Reviews

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10-15-2015

Reviews

Nicholas Birns

Eugene Lang College, The New School

Joe R. Christopher

Tarleton State University, Stephenville, TX

Catherine Coker

Janet Brennan Croft

Rutgers University

Mike Foster

(retired) Illinois Central College in East Peoria

See next page for additional authors

Follow this and additional works at:

https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore

Part of the

Children's and Young Adult Literature Commons

Recommended Citation

Birns, Nicholas; Christopher, Joe R.; Coker, Catherine, et al. (2015) "Reviews," Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R.

Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: Vol. 34 : Iss. 1 , Article 12. Available at:

http://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol34/iss1/12

This Book Reviews is brought to you for free and open access by the Mythopoeic Society at SWOSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature by an authorized editor of SWOSU Digital Commons. An ADA compliant document is available upon request. For more information, please contact [email protected].

To join the Mythopoeic Society go to:

http://www.mythsoc.org/join.htm

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Albuquerque, New Mexico • Postponed to: July 30 – August 2, 2021

Abstract

The Collected Poems of C.S. Lewis: A Critical Edition. Edited by Don W. King. Reviewed by Joe R.

Christopher.

Tree of Salvation: Yggdrasil and the Cross in the North. G. Ronald Murphy. Reviewed by Jon Garrad.

Anglo-Saxon Community in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Deborah A. Higgins. Reviewed by Yvette

Kisor.

Surprised by the Feminine: A Rereading of C.S. Lewis and Gender. Monika B. Hilder. Reviewed by Laura

Lee Smith.

Arda Inhabited: Environmental Relationships in The Lord of The Rings. Susan Jeffers. Reviewed by

Jeremy Larson.

Joy: Poet, Seeker, and the Woman Who Captivated C.S. Lewis. Abigail Santamaria. Reviewed by Crystal

Hurd.

A Naked Tree: Love Sonnets to C.S. Lewis and Other Poems. Joy Davidman. Ed. Don W. King. Reviewed by

Joe R. Christopher.

The Hero Enkidu. Lewis Turco. Reviewed by Nicholas Birns.

Encyclopedia of Goddesses & Heroines. Patricia Monaghan. Reviewed by Cait Coker.

The Oxford Inklings. Colin Duriez. Reviewed by Crystal Hurd.

The Fellowship: The Literary Lives of the Inklings. Philip Zaleski and Carol Zaleski. Reviewed by Crystal

Hurd.

The Pilgrim's Regress: Wade Annotated Edition. C.S. Lewis. Edited and introduced by David C. Downing.

Reviewed by Mike Foster.

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Supernatural Studies. Special Issue: Television and the Supernatural. Editor Leah Richards; Guest editor

Marisa C. Hayes. Reviewed by Janet Brennan Croft.

Journal of Inklings Studies: Theology, Philosophy, Literature. Special Issue: Inklings and the Bible.

Executive editor Judith Wolfe. Reviewed by Janet Brennan Croft.

Authors

Nicholas Birns, Joe R. Christopher, Catherine Coker, Janet Brennan Croft, Mike Foster, Jon Garrad, Crystal

Hurd, Yvette Kisor, Jeremy Larson, and Laura Lee Smith

This book reviews is available in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol34/iss1/12

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Th e Co l l e c t e d Po e m s o f C .S. Le w i s: A Cr i t i c a l Ed i t i o n. E d ite d b y

D o n W . K in g . K en t, O h io : T h e K e n t S tate U n iv e rs ity P re ss, 2015. x, 485 p p . ISBN 978-1-60635-202-1. $75.00.

Don W. King's edition of nearly all of Lewis's poems Lew is’s p o e m s is a m a jo r a c c o m p lis h m e n t. If th is re v ie w e r c o u n ts co rrectly , K in g h a s co llected 273 p o e m s (in c lu d in g o n e a p p e a r in g in th e b ib lio g ra p h ic n o tes). S o m e o f th e m are triv ia l v e rs e s d a s h e d off in letters, b u t th e m a jo rity h a v e in te re s t a n d v a lu e for o n e re a s o n o r a n o th e r (th a t is, if o n e is n o t lim ite d in s y m p a th ie s to free verse, fo r L e w is is, in c u rr e n t te rm in o lo g y , a f o r m a lis t—a n d if o n e d o e s n o t reject so m e d iffic u lt p o e m s). K in g e s tim a te s th a t h e h a s co llected a b o u t n in e ty -fiv e p e rc e n t o f L e w is 's o rig in a l p o e m s , fo r o th e r p o e m s m a y b e fo u n d . H e also h a s o m itte d so m e "p o e tic fr a g m e n ts a n d a fe w m in o r p o e m s " a n d L e w is 's tr a n s la tio n o f th e Aeneid, th e la tte r as n o t b e in g o rig in a l (it h a s b e e n s e p a ra te ly p u b lis h e d , in 2011) (4). O n e c o rre c tio n to th is in tro d u c tio n : K in g sa y s th a t h e is c o llectin g tw e lv e p o e m s fo r th e firs t t i m e —o n e o f th e se , " N o t fo r Y our R e a d in g , N o t B ecau se I D re a m " (an in s c rip tio n fo r a c o p y o f D ym er g iv e n R u th P itte r) w a s p re v io u s ly p u b lis h e d in K a th ry n L in d s k o o g 's Sleuthing C.S. Lewis in 2001 (147). T h e p o e m a p p e a rs h e re o n p . 376; th e c laim th a t it is b e in g p u b lis h e d fo r th e firs t tim e o n p. 471. B u t e le v e n n e w p o e m s a re w e lc o m e a n d th e co llectin g o f all o f th e p o e m s in o n e p la c e is e v e n m o r e w elco m e .

T h e te r m "c ritic a l e d itio n " in th e su b title is im p o rta n t. A critical e d itio n a tte m p ts o f e s ta b lis h th e b a sic v e rs io n s o f th e w o rk s b e in g collected. F o r e x a m p le , K in g sets u p th re e b a sic ru le s fo r h is e d itio n : first, th e p o e m s are a r r a n g e d c h ro n o lo g ic a lly (ex c e p t fo r a fin a l se c tio n o f u n d a ta b le p o e m s), to a llo w fo r (he say s) th e c o m p a ris o n o f L e w is 's p ro s e a n d p o e tr y in th e sa m e p e rio d s . (T his re v ie w e r w a s s tru c k b y th e n u m b e r o f p o e m s a fte r W o rld W ar II w h ic h p re d ic te d so cial d isa ste r.) S econd, th o s e p o e m s w h ic h w e re p u b lis h e d in L e w is 's life tim e a p p e a r in th e v e rs io n o rig in a lly p u b li s h e d —in o th e r w o rd s , it is k n o w n in th o s e c ases th a t L e w is a p p r o v e d o f th e te x t a s h e s u b m itte d it. S o m e r e a d e r s m a y re m e m b e r, in K in g 's e a rlie r b o o k C.S. Lewis, Poet, h is d is c u s s io n of th r e e v e rs io n s o f th e s o n n e t "T h is is all fla sh y rh e to ric a b o u t lo v in g y o u " (16-19)—it r e m in d s a r e a d e r th a t d e c is io n s h a v e to b e m a d e a b o u t

