant women, as well as children who have not reached puberty, the elderly, those who are physically or mentally incapable of fasting, travelers, and breast-feeding mothers are often exempt from religious fasting — Ramadan being one example.[81] Recommendations United States The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends intermittent fasting as an option for weight loss and calorie control as part of an "intentional approach to eating that focuses on the timing and frequency of meals and snacks as the basis of a healthier lifestyle and improved risk factor management".[2] For overweight people, fasting may be integrated into a wider dietary change, such as "placing snacks
strategically before meals that might be associated with overeating", planning meals and snacks throughout the day to help manage hunger and control meal portions, and "promote consistent overnight fast periods".[2] The AHA noted that eating some food on a fast day (instead of a complete fast) produced the greatest weight loss when at least 4%
weight loss was achieved by obese individuals.[2] The American Diabetes Association "found limited evidence about the safety and/or effects of intermittent fasting on type 1 diabetes" and preliminary results of weight loss for type 2 diabetes, and so does not recommend any specific dietary pattern for the management of diabetes until more research is done, recommending instead that "health care providers should focus on the key factors that are common among the patterns".[29] The National Institute on Aging stated that although intermittent fasting showed weight loss success in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, it does not recommend intermittent fasting for non-
overweight individuals because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety, especially for older adults.[10] New Zealand The New Zealand's Ministry of Health considers that intermittent fasting can be advised by doctors to some people, except diabetics, stating that these "diets can be as effective as other energy-restricted diets, and some people may find them easier to stick to" but there are possible side effects during fasting days such as "hunger, low energy levels, light-headedness and poor mental functioning" and note that healthy food must be chosen on non-fasting days.[30][88] United Kingdom According to NHS Choices, people considering the 5:2 diet should first consult a physician, as fasting can sometimes be unsafe.[89][90] A news item in the Canadian Medical Association Journal expressed concern that promotional material for the 5:2 diet showed people eating high-calorie food, such as hamburgers and chips, and that this could encourage binge eating since the implication was that "if you fast two days a week, you can devour as much junk as your gullet can swallow during the remaining five days".[91] Binge eating following dietary restrictions has been observed in a post-war famine study, where nineteen prisoners of war were observed during their rehabilitation with unlimited access to food, and found they tended to engage in binge eating.[27] Europe Given the lack of advantage and the increased incidence of diarrhea, European guidelines do not recommend intermittent feeding for patients in Intensive Care Units.[71][74] Usage trends As of 2019[update], intermittent fasting was a common fad diet, attracting celebrity endorsements and public interest.[92] UK and Australia Intermittent fasting (specifically the 5:2 diet) was popularized by Michael Mosley) in the UK and Australia in 2012[93][94] after the BBC2 television Horizon documentary Eat, Fast and Live Longer.[95][89][96][20] North America In the United States, intermittent fasting became a fad in Silicon Valley, California.[97] It was the most popular diet in 2018, according to a survey by the International Food Information Council.[98][99] Commercial activity As of 2019[update], interest in intermittent fasting led some companies to commercialize diet coaching, dietary supplements, and full meal packages.[97][100] These companies were criticized for offering expensive products or services that were not backed by science.
[100][101] See also 2010s in food Healthy diet List of diets Sustainable diet Very-low-calorie diet or starvation diet Weight loss References ^ a b c d e f g h i j de Cabo R, Mattson MP (December 2019). ^ a b Minister of Health NZ (2017). PMC 4588744. PMC 4021001. Goldstein J (8 January 2010). Am. J. The Paleolithic Prescription: A Program of Diet and Exercise and a Design for Living. Episode 49x03. "Beyond the Paleolithic prescription: incorporating diversity and flexibility in the study of human diet evolution". The New England Journal of Medicine. "The effect of maternal diet restriction on pregnancy outcome". Wilson J (16 March 2015). 209 (3): 253–8. "The benefits of intermittent fasting".