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v e rs io n s. I t sim p lifie s m a tte rs , so m e tim e s, to h a v e th e r u le a b o u t life-tim e p u b lic a tio n . B u t it also m e a n s th a t title s W a lte r H o o p e r h a s g iv e n to p o e m s v a n is h if th e p o e m w a s n e v e r title d b y L e w is o r w a s co llected b y H o o p e r u n d e r a d iffe re n t title th a n th a t a n e a rlie r p u b lic a tio n . F o r e x a m p le , th e n a rr a tiv e p o e m th a t H o o p e r title d "T h e N a m e le s s Isle" a p p e a r s h e re w ith its firs t lin e u s e d as a title, " In a S p rin g S easo n I S ailed A w a y " (241), sin ce it w a s n o t title d b y L ew is; it is also in d e x e d u n d e r th e n e w title in th e "B ib lio g ra p h y o f P o e m S o u rc e s" (467). A m o r e p o p u la r p o e m th a t h a s its title c h a n g e d fr o m H o o p e r 's d e c is io n to th a t o f its firs t p u b lic a tio n is H o o p e r 's "A C o n fe ss io n " (Poems 1) w h ic h g o e s b a c k to " S p a r ta n N a c tu s " (388, 474). N o t ju s t a titu la r ch a n g e , b u t o n e in v o lv in g th e fin a l c o u p le t also, is H o o p e r 's " W h a t th e B ird S a id E a rly in th e Y ear" (Poems 71) a n d K in g 's " C h a n s o n D 'A d v e n tu r e " (322-23; 462; cf. 369.n11). T h e B ib lio g ra p h y o f P o e m S o u rc e s g iv e s H o o p e r 's title in e a c h case. T h e se c h a n g e s m a y c a u se c o n fu s io n in a fe w cases, b u t K in g 's a p p ro a c h d o e s fit th e sc h o la rly n a tu r e o f a critical e d itio n . (K in g d o e s n o t d e n ig r a te H o o p e r 's choices, s im p ly g o e s fo r sc h o la rsh ip ; in d e e d , th e v o lu m e is d e d ic a te d to H o o p e r.) T h ird , m o r e o b v io u s ly , K in g h a s " s ile n tly c o rre c te d o b v io u s m is s p e llin g s a n d m a d e o c c a sio n a l m in o r c h a n g e s in p u n c tu a tio n ."

O n e n e a r in c o n s is te n c y exists. K in g sa y s th a t, sin ce th is is n o t a v a r io r u m e d itio n o f L e w is 's p o e try , h e d o e s n o t g iv e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e d ra f ts o f th e sa m e p o e m (4-5); b u t h e states, in a d iffe re n t p a r a g r a p h , th a t h e d o e s g iv e " m in o r v a ria tio n s b e tw e e n L e w is 's h o lo g r a p h v e rs io n a n d th e p u b lis h e d v e rs io n " o f " c e rta in n a r r a tiv e p o e m s " (5). In th e s e in sta n c e s, K in g e v id e n tly felt h e n e e d e d to m a tc h th e in fo rm a tio n o n " In a S p rin g S easo n I S a ile d A w a y " ("T h e N a m e le s s Isle"), " W h e n th e Y ear D ies in P r e p a r a tio n fo r th e B irth " (" L a u n c e lo t" ), a n d "T h e Q u e e n o f D ru m " w h ic h H o o p e r g a v e in

N arrative Poems. F o r e x a m p le , H o o p e r o n l. 25 o f " L a u n c e lo t" fo o tn o te s

" th r o u g h all th e s e w in te r d a y s, g a v e a n s w e r" w ith " th e y say, th is w in te r seaso n , a n s w e re d " (95). K in g h a s a n e n d n o te n u m b e r o n th e s a m e lin e (261) a n d in th e a p p r o p r ia te N o te s sectio n h a s " In th e h o lo g r a p h , L e w is c ro s se d o u t th e p h r a s e they say, this w inter season, answered a n d s u b s titu te d through all these

w in ter days, gave answer" (309n88). A c c o rd in g to K in g 's n o te s , th is is m o r e a

d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a n o rig in a l v e rs io n a n d a re v is e d v e rs io n th a n b e tw e e n th e h o lo g r a p h , as su ch , a n d th e p u b lis h e d v ersio n .

A m a jo r d e c is io n in th e v o lu m e b e y o n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e p o e m s c h ro n o lo g ic a lly is th e c re a tin g o f d iv is io n s w ith in th a t c h ro n o lo g y . K in g h a s se v e n c h ro n o lo g ic a l sectio n s, a lth o u g h h e d o e s n o t d is c u s s th e re a s o n s fo r h is d e c is io n s fo r th e n u m b e r o f y e a rs in e a c h —p e r h a p s h e is tr y in g to a v o id fo rc in g so m e a ttitu d e to w a r d th e p o e m s in e a c h sectio n . A t a n y ra te , th e se c tio n s b e g in lik e th is: 1907-1914, 1915-1919, 1920-1925. N e x t co m es th e " p o e m s " o f ju s t o n e y e a r, 1926, fo llo w e d b y th r e e g r o u p in g s m o r e lik e th o s e a t

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first. A fte r th a t is th e se c tio n o f " U n d a te d P o e m s ." D e s p ite th e p lu r a l se c tio n title o f " P o e m s 1926," th a t section, w h ic h co v ers m o r e p a g e s th a n th o s e in a n y o th e r sectio n , h a s o n ly o n e p o e m : L e w is 's lo n g e s t n a rr a tiv e p o e m , D ym er.

A s said , th e ra tio n a le fo r th e le n g th o f th e se c tio n s is n e v e r m a d e clear, a n d p e r h a p s o f m o r e im p o rta n c e , n o lis tin g o f th e title s o f th e p o e m s in o r d e r o f a p p e a ra n c e exists. T h e C o n te n ts p a g e s im p ly lists th e se c tio n s (vii). T h is is a b o th e r in u s in g th e b o o k ; o n e d o e s n o t h a v e a n o v e rv ie w o f th e p o e m s in a tim e p e rio d . B oth th e "B ib lio g ra p h y o f P o e m S o u rc e s" (455-458) a n d th e in d ic e s o f title s a n d first lin e s a t th e b a c k o f th e b o o k a re a r r a n g e d a lp h a b e tic a lly .

T h is re v ie w e r also w is h e s th e in f o rm a tio n a b o u t th e p o e m s w a s n o t sc a tte re d . Im m e d ia te ly a fte r e a c h p o e m is its d a t e —o r d a te s , in th e case of p o e m s th a t h a v e a k n o w n d a te o f c o m p o s itio n a n d th e n a d a te o f p re v io u s p u b lic a tio n . B u t th e n a t th e e n d o f e a c h c h ro n o lo g ic a l se c tio n are th e e n d n o te s fo r th e p o e m s in th a t sectio n , m a in ly id e n tific a tio n s o f re fe re n c e s o r a llu sio n s in th e p o e m s , tr a n s la tio n s o f fo re ig n la n g u a g e s (in c lu d in g th e w h o le p o e m s in a fe w cases), a n d o th e r g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n , in c lu d in g v e ry o c c a sio n a lly K in g 's critical c o m m e n ts. A n d fin a lly in "B ib lio g ra p h y o f P o e m S o u rc e s" a p p e a r s a s u b s e c tio n g iv in g in f o rm a tio n a b o u t o rig in a l a n d s u b s e q u e n t p u b lic a tio n s, w h e re h o lo g r a p h c o p ies a re a v a ila b le (if th e y are), a n d o c c a sio n a lly o th e r in fo rm a tio n . Q u ite fra n k ly , th is re v ie w e r w is h e s th e e n d n o te s a n d th e b ib lio g ra p h ic in fo rm a tio n w e re g iv e n d ire c tly a fte r e a c h p o e m . A s a $75 v o lu m e , th is is m o r e a s c h o la rly b o o k th a n o n e in w h ic h th e p o e m s h a v e to b e k e p t clear o f a n n o ta tio n . P e rh a p s th e th o u g h t w a s th a t to e m p h a s iz e th e sc h o la rs h ip m ig h t h a v e s to p p e d sales to so m e p u b lic lib ra rie s.

S o m e o th e r m in o r o b jectio n s to th e tr e a tm e n t o f m a te ria ls . F irst, m a tte r s o f lin e a g e in o n e w a y o r a n o th e r. W h e n th e p o e m d iv id e s a v e rse p a r a g r a p h in th e m id d le o f a line, th e p ra c tic e h e re is to c o u n t e a c h s e p a ra te h a lf as a lin e; th e c o m m o n lite r a ry p ra c tic e is to c o u n t th e tw o h a lf lin e s as all o n e line. F o r e x a m p le , in "T h e Tale o f P sy c h e Is U n ju s tly T o ld ," th is h a p p e n s :

— I th in k it w as like that.

W hat follow s next I tak e for tru th ; b u t w h o can read th e text? (131)

A c c o rd in g to th e lin e n u m b e r s in th e m a r g in , " —I th in k it w a s like th a t" is lin e 29 a n d " W h a t fo llo w s n e x t" is lin e 30, r a th e r th a n b e in g , to g e th e r, lin e 29. T h is m e a n s lin e s w ill b e off in s c h o la rly c ita tio n s a t tim es. T h is o c c u rs in th e sa m e p o e m o n th e n e x t p a g e , ll. 63-64; in "T h e S ilence o f th e N ig h t," p. 134, ll. 57-58, p . 135, ll. 96-97, p . 136, 1333-134; a n d in v a rio u s o th e r p lace s. S o m e tim e s th e te x t d o e s n o t p r o p e r ly in d e n t th e se c o n d h a lf o f s u c h s p lit line: in " O ld K irk,

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L ik e F a th e r T im e H im s e lf" (129), th e p a rtia l lin e " B u t m a r k th is w ell: h is d a r in g re a c h e d " is n o t in d e n te d to fo llo w "T h e w o r d o f d e a th " (ll. 22-23 in th is e d itio n ). (T hese a re tw o p a r ts o f a n ia m b ic h e x a m e te r line.) In "Le Roi S ’A m u se " (349), th e fin a l lin e o f th e fo u r th s ta n z a is a d m itte d ly to o lo n g to b e c o m p le te o n th e p a g e (a lth o u g h th e o c to m e te r fin a l lin e s o f th e o th e r sta n z a s d o fit), b u t th e lin e is d iv id e d b e fo re it n e e d s to b e a n d th e c a rry -o v e r p a r t o f th e lin e is c o u n te d as a n o th e r fu ll line. In " M a rc h fo r D ru m , T ru m p e t, a n d T w e n ty -o n e G ia n ts " (382), th e la s t lin e s o f th e th re e s ta n z a s a re also c a rry -o v e r lin e s (no d o u b t c o p ie d fro m th e o rig in a l p u b lic a tio n ), b u t th e lin e s w o u ld fit as th e e n d o f th e p re v io u s lin e, as th e y sh o u ld . (T h a t th e c a rry -o v e r w a s n o t d o n e d e lib e ra te ly b y L e w is is cle a r fro m th e fa c t th a t th e lin e s are n o t e q u a l m e tric a lly —th e first h a s th r e e m e tric a l fe e t a n d th e o th e r tw o h a v e tw o ; also, th e c a rry -o v e rs d o n o t s ta r t w ith c a p ita l letters.) T h e y also a re c o u n te d as s e p a r a te lin e s in th e n u m b e r in g . In "T h e C o u n tr y o f th e B lin d " (377-378), tw ice tw o sy lla b le s th a t s e e m to b e lo n g to th e p re v io u s lin e a re g iv e n a lin e b y th e m s e lv e s (a n d a re c o u n te d as s e p a ra te lines): in th e first sta n z a , "A lo n g ," a n d in th e fifth s ta n z a , " 'O f c o u rs e .'" T h is re v ie w e r r e a d s th e fo u r-lin e sta n z a s as c o n sistin g tw o lin e s o f six -b e a t lin e s fo llo w e d b y tw o lin e s o f th re e -b e a t lin es, w ith o u t a r e g u la r p a tte r n to u n a c c e n te d a n d a c c e n te d syllables.

A fe w u n r e la te d m e c h a n ic a l p ro b le m s can b e a d d e d . In " Q u a m B ene S a tu rn o " (30) lin e 15 re a d s " B a d e w h o s e th e r e b y c h an ce m ig h t ro a m " : p ro b a b ly " w h o s e " is a m is ta k e (a t so m e p o in t in th e tra n s m is s io n ) fo r " th o se w h o " — w h ic h h e lp s th e m e te r a n d th e sen se. In th e la s t sta n z a o f "T h e C o u n try o f th e B lin d " (378), th e d a s h a t th e e n d o f th e n e x t-to -la s t lin e sh o u ld b e a h y p h e n : " D re a d b u t d e a r as a m o u n t a in — / M ass, s to o d p la in to th e in w a r d e y e." M o u n ta in -m a s s is a c o m p o u n d n o u n . A n o th e r d a s h u s e d w h e n a h y p h e n is m e a n t o c c u rs in " E v o lu tio n a r y H y m n " (384): "V alu e m e a n s s u r v iv a l— / V alu e" (ll. 31-32). S u rv iv a l-v a lu e is th e p o in t. (A lso in th a t s a m e p o e m , in l. 14, " m y " is a m is p r in t fo r " m a y " a n d in l. 36, lo g ic a lly th e p e rio d a n d th e clo sin g p a re n th e s is a re re v e r s e d in o rd e r.) In th e first lin e o f "A fter A ris to tle " (390), " w ill" s h o u ld b e " w ith ." O n p . 392, a p o e m is title d " E x p e re m p m e n t" ; th e O ED d o e s n o t k n o w o f s u c h a w o rd . O n p . 393, in " L o rd s C o e v a l w ith C re a tio n ," o n e o f th e le v e ls o f a n g e lic b e in g s is m is s p e lle d ; th e r e s h o u ld b e a n " n " in P ric e d o m .