^ Trueland J (December 2013). ISBN 978-1-4144-2991-5. Archived from the original on 8 November 2019. pp. 123–153. 287 (6): 106–15. Medicine and Evolution: Current Applications, Future Prospects. ^ Roman YM, Dominguez MC, Easow TM, Pasupuleti V, White CM, Hernandez AV (October 2019). "Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? Nearly all IF studies have resulted in some degree of weight loss, ranging from 2.5–9.9%, and associated fat mass loss. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.014. 11 (4): 289–301. ISBN 978-1-98-853916-4. PMID 30511505. 19 (1): 1–13. PMC 6703924. This evidence undermines a core premise of the paleolithic diet - that human digestion has
remained essentially unchanged over time.[4] Anthropological science has found that human diets in paleolithic times were more varied and less meat-centric than had previously been assumed. PMID 30903600. ^ "Horizon - Eat, Fast and Live Longer". For trademarking see Lowe 2014. Gibbons A (September 2014). ISSN 1467-789X. ^ a b c Mattson MP, Longo VD, Harvie M (October 2017). "From milk to pizza, these are the foods that fascists ruined in 2017". ^ Brain K, Burrows TL, Rollo ME, Chai LK, Clarke ED, Hayes C, et al. Health News. ^ Davis CS, Clarke RE, Coulter SN, Rounsefell KN, Walker RE, Rauch CE, et al. Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia. 74 (5): 775–783. W.W. Norton
& Co. ISBN 978-0-393-08137-4. "For Evolving Brains, a 'Paleo' Diet Full of Carbs". Retrieved 19 September 2018. ^ "2018 Food & Health Survey" (PDF). "Caveman fad diet". ISBN 978-0060916350. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014. Retrieved 21 September 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) ^ a b Hoddy, Kristin K.; Marlatt, Kara L.; Çetinkaya, Hatice; Ravussin, Eric (July 2020). Longe JL (2008). Vol. 31. "The power of intermittent fasting". ^ Newton 2019, p. 102. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. For involuntary fasting, see starvation. This means no milk, cheese, butter, or anything else that comes from milking animals. Psychiatry Research. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis (Review). Nestle M (March 2000). "Self-monitoring of blood glucose in diabetic patients: from the least common denominator to the greatest common multiple". 2015. Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. doi:10.1007/s11894-017-0603-8. doi:10.5325/utopianstudies.26.1.0101. www6.inra.fr (in French). PMID 31041449. ^ a b c Harris L, Hamilton S, Azevedo LB, Olajide J, De Brún C, Waller G, et al. "Weight-Loss Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Intermittent Energy Restriction Trials Lasting a Minimum of 6 Months". ^ a b c d e f g Persynaki A, Karras S, Pichard C (March 2017). ^ Milton 2002. PMID 27708846. "Chapter 22: Obesity, Polycystic Ovaries and Impaired Reproductive Outcome". "It's a part of my paleo fantasy, it's a part of my paleo dream". ^ For calcium deficicency see Tarantino, Citro & Finelli 2015; for other risks see Obert et al. 29 (6): 531–543. "Effect of Alternate-Day Fasting on Weight Loss, Weight Maintenance, and Cardioprotection Among Metabolically Healthy Obese Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial". 35 (1): 209–28.
"Effectiveness of Intermittent Fasting and Time-Restricted Feeding Compared to Continuous Energy Restriction for Weight Loss". Current Opinion in Critical Care (Review). PMC 7065445. "Paleolithic Nutrition: Twenty-Five Years Later". ^ de Menezes et al. PMID 31881139. PMID 14047310. PMC 7222868. doi:10.1111/obr.12787. ^ Wang Y, Zhu W, Luo BR (May 2020). doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000513. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2019.07.001. "Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report". Lowe K (20 July 2014). Handbook of Physiology: a Critical, Comprehensive Presentation of Physiological Knowledge and Concepts. 1 (Supplement 1). "Effects of a Paleolithic Diet on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Cunningham E (2012). 16 January 2018. PMC 5680777. "Fasting practices in Tamil Nadu and their importance for patients with diabetes". pp. 111–22. Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association (Review). ^ Kolbert 2014. doi:10.1002/osp4.52. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000476. PMID 31210344. Hou JK, Lee D, Lewis J (October 2014). Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (Narrative review). "The New Age Cavemen and the City". doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.39558. Obesity Science & Practice. ^ a b Sadeghirad B, Motaghipisheh S, Kolahdooz F, Zahedi MJ, Haghdoost AA (February 2014). ISBN 978-1-4408-6763-7. Nature Reviews. ^ Ungar & Teaford 2002; Lee 1969; Eaton, Shostak & Konner 1988. "Paleo Diet". PMID 20425196. 69: 44–54. doi:10.1002/oby.22065. ISBN 978-0-12-416045-3. S2CID 45802390. 112 (8): 1296. Nutrients. ^ Harris L, McGarty A, Hutchison L, Ells L, Hankey C (January 2018). PMID 25540982. Retrieved 10 February 2014. "Stone Soup – How the Paleolithic life style got trendy". Current Pain and Headache Reports. PMID 31408370. S2CID 4962378. "Comparison of time-restricted feeding and Islamic fasting: a scoping review". BBC iPlayer. doi:10.1007/s11936-009-0030-8. Different diet gurus offer a bewildering array of diets that promise to keep us healthy and make us live longer: vegan, Paleo, Mediterranean, low fat, low carb, raw food, gluten-free [...] the list goes on." ^ Kolbert 2014. Scientific American. ^ Pontzer, Wood & Riachlen 2018 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPontzerWoodRiachlen2018 (help). ISSN 1930-7381. Fitzgerald M (2014). "Normocaloric versus hypocaloric feeding on the outcomes of ICU patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis". (Cochrane Heart Group) (January 2021). Vol. 19, no. 4. ^ Fond G, Macgregor A, Leboyer M, Michalsen A (October 2013). "What language tells us about the roots of the stone age diet". "Intermittent Fasting: Is the Wait Worth the Weight?". "Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Elsevier Masson. May 2013. Cordain, Loren; Eaton, S. Choices. "Diet and inflammatory bowel disease: review of patient-targeted recommendations". "Paleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis". ^ a b Giles T (24 April 2018).