F in ally , so m e c o m m e n ts a b o u t m a te ria ls w ith in th e e d ito r 's a re a s of d e c isio n . (1) T h e w o r d " d r u m " is u s e d in "T h e S ilence o f th e N ig h t" (135-36, ll. 107, 119, 134) a n d , o b v io u s ly , "T h e Q u e e n o f D ru m " (268 passim). It w o u ld h a v e b e e n u s e f u l to g iv e th e Ir is h a n d S co ttish d e fin itio n o f " d r u m " fro m th e O ED : "A r id g e o r 'r ig g ,' a lo n g n a r r o w h ill o fte n s e p a r a tin g p a ra lle l v alley s." (L ew is se e m s to u s e it m o r e as a h ill n e x t to a lo w la n d s . P e rh a p s a n U lste r m e a n in g ? ) (2) T h e d e d ic a tio n o f th e se c o n d e d itio n o f D ym er to M a rjo rie M iln e

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is n o t m e n tio n e d ; s u r e ly it s h o u ld h a v e a p p e a r e d in a n e n d n o te . (3) T h e e d ito ria l e x p la n a tio n o f " O ly m p o s " is d is to rte d : " O lym pos is L e w is 's v a ria n t s p e llin g o f O lym p u s" (372n58). R a th e r, O ly m p o s is th e tr a d itio n a l G re e k s p e llin g (in E n g lish le tte rin g ) in s te a d o f th e m o r e c o m m o n ly u s e d R o m a n v a r ia n t sp e llin g . (4) T h e p u b lic a tio n o f " M a rc h fo r S trin g s, K e ttle d ru m s , a n d S ix ty -th re e D w a rfs" in th e " B ib lio g ra p h y o f P o e m S o u rc e s" (470) seem s a b s u r d , b a s e d o n a m is -u s e o f th e w o r d " s ta n z a ." T h e " N a r n ia n S u ite" is not m a d e u p o f tw o " s ta n z a s ," b u t tw o p o e m s . A s ta n z a is a sectio n o f a ly ric (or, so m e tim e s, a n a rra tiv e ) p o e m , b u t n o t o f a co llectio n o f p o e m s . O n e th in k s of th e O ED d e fin itio n o f " s u ite " in th e m u s ic a l sense: "A se t o f in s tru m e n ta l c o m p o s itio n s [...] to b e p la y e d in su c c e ssio n ." So th e " M a rc h fo r [...] S ixty- th re e D w a rfs" s h o u ld h a v e a p p e a r e d a m o n g th e u n d a te d p o e m s . A lso, " M a rc h fo r D ru m , T ru m p e t, a n d T w e n ty -o n e G ia n ts " ties to th e lin e s in The Last Battle in th is p a ssa g e :

E ven T irian 's h e a rt g rew lighter as h e w alk ed ah ead of th em [his com panions], h u m m in g a n o ld N a rn ia n m arc h in g song w h ic h h a d the refrain:

H o, rum ble, rum ble, rum ble, rum ble, R um ble d ru m b elaboured. (The Last Battle 90)

O n e w o u ld th in k th e s e tw o lin e s o f v e rs e w o u ld d e s e rv e a t le a s t q u o ta tio n in a n o te in th is co llectio n o f all o f L e w is 's p o e m s . (L ew is also re fe rs to " th e " d w a rfis h m a r c h in g s o n g in The Last Battle [78], b u t h e d o e s n o t q u o te fr o m it, so it is n o t of th e s a m e im p o rta n c e .)

(5) P re s u m a b ly K in g d o e s n o t r e p r in t L e w is 's tr a n s la tio n s o f e x c e rp ts o f Je a n d e M e u n 's p a r t o f th e Roman de la Rose in to M id d le E n g lish in The

A llegory o f Love (147-153) o n th e sa m e g r o u n d s th a t h e d id n o t r e p r in t L e w is 's

tr a n s la tio n o f p a r ts o f th e A en eid in to M o d e r n E n g lis h —it w a s n o t o rig in a l p o e try . B u t p ro b a b ly it s h o u ld h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d . (6) The Great Divorce h a s tw o so n g s r e n d e r e d in p ro s e , th e firs t s u n g b y " N a tu r e o f A rc h -n a tu re o f [the] la n d ," b e g in n in g "T h e M a s te r say s to o u r m a s te r, C o m e u p " (94-95); a n d th e se c o n d s u n g b y B rig h t S p irits, b e g in n in g "T h e H a p p y T rin ity is h e r h o m e " (109-110). W h e th e r o r n o t th e y s h o u ld h a v e b e e n co llected as p ro s e p o e m s b y L e w is is o p e n fo r d is c u ssio n , b u t s u r e ly th e p o in t s h o u ld h a v e b e e n a c k n o w le d g e d .

O th e r q u ib b le s o f o n e s o r t o r a n o th e r c o u ld b e a d d e d a b o u t w h a t a p p e a r s in th e e n d n o te s to v a rio u s p o e m s a n d to L e w is 's " I n tro d u c to ry L e tt e r " —fo r e x a m p le , th e re fe re n c e to " g a th e r in g s a m p h ire " in th e la tte r (457, cf. 458n17) se e m s to b e a n a llu sio n to E d g a r 's d e s c rip tio n to G lo u c e ste r o f o n e w h o " g a th e rs s a m p h ire " h a lf -w a y d o w n th e cliff a t D o v e r — " d r e a d f u l tra d e !"

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In K in g 's " In tro d u c tio n : W h y L e w is 's P o e tr y M a tte rs ," h e w rite s, "So, yes, I d o th in k L e w is 's p o e tr y m a tte r s , b o th fo r b io g ra p h ic a l a n d lite ra ry re a s o n s " (2). T h is re v ie w e r h a s n o o b jectio n to th is s ta te m e n t, b u t a n a tte n tiv e r e a d in g o f th e fo llo w in g se v e ra l s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e sig n ific a n c e o f L e w is 's p o e tr y fin d s th a t th e y all re s o lv e th e m s e lv e s in to s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e p o e m s ' c o n te n ts o r a b o u t th e ir b io g r a p h ic a l im p o rta n c e fo r a p o e tic c h a ra c te r of L e w is 's la te r p ro s e (th e la tte r m a y b e th e " lite r a r y re a s o n s " ). O n e s h o u ld n o t b e s u r p r is e d b y th is. I t is d iffic u lt to m a k e a case fo r p o e tr y 's lite r a ry im p o rta n c e

per se w h e n o n e c a n n o t p o in t to th e ir lite r a ry in flu e n c e o n la te r im ita to rs (o r a t

le a s t te s tim o n ia ls fro m m a jo r critics a b o u t th e ir g r e a t a rtistry ) o r w h e n o n e d o e s n o t h a v e th e sp a c e to d o N e w C ritic a l re a d in g s . K in g d o e s w h a t h e can a b o u t th e p o e m s ' im p o rta n c e , b u t b a sic a lly th is co llectio n o f th e p o e m s is b e g in n in g p o in t o f f u r th e r s tu d ie s. H is p re v io u s b o o k o n L e w is 's p o e m s , v a lu a b le as it is, w a s to o m u c h u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f L e w is 's p ro s e as th e real success.

D e s p ite all th e q u ib b le s, a n d d e s p ite th e n e e d fo r a n errata, th is p u b lic a tio n is, in th e m a in , v e ry su c c e ssfu l a n d e x tre m e ly v a lu a b le . T h e C ritical E d itio n o f L e w is 's p o e tr y is c e rta in ly ju s tifie d . If o n e ig n o re s th e n o n c e -v e rs e s fr o m le tte rs, e x c e lle n t p o e m s a p p e a r h e re . In th e lo n g ru n , th o s e p o e m s s ta rtin g in th e 1940s w ith th e ir e x p e rim e n ts in sta n z a s, th e ir h a n d lin g o f lo n g lin es, a n d th e ir s ta rtlin g u s e o f e n ja m b m e n t w ill p ro v id e a m o d e l fo r o th e r F o rm a lists. L e w is 's e p ig ra m s , in th e ir tid y stru c tu re s , s u g g e s t th e sk ill o f Ben J o n s o n (n o t th a t L e w is w o u ld h a v e a p p re c ia te d th e c o m p a riso n ). L e w is also w rite s, a t tim es, w h a t can o n ly c a lle d lig h t v e rs e w ith s e rio u s o v e rto n e s. A ll o f th e s e a re n o w co llected in te x ts as g o o d as p o ss ib le a t p r e s e n t—p e r h a p s as g o o d as p o ss ib le sim pliciter— sh o r t o f a v a r io r u m e d itio n . T h is is a m a jo r c o n trib u tio n to L e w is s tu d ie s.