Rev Prescrire. "Intermittent Fasting and Its Effects on Athletic Performance: A Review". S2CID 209498984. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. (February 2019). ^ a b c d Patterson RE, Sears DD (August 2017). Current Sports Medicine Reports. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. In short, only bread, water, and vegetables form part of the diet for one following such a fast. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-416045-3.00022-4. 15 (1): 106. ISBN 978-94-011-7155-7.: 125 ^ Duncan GG (September 1964). PMID 29102513. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.195. Intermittent fasting exists in some religious practices.[3][11] These include the Black Fast of Christianity (commonly practiced during Lent), Vrata (Hinduism), Ramadan (Islam), Fast Sunday (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), Jain fasting, and Buddhist fasting.[3][11][12] Religious fasting practices may only require abstinence from certain foods or last for a short period of time and cause negligible effects.[11] In Christianity, many adherents of Christian denominations including Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans, and the Orthodox, often observe the Friday Fast throughout the year, which commonly includes abstinence from meat.[76] Throughout the liturgical season of Lent (and especially on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) in the Christian calendar, many Christians practice a form of intermittent fasting in which one can consume two collations and one full meal; others partake of the Black Fast, in which no food is consumed until sundown.[77][78] In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of Theravada Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.[79] This daily fasting pattern may be undertaken by laypeople following the eight precepts.[80][79] During Ramadan, Islamic practices are similar to intermittent fasting by not eating or drinking from dawn until sunset, while permitting food intake in the morning before dawn and in the evening after dusk for 30 days.[11][81][82] A meta-analysis on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to 1.51 kilograms (3.3 lb), but this weight was regained within about two weeks thereafter.[83] The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss."[83] One review found similarities between Ramadan and time-restricted feeding, with the main dissimilarity being the disallowance of water drinking with Islamic fasting.[84] In a 2020 review, Ramadan fasting caused a significant decrease in LDL cholesterol levels, and a slight decline in total cholesterol.[82] A review of the metabolic effects of fasting showed that religious fasting proved to be beneficial in terms of "body weight and glycemia, cardiometabolic risk markers, and oxidative stress parameters", where animals, in the study, that followed a diet regimen consistent with that of religious fasting, were observed to have weight loss in addition to "lowered plasma levels of glucose, triacylglycerols, and insulin growth factor-1".[11]
Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of hypoglycemia in diabetics, as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.[11] Ramadan disallows fluids during the fasting period. PMID 30359228. 43 (10): 2017–2027. ^ a b Wilson P (10 February 2020). 17 January 2020. BBC. "Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for
Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". doi:10.1093/advances/nmz007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2019. "Are diets from paleolithic times relevant today?". (American Heart Association Obesity Committee of the Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Clinical Cardiology; and Stroke) (February 2017). PMID 31283627. PMC 4091895. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1905136. ISBN 978-1-61069-760-6. ^ Ungar & Teaford 2002. "Silicon Valley wants to cash in on fasting". This schedule is thought to better align food intake with naturally occurring circadian rhythms relating to nutrient metabolism.[23][24][25] Some approaches further restrict the time window, such as the 16:8 diet (16 fasting hours cycled by 8 non-fasting hours), or the 20:4 diet (20 hours fasting with a 4 hour feeding window).[26] An alternate day fasting schedule, that alternates between usual eating (feast days) and fasting days with reduced or no calories Alternate-day fasting involves alternating between a 24-hour "fast day" when the person eats less than 25% of usual energy needs, followed by a 24-hour non-fasting "feast day" period. ^ Glazier JD, Hayes DJ, Hussain S, D'Souza SW, Whitcombe J, Heazell AE, Ashton N (October 2018). Nutrition Reviews (Review). ^ a b c d e
"Calorie restriction and fasting diets: What do we know?". ^ Cunningham 2012. Retrieved from " Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. We simply ate too many different foods in the past, and have adapted to new ones". "Prolonged fasting as a method of mood enhancement in chronic pain syndromes: a review of clinical evidence and mechanisms". PMID 27753214. ^ Levy E, Chu T (July 2019). ^ a b c Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, Alhazzani W, Calder PC, Casaer MP, et al. PMID 31107308. 8 (6): 354. doi:10.31925/farmacia.2019.4.2. S2CID 199075075. "The 'True' Human Diet". Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. PMID 30206335. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 102 (2): 464–70. S2CID 144735157. ^ Headland M, Clifton PM, Carter S, Keogh JB (June 2016). ^ Bear DE, Hart N, Puthucheary Z (August 2018). 185 (9): E363-4. pp. 289–298. ^ a b Elnakib, Sara (12 April 2021). Science-Based Medicine. References Ask EN (2010). ^ Horne BD, Muhlestein JB, Anderson JL (August 2015). Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution. 25 (6): 594–602. While the introduction of grains, dairy, and legumes during the Neolithic revolution may have had some adverse effects on modern humans, if humans had not been nutritionally adaptable, these technological developments would have been dropped.[52] Since the publication of Eaton and Konner's paper in 1985, analysis of the DNA of primitive human remains has provided evidence that evolving humans were continually adapting to new diets, thus challenging the hypothesis underlying the paleothic diet.[53] Evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk writes that the idea that our genetic makeup today matches that of our ancestors is misconceived, and that in debate Cordain was "taken aback" when told that 10,000 years was "plenty of time" for an evolutionary change in human digestive abilities to have taken place. ^ Gander 2017. Vegetarianism and Veganism: A Reference Handbook. ^ Chang & Nowell 2016. In Elton S, O'Higgins P (eds.). Henry AG, Brooks AS, Piperno DR (April 2014). Retrieved 1 November 2019. Routledge. Archived from the original on 5 October 2019. ^ Pitt 2016; Kolbert 2014 : "[...] proponents of the paleo diet make all sorts of claims for its efficacy. 42 (5): 731–754. "The western diet and lifestyle and diseases of civilization". PMID 15699220. 2011. 9 December 2011. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Modified alternate-day fasting (or partial intermittent energy restriction) which allows the consumption of up to 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of complete fasting. Konner M, Eaton S (2010). "The Control of Obesity by Intermittent Fasts". doi:10.1002/oby.22829. 22 (4). Forbes. "Nutrition and longevity - From mechanisms to uncertainties". S2CID 52188900. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2016.10.005. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada (230): 73–94. Nutritional Outlook. Intensive Dietary Management. Archived from the original on 13 February 2014. Wiley. Ramsden C, Faurot K, Carrera-Bastos P, Cordain L, De Lorgeril M, Sperling L (2009). Retrieved 4 October 2019. ^ Whoriskey 2016. PMID 23569168. The evolutionary discordance is incomplete, since it is based mainly on the genetic understanding of the human diet and a unique model of human ancestral diets, without taking into account the flexibility and variability of the human dietary behaviors over time.[50] Studies of a variety of populations around the world show that humans can live healthily with a wide variety of diets and that humans have evolved to be flexible eaters.[51] Lactase persistence, which confers Lactose tolerance into adulthood, is an example of how some humans have adapted to the introduction of dairy into their diet. "Intermittent fasting: the science of going without". ^ Cahill GF (August 2006). PMID 27338458. Decker KJ (2019). doi:10.26719/emhj.19.011. "Can we say what diet is best for health?". PMC 5783752. "Short-term intermittent energy restriction interventions for weight management: a systematic review and meta-analysis". ^ a b Sainsbury A, Wood RE, Seimon RV, Hills AP, King NA, Gibson AA, Byrne NM (December 2018). doi:10.1146/knowable-012821-1. Fad diet based on the presumed diet of Paleolithic humans Foodstuffs compatible with paleolithic diet The Paleolithic diet, Paleo diet, caveman diet, or stone-age diet is a modern fad diet consisting of foods thought by its proponents to mirror those eaten by humans during the Paleolithic era.[1]
The diet avoids processed food and typically includes vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, and meat and excludes dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, alcohol, and coffee.[2] Historians can trace the ideas behind the diet to "primitive" diets advocated in 19th century. ^ Leonard 2002. ^ Hill 1996; Smith 2015, p. 117: "Mackarness, who founded the first British National Health Service clinical ecology clinic in Basingstoke, pioneered the so-called Stone Age Diet, in the belief that humans had not evolved to consume foods, including wheat and milk, developed since Paleolithic times (in fact, today's weight-reduction version of Mackarness's Stone Age diet is called the 'Paleo diet')." ^ Zuk 2013, pp. 111–112. ^ a b Allaf M, Elghazaly H, Mohamed OG, Fareen MF, Zaman S, Salmasi AM, et al. "How to Really Eat Like a Hunter-Gatherer: Why the Paleo Diet Is Half-Baked". PMC 8218778. Ungar PS, Teaford MF (1 January 2002). doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123153. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0936. 115 (8): 1203–12.