—Joe R. C h ris to p h e r

Wo r k s Ci t e d

Hooper, Walter, ed. Narrative Poems. By C.S. Lewis. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1969. —, ed. Poems. By C.S. Lewis. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1964.

King, Don W. C.S. Lewis, Poet: The Legacy of his Poetic Impulse. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State U niversity Press, 2001.

Lewis, C.S. The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition. Oxford: C larendon Press, 1936.

—. C. S. Lewis's Lost Aeneid: Arms and the Exile. Ed. A. T. Reyes. New Haven: Yale U niversity Press, 2011.

—. The Great Divorce: A Dream. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1946.

— . The Last Battle: A Story for Children. London: The Bodley H ead, 1956.

Lindskoog, Kathryn. Sleuthing C.S. Lewis: More Light in the Shadowlands. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 2001.

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Tr e e o f Sa l v a t i o n: Yg g d r a s i l a n d t h e Cr o s s i n t h e No r t h. g. R o n a ld M u r p h y , S.J. O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re ss, 2013. 256 p p . $35.00. ISBN 978-0199948611. M u r p h y 's t e x t i s a l o n g - t e r m w o r k , n e a r l y t w e n t y y e a r s in th e m a k in g , w h ic h h a s b e e n e n c o u ra g e d b y th e in te re s t o f th e M y th o p o e ic S o c ie ty 's m e m b e rs . (It w o n th e M y th o p o e ic A w a r d fo r M y th a n d F a n ta s y S tu d ie s in 2014; a n e x c e rp t w a s p r e s e n te d as M u r p h y 's G u e s t o f H o n o r sp e e c h a t M y th c o n 43 in 2012 a n d p u b lis h e d in M ythlore 119/120, F a ll/W in te r 2012.) It m a y s e e m fa m ilia r to so m e w h o a re re a d in g th is re v ie w : so m e m a y h a v e c o rr e s p o n d e d w ith its a u th o r, in th e w a k e o f h is in itia l m o m e n t o f re a liz a tio n . S u ch m o m e n ts —th o s e w h e n a p ie c e o f k n o w le d g e " c o m e s h o m e ," g iv in g th e im p re s s io n th a t o n e h a s a lw a y s k n o w n a n d u n d e r s to o d th e m a tte r a t h a n d — a re th e p rim e m o v e r in M u r p h y 's re fle c tio n o n th e C h ris tia n iz in g of S c a n d in a v ia . T h e y a re c o m p e llin g m o m e n ts , in w h ic h c o n n e c tio n s a n d re fle c tio n s b e c o m e a p p a re n t, in w h ic h n e w p ie c e s o f a se m io tic p u z z le fall in to p lace . T h e y a re also m o m e n ts of w h ic h w e s h o u ld b e w a ry : in th e ir th ra ll, w e see re fle c tio n s w h ic h m a y n o t b e th e re , sk e w w h a t w e see to m a k e c o n n e c tio n s th a t a re n o t s o u n d . M u r p h y 's sc h o la rs h ip is su p e rb , b u t a t tim e s h is e n th u s ia s m s e e m s to o v e rta k e h im . N o n e th e le ss, Yggdrasil is s u c h a la b o r of love, so r a r e in its h o listic a n d p o e tic a p p ro a c h to h is to ry , a n d a t its b e s t so in s ig h tfu l in to th e p ro c e s s b y w h ic h th e C ro ss cam e to th e N o rth th a t to q u ib b le to o m u c h se e m s c h u rlish .

In M u r p h y 's v ie w th e p ro c e s s o f C h ris tia n iz in g S c a n d in a v ia re s te d o n th is id e a o f " c o m in g h o m e " (2 )—le ttin g th e h e a th e n m in d ta k e n o te a n d b u ild u p o n th e sy m b o lic a n d n a rra tiv e c o rr e s p o n d e n c e s b e tw e e n th e n a tiv e fa ith a n d C h ris tia n ity . H is a n a ly s is re s ts o n th r e e " c u ltu r a l m o n u m e n ts " (4 )—th e a rc h ite c tu re o f th e S c a n d in a v ia n c h u rc h e s, th e Dream o f the Rood a n d th e r u n e s o f th e fu ^ a r k , a n d th e sig n ifican ce o f th e e v e rg re e n tre e in Y u le tid e c ele b ratio n . H is ch ief so u rc e s in in te rp re tin g th e m are th e P o e tic E d d a a n d th e E ld e r E d d a . L o o m in g la rg e o v e r h is in te rp re ta tio n s a n d b in d in g th e m to g e th e r is th e im a g e o f Y g g d ra sil as p ro te c to r a t th e w o r ld 's e n d , th e re fu g e in w h ic h L if a n d L ifth ra s ir h id e in th e g r e a t tree, o n ly to e m e r g e as th e first m a n a n d w o m a n in th e n e w w o rld a fte r R a g n a ro k . M u r p h y n o te s th e in s ta n c e s in w h ic h C h ris tia n a rtis ts h a v e d e p ic te d th e C ro ss as a —o r t h e —T re e o f Life, a n d a rg u e s th a t a m e ta p h o ric a l m e r g in g to o k p la c e b e tw e e n C h ris t a n d W o d e n . W o d e n h u n g o n th e T ree, n e a r d e a th , to d is c o v e r k n o w le d g e ; C h ris t h u n g o n th e C ro ss in a c c e p ta n c e o f h is life in th e w o rld , a n d th u s h is d e a th .

W ith th is in m in d , M u r p h y b e g in s h is a n a ly s is o f th e firs t " c u ltu r a l m o n u m e n t," to w it th e e a rlie s t S c a n d in a v ia n c h u rc h e s. T h e se s tru c tu r e s re d e fin e th e fa m ilia r C h u rc h a rc h ite c tu re fro m e ls e w h e r e in E u ro p e , a n d th e ir

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tr a n s fo r m a tio n is b o u n d u p w ith th e re in te r p re ta tio n o f th e G o sp e l in to a N o r th e r n epic. T h e w o o d e n sta v e c h u rc h e s o f S w e d e n , fo r in s ta n c e , e a c h serv e as a C h ris tia n Y g g d ra sil, " th e h o ly w o o d e n p la c e o f p ro te c tio n a t th e d o o m s d a y " (29), w ith th e ir c o n g re g a tio n s sh e lte rin g w ith in th e m as L if a n d L ifth ra s ir w o u ld . In s u p p o r t o f h is a sse rtio n , M u r p h y d e c o n s tru c ts th e sh a p e s, p o rta ls a n d in te rio rs, in s p e c tin g th e a llu sio n s w ith in th e fo rm a n d d e c o ra tio n o f th e c h u rc h e s th e m se lv e s. T h e b a sis fo r h is d o in g so, h e claim s, is th a t g e n e ra l sc h o la rs h ip o n th e sta v e c h u rc h e s h a s b e e n p re o c c u p ie d w ith th e fa c t o f th e ir e n d u ra n c e : th e m e a n in g o f th e m h a s b e e n n e g le c te d .

M u r p h y a d d re s s e s th is w ith h is id e a o f a rc h ite c tu re as m y th o p o e ic tex t, d e c o n s tru c te d th r o u g h a ra n g e o f co n tex ts. F o r e x a m p le , h e cites P o p e G re g o ry 's d ire c tio n to A u g u s tin e th a t th e p a g a n te m p le s o f th e N o rth s h o u ld b e c o n v e rte d in to c h u rc h e s (32), a lo n g s id e th e v e ry m a te ria lity o f th e s tru c tu re , th e sy m b o lic sig n ific a n c e o f th e w o o d fro m w h ic h it 's b u ilt (35) a n d th e se m io tic s o f th e p o rta l d e c o ra tio n s , w ith th e ir n a rr a tiv e s o f R a g n a ro k w h ic h g u id e th e fa ith fu l in to th e c o rre c t p la c e s o r d a in e d b y C h ris tia n r itu a l (41).

T h e c h a p te r m o v e s o n to s u r v e y o th e r cro sse s a n d c h u rc h e s fro m acro ss N o r th e r n E u ro p e , in c lu d in g B o rn h o lm 's r o u n d c h u rc h a n d th e V ik in g cro sses a t M id d le to n . T h e y are a s s e s s e d in sim ila r d e ta il a n d w ith th e sa m e e m p h a s is o n N o r th e r n d e p ic tio n s o f C h ris tia n n a rr a tiv e s . In all d e p ic tio n s , C h r is t's tre e is d e p ic te d as a n Y g g d ra sil th a t can re s c u e th o s e w h o s e c o rp se s h a v e b e e n d e v o u r e d b y th e N id h o g g (55).

In h is se c o n d c h a p te r, M u r p h y fo cu ses o n th e o ld e s t p o e m in th e E n g lish la n g u a g e , The D ream o f the Rood, in w h ic h th e C ro ss a p p e a rs as a tre e th a t is aliv e a n d a w a re a n d re a c tin g to th e C ru cifix io n . H is r e a d i n g b u ild s o n A d e lh e id T h ie m e 's o b s e rv a tio n th a t th e D re a m p re s e n ts C h ris tia n fa ith as a

"secular A n g lo -S a x o n e x p e rie n c e " (127, e m p h a s is in o rig in al); M u r p h y claim s

th e p o e m 's im a g e s a re in fa c t d e riv e d fro m p re - C h r is tia n re lig io u s ex p e rie n c e s. H e b e g in s w ith th e R u th w e ll cross, e x a m in in g th e r u n ic D re a m o f th e R o o d a p p e a r in g o n it. T h e d e c o n s tru c tio n is b a s e d o n th e s h a p e o f th e R u th w e ll cross, th e p o s itio n o f th e r u n e s fo r m in g th e p o e m , th e s u r r o u n d in g im a g e ry a n d th e illu s tra tio n : o n e c irc u it a r o u n d th e cro ss fo rm s th e c o m p le te n a rr a tiv e . H is w o rk o n th e n a r r a tiv e in tro d u c e s h is p e rs p e c tiv e o n th e ru n e s th e m se lv e s. D e riv e d as th e y are fro m W o d e n 's o rd e a l o n th e T re e o f Life, th e g ift o f r u n ic la n g u a g e d e m a n d s a g ift in re tu rn , th a t o f th e p o e m . T h e ru n e s g iv e th e p o w e r o f sp e e c h to t h a t o n w h ic h th e y a re w ritte n o r c a rv e d , m a k in g la n g u a g e o u t o f in a n im a te m a te ria l, fro m w h ic h M u r p h y d e riv e s a n e le g a n t sy m b o lic circle. In th e L a tin h y m n s , th e c ro ss is s u n g to, b u t in The D ream o f the

Rood, th e cross sin g s (131) in re c o g n itio n o f C h r is t's p a s s in g fro m th e w o rld . In

sh o rt: W o d e n 's g ift o f la n g u a g e e m p o w e rs th e cro ss to s in g th e p ra is e s of C h rist.

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F o l l o w i n g s i m i l a r c o v e r a g e o f t h e o t h e r t w o e x t a n t v e r s i o n s o f t h e p o e m , M u r p h y c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e r u n e s t h e m s e l v e s . T h is , w h i l e i m p r e s s i v e , i s t h e f i r s t h i n t o f t h e e n t h u s i a s t 's p a s s i o n o v e r t a k i n g t h e s c h o l a r 's c l i n i c a l a n d c r i t ic a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y : a c c u s t o m e d n o w t o s e e k i n g r e f e r e n c e s a n d a l l u s i o n s t o t h e G o s p e l i n t h e m a t e r i a l h e e x a m i n e s , M u r p h y b e g i n s t o f r e e w h e e l , r e a r r a n g i n g a n d r e i n t e r p r e t i n g m a t e r i a l i n a m a n n e r w h i c h s u p p o r t s t h o s e a l l u s i o n s . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f r u n e s i n t h e e l d e r f u ^ a r k h a s , M u r p h y a r g u e s , " b e e n i m p e d e d [ . . . ] b y a n a p p e a l t o a n u n n e c e s s a r i l y r e s t r i c t e d , l i t e r a l a n d n o n m y t h o l o g i c a l n o t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s m a g i c " ( 1 5 4 ), w h i c h s e r v e s t o j u s t i f y h i s m o r e l i b e r a l a n d l i b e r a t e d a t t i t u d e . H i s k e y a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e o r d e r o f l e t t e r s i n t h e e l d e r f u ^ a r k is a c o d e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e . I t i s i n s p i r e d i n p a r t b y t h e w o r k o f S k e a t , w h o c l a i m s t h a t t h e f u ^ a r k i s a n a c r o n y m f o r t h e P a t e r n o s t e r , b e g i n n i n g F a t h e r U r e T h o u A n H e a f o n . M u r p h y r i g h t l y n o t e s t h a t t h i s f a l l s a p a r t u n d e r c lo s e r e a d i n g o f t h e v e r y f i r s t l i n e a l o n e , a n d t h a t " S k e a t h a d t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e w h o l e p r a y e r t o g e t i t s i n i t i a l S a x o n l e t t e r s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e r u n e s e q u e n c e i n t h e f u p o r k [ s ic ] " (1 5 8 ). H o w e v e r , M u r p h y d o e s t h e s a m e t h i n g t o t h e f u p a r k i t s e l f , w i t h a ll t h e c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i s t . H e s t a r t s f r o m t h e i d e a t h a t " t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e s i g n i f i c a n c e b e h i n d t h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m s i m p l y f o l l o w i n g t h e G r e c o - R o m a n a l p h a b e t i c o r d e r o f t h e l e t t e r s [ . . . ] . I s i t p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y r e s t r u c t u r e d G e r m a n i c s e q u e n c e d o e s s p e l l o u t s o m e t h i n g i n t h e r u n e - r o w o f t h e f u p a r k ? " (1 5 6 ), a n d h a v i n g p o s e d t h i s q u e s t i o n p o s i t s a " p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n " ( i b i d . ) - w e l l a n d g o o d . H a v i n g s e t o u t o n t h i s c o u r s e , h e c l a i m s (1 6 1 ) t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a e t t s a r e a r r a n g e d a s t h e y a r e f o r c r y p t o g r a p h i c e a s e o n l y ; h e t h e r e f o r e p r e s u p p o s e s a n o t h e r o r d e r i n g p r e - d a t i n g t h e a e t t s a n d d e c i d e s t h a t t h e a e t t s a r e a r e d h e r r i n g , c o n c e a l i n g a h i d d e n m e s s a g e . H o w e v e r w e l l c i t e d t h e a r g u m e n t , a n d a t t h i s s t a g e M u r p h y i s n o t w i t h o u t h i s f o o t n o t e d f e l l o w t r a v e l e r s , i t b e g i n s a s t r i n g o f s m a l l l e a p s o f f a i t h a n d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e l a r g e r a n d l a r g e r , s p u r r e d o n b y a m i n d s e t a n d a d i s c o u r s e w h i c h a r e s a t u r a t e d w i t h t h e s e a r c h f o r c o n n e c t i o n s . S u c h f r a m e s o f m i n d a r e f a m i l i a r t o r e a d e r s , t o s c h o l a r s , o r - g i v e n t h e s u b j e c t - t o t h o s e w h o p r a c t i c e d i v i n a t i o n . O n c e o n e h a s l i t u p o n a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o r a c o n n e c t i o n , t h e u r g e is t o t a k e i t f u r t h e r , t o i d e n t i f y a ll p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e s i n a s e r i e s o f t h o u g h t s a l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : " i f w e i n t e r p r e t t h i s t h u s , t h e n i t s u p p o r t s t h a t a n d i m p l i e s t h e o t h e r . " T h e t e m p t a t i o n i s t o f i n d t h e p e r f e c t f it, t h e e x a c t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e t w i s t s a n d t u r n s o n e h a s t o t a k e a l o n g t h e w a y , a n d m i d w a y t h r o u g h h i s a r g u m e n t M u r p h y b e g i n s t o d e p l o y t h e e x a c t q u a l i f i e r s - " i f t h i s d e c i p h e r m e n t is