(March 2016). Retrieved 29 September 2019. PMID 26603882. International Journal of Obesity (Review). PMC 5411330. "Fasting - A History". A systematic review". "Fasting: molecular mechanisms and clinical applications". PMID 30952576. Columbia University Press. O'Malley K, Willits-Smith A, Aranda R, Heller M, Rose D (2019). "Intermittent Fasting: Exposing The Dangers Of This Fad Diet". ^ a b Solon O (2017-09-04). "Effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and clinical health markers in humans". doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.109553. ^ Tarantino, Citro & Finelli 2015; Katz & Meller 2014. Nutr J (Systematic review). 18 (7): 266–269. PMID 27051985. S2CID 23707195.
doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2020.06.018. Retrieved 17 October 2019. 133: 337–343. "When less may be more: calorie restriction and response to cancer therapy". Eaton and Konner proposed a "discordance hypothesis" by which the mismatch between modern diet and human biology gave rise to lifestyle diseases, such as obesity and diabetes.[13] The diet started to become popular in the 21st century, where it attracted a largely internet-based following using web sites, forums and social media.[14] These diet's ideas were further popularized by Loren Cordain, a health scientist with a Ph.D. in physical education, who trademarked the words "The Paleo Diet" and who wrote a 2002 book of that title.[15]
In 2012 the paleolithic diet was described as being one of the "latest trends" in diets, based on the popularity of diet books about it;[16] in 2013 and 2014 the Paleolithic diet was Google's most searched weight-loss method.[17] The paleolithic or paleo diet is also sometimes referred to as the caveman or stone-age diet.[18] Foodstuffs Roast beef.
doi:10.1177/2047487319869400. Nursing Standard. Eggs are allowed however, because Paleolithic man would probably have found eggs in bird's nests during foraging and hunting." ^ Nestle 2000. (February 2018). ISBN 9780470670767. p. 19. ^ Johnson 2015. 19 Suppl 1: 24–35. Clin. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |lay-url=
(help) ^ Chaix, Amandine; Manoogian, Emily N.C.; Melkani, Girish C.; Panda, Satchidananda (21 August 2019). Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. de Menezes EV, Sampaio HA, Carioca AA, Parente NA, Brito FO, Moreira TM, de Souza AC, Arruda SP (July 2019). Intermittent Fasting Basics: Your Guide to the Essentials of Intermittent Fasting—and How It Can Work for You!. ^ Ungar 2017. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.26.061505.111258. PMID 28715993. ^ "Top diets review". UK National Health Service. "Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes". ^ a b Johnstone A (May 2015). doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.005. Turner, BL; Thompson, AL (2013). S2CID 28309169.
Current Atherosclerosis Reports. doi:10.1038/nrn.2017.156. Archived from the original on 2019-11-01. Ungar PS, Grine FE, Teaford MF (2006). ^ a b c d e Patterson RE, Laughlin GA, LaCroix AZ, Hartman SJ, Natarajan L, Senger CM, et al. doi:10.1177/0884533610385702. PMID 28241983. 31 July 2019. Utopian Studies. doi:10.1111/obr.12593.
Anthropol. PMID 24459698. ISSN 1523-3804. S2CID 86497236. ISBN 9781136787164. Penn State University Press. 118 (4): 652–667.