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a c c u r a t e " ( 1 6 4 ) — w h i c h s i g n i f y t h a t o n e h a s g i v e n i n t o t h a t t e m p t a t i o n . S p e c u l a t i o n is b u i l t n o t o n s o l i d c o n c l u s i o n b u t o n f u r t h e r s p e c u l a t i o n . I n M u r p h y 's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f u p a r k , t h e U i s p u t i n , b a s i c a l l y , b e c a u s e i t h a s t o g o s o m e w h e r e i f t h e f u p a r k i s t o f u n c t i o n a s a n a l p h a b e t , a n d b e c a u s e a v o w e l h a s t o a p p e a r t h e r e f o r e u p h o n y 's s a k e (1 6 3 ). T h e p o e t i c r e s o n a n c e o f t h e f u p a r k d e p i c t i n g i t s o w n l e t t e r s a s " s t i c k s t h a t s p e a k " (1 6 5 ) is c o m p e l l i n g , b u t i t i s b a s e d o n t o o m a n y i n s t a n c e s o f s u p p l y i n g m i s s i n g l e t t e r s a n d r e - i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o t h e r s . M u r p h y 's c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e f u ^ a r k h a s a d o u b l e m e a n i n g , i f p a r t s o f i t a r e o v e r w r i t t e n i n G r e e k t o p r o d u c e a C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e , a n d t h a t t h i s o v e r w r i t i n g i s d o n e o n t o a n e a r l i e r c o d e d m e n t i o n o f C h r i s t b y a " f u p a r k p o e t " w h o f o r e s a w t h a t t h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e w o u l d o n e d a y f a l l o u t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g (1 7 0 ). I t is e x c i t i n g , b u t f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d p e r h a p s f a r - f e t c h e d . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f O c c a m 's R a z o r t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s M u r p h y d e s c r i b e s m i g h t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f u p a r k w a s r e - c o n t e x t u a l i z e d d u r i n g t h e e v a n g e l i c a l p r o c e s s i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s N o r d i c m y t h s w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o C h r i s t i a n a r t a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h i s s e e m s m o r e s t a b l e t h a n t h e r e a d i n g b a s e d o n p r e s u p p o s e d a u t h o r s h i p , c r y p t o g r a p h i c r e - a r r a n g i n g s a n d s u b s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h a r e a l i t t le t o o r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e v e r y S k e a t w h o M u r p h y e n d s u p p a r t i a l l y r e d e e m i n g a s " i n a s e n s e p r e s c i e n t " (1 8 7 ). I n h i s t h i r d a n d l a s t c h a p t e r , M u r p h y t u r n s t o t h e e v e r g r e e n s o f C h r i s t m a s , c h a r t i n g a m i d d l e w a y b e t w e e n t h e i n s i s t e n c e s t h a t t h e C h r i s t m a s t r e e is a p a g a n i d o l w i t h n o p l a c e i n a C h r i s t i a n h o u s e h o l d , a n d t h a t i t i s a p u r e l y C h r i s t i a n i n v e n t i o n w i t h n a r y a t r a c e o f t h e p a g a n i n it. H e a p p r o a c h e s t h e t r e e i n d i r e c t l y , v i a t h e p a g a n f e s t i v a l o f Y u l e a n d t h e c u s t o m a r y w r e a t h s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it. M u r p h y i d e n t i f i e s t h e s e a s a s o l a r w h e e l , c e l e b r a t i n g t h e r e t u r n o f t h e s u n a n d s h a r e d a t t h e d a r k e s t p e r i o d o f t h e y e a r , a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e n a t i v i t y o f C h r i s t , t h e " N e w Y e a r t h a t w i l l n e v e r e n d " (1 9 8 ). H e a s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r m e a n i n g t o t h e C h r i s t m a s t r e e , b u t a l s o i d e n t i f i e s i t a s a n o t h e r f o r m o f Y g g d r a s i l , p r o t e c t i n g L if e a n d L if e - G i v e r t h r o u g h t h e l o n g e s t w i n t e r , w i t h t h e d u a l s y m b o l i s m j u s t i f i e d t h r o u g h t h e r e m i n d e r t h a t P o p e G r e g o r y t h e G r e a t c o m m a n d e d t h a t p a g a n t e m p l e s , f e a s t s a n d f e a s t i n g b e r e t a i n e d a n d r e p u r p o s e d w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e ( 2 0 6 ). T h e e v e r g r e e n t r e e i s t h e r e f o r e , t h r o u g h s y m b o l i s m a n d t h r o u g h t h e s t o r i e s M u r p h y c o n c l u d e s b y a n a l y z i n g , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " t h o s e C h r i s t i a n s w h o w e r e i n c u l t u r a t i n g t h e i r f a i t h , a d a p t i n g t o t h e l o c a l G e r m a n i c r e l i g i o u s c u s t o m s a n d i c o n o g r a p h y , t r e a t i n g t h e e v e r g r e e n a s p r o p h e t i c , a n d b u i l d i n g s t a v e a n d r o u n d c h u r c h e s " (2 0 7 -8 ). T h e p r o c e s s i s a l m o s t t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d n o w : t h e i d e a t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y c a m e t o t h e G e r m a n i c a n d N o r d i c l a n d s b y c a r e f u l d e g r e e s ,

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in c o r p o ra tin g w h a t it c o u ld a n d a b o lis h in g w h a t it c o u ld n o t, is a m a tte r of re c o rd . W h a t M u r p h y a c h ie v e s is a s tu d io u s , in s ig h tfu l a n d e r u d ite d e s c rip tio n o f h o w th is m ig h t h a v e b e e n d o n e . O n ra r e o ccasio n s h is th in k in g c o m es acro ss as w ish fu l, b u t h is e n g a g e m e n t w ith th e a rte fa c ts a n d a rc h ite c tu re o f th e N o r th e r n la n d s is d e e p a n d th o ro u g h , a n d h is c o n c lu s io n s in re la tio n to th e m y th o p o e ic re s o n a n c e a n d p u r p o s e o f c o n c re te objects a re h ig h ly c o n v in cin g . A s s a id a t th e b e g in n in g , Tree o f Salvation is a la b o r o f love: a lo v e w h ic h is p a lp a b le a n d a p p a r e n t th r o u g h o u t its p a g e s.

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An g l o-Sa x o n Co m m u n i t y i n J.R.R. To l k i e n's Th e Lo r d o f t h e

RING S. D e b o ra h A. H ig g in s . O lo ris P re ss, 2014. 198 p p . 9781940992037. $14.99

(so ftco v er).

T h is is a p h y s ic a lly b e a u tif u l v o lu m e w ith co v er a r t b y T ed N a s m ith a n d co lo r illu s tra tio n s b y D a n ie lle S to rey . T h e in te rio r illu s tra tio n s a re d o n e in th e sty le o f m e d ie v a l illu m in a tio n s b u t recall sc e n e s fr o m T o lk ie n 's fiction. E ach c h a p te r b e g in s w ith a la rg e r illu s tra tio n re le v a n t to th e c h a p te r 's to p ic; in a d d itio n , h is to ria te d in itia ls o p e n c h a p te rs a n d sm a lle r d e s ig n m o tifs close th e m , a n d th e a r t o fte n in c lu d e s th e in te rla c e p a tte r n s ty p ic a l o f A n g lo -S a x o n art. T h e se illu s tra tio n s a re n o t o n ly lo v e ly to lo o k at, b u t e n c a p s u la te th e a u th o r 's m a in a rg u m e n t: th a t T o lk ie n b o th in h a b ite d a n d r e p r o d u c e d A n g lo - S ax o n c o m m u n ity th r o u g h h is fiction.

T h e b o o k in c lu d e s a fo r w a rd w ritte n b y C o lin D u rie z , a w rite r fo c u s e d o n th e In k lin g s. T h e firs t c h a p te r se rv e s as a n in tro d u c tio n th a t p re s e n ts th e th e sis, th e id e a o f T o lk ie n 's sp e c ia l re la tio n s h ip w ith A n g lo -S ax o n c o m m u n ity , a n d la y s o u t th e p la n o f th e b o o k . C h a p te r Tw o, " O n F a iry -S to rie s a n d M o n s te rs ," fo c u se s o n tw o s e m in a l e ss a y s o f T o lk ie n 's : " O n F a iry -sto rie s ," w h ic h g iv es a th e o re tic a l u n d e r p i n n in g to h is c o n c e p t o f th e fa iry -s to ry , a n d

"Beowulf. T h e M o n s te rs a n d th e C ritic s," h is g ro u n d - c h a n g in g e s s a y o n Beowulf. H ig g in s s u m m a riz e s e a c h e ss a y in d e ta il, q u o tin g lib e ra lly fro m b o th .

In p a rtic u la r, sh e e m p h a s iz e s T o lk ie n 's c o n c e p t o f th e " C a u ld r o n o f S to ry " to d is c u s s b o th h is v ie w o f h o w a n c ie n t fa iry -s to rie s (su c h as Beowulf) w e re c o n s tru c te d a n d h is o w n te c h n iq u e . W h ile h e r p o in t h e re is clear, a t tim e s sh e q u o te s ex cessiv ely , o r r e p e a ts th e sa m e q u o te s in d iffe re n t co n te x ts fo r e m p h a s is , le a v in g th e r e a d e r s o m e tim e s w is h in g fo r m o r e o f h e r o w n w o rk in

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ty in g th in g s to g e th e r. S he also fo cu ses o n th e " N o r th e r n th e o r y o f c o u ra g e " b o th as d is c u s s e d b y T o lk ie n (in th e c o n te x t o f Beowulf) a n d as e x e m p lifie d in h is o w n w o rk , te m p e r e d b y h is C h ris tia n v ie w p o in t a n d h is n o tio n of e u c a ta s tro p h e . T h is c h a p te r la rg e ly serv es to la y th e g r o u n d w o r k fo r th e m a in t h r u s t o f h e r w o rk .

C h a p te r T h re e , " T o lk ie n E n te rs th e A n g lo -S a x o n C o m m u n ity T h ro u g h th e M e a d -H a ll B u ild in g ," fo cu ses o n T o lk ie n 's e n tr y p o in ts to th e A n g lo -S a x o n c o m m u n ity , p r im a r ily la n g u a g e a n d s e c o n d a rily th e m e a d h all. H ig g in s d is c u sse s th e p h y s ic a l s tru c tu r e o f th e a n c ie n t m e a d h a ll as w e ll as its fu n c tio n in A n g lo -S a x o n (o r m o r e b ro a d ly , G e rm a n ic ) society. G iv e n its fo cu s o n th e p h y s ic a l s tru c tu r e o f th e m e a d h a ll, th is se c tio n w o u ld b e n e fit fro m a d ia g r a m o r m o r e d e ta ile d illu s tra tio n . She fo c u se s o n th e R o h irr im as T o lk ie n 's a p p ro x im a tio n o f A n g lo -S a x o n c u ltu re , a n id e a sh e e x p a n d s o n in C h a p te r F o u r: "T h e R ole o f th e L o rd , C o m ita tu s, a n d G ift-G iv in g w ith in th e M e a d H a ll." S o m e o f th is is a b it re p e titiv e , a n d m u c h o f h e r in itia l d is c u s s io n in th is c h a p te r is h a r d l y n e w te rrito ry , b u t h e r d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f th e fe a s t m o tif (d r a w in g h e a v ily o n M a g e n n is 's Image o f C om m unity in O ld English Poetry) is h e lp f u l o n ce a p p lie d to The Lord o f the R ings, a n d e sp e c ia lly as sh e m o v e s a w a y fr o m R o h a n to lo o k a t h o w T o lk ie n a d ju s te d th e fe a st m o tif to th e e lv e n a n d h o b b it c u ltu re s. H e r fin al c h a p te r, " L a d y w ith a M e a d C u p : T h e L a d y a n d H er R ole as C u p -b e a re r, A m b a s s a d o r, W ife, a n d W a rrio r," m o v e s o n to fo cu s p a rtic u la rly o n G a la d rie l a n d E o w y n . T h e d is c u s s io n o f A n g lo -S a x o n e x a m p le s is q u ite th o r o u g h a n d th e a p p lic a tio n to T o lk ie n 's fic tio n in te re s tin g . T h e d is c u s s io n o f G a la d rie l is h e lp fu l as fa r as it g o es, b u t in e m p h a s iz in g th e w a y s in w h ic h G a la d rie l e x e m p lifie s a sp e c ts o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n la d y (a n d I a g re e th a t sh e does), H ig g in s a t tim e s d o e s n o t g o fa r e n o u g h in u n d e r lin in g th e w a y s in w h ic h G a la d rie l g o e s b e y o n d th e m , p a rtic u la rly in h o w sh e e m b o d ie s h e r o w n a u th o r ity th a t d o e s n o t d e riv e fro m C e le b o rn . T h e d is c u s s io n o f E o w y n d r a w s so m e in te re s tin g p a ra lle ls w ith G a la d rie l as w e ll as th e A n g lo - S ax o n m o d e ls; o f p a r tic u la r in te re s t is th e c u p -b e a r in g ritu a l a t th e d e p a r tu r e of A ra g o rn a n d c o m p a n y , w h ic h H ig g in s n o te s s h a re s so m e fe a tu re s w ith th e b e tr o th a l o a th d e s c rib e d b y E n rig h t (Lady w ith a M ead Cup), th o u g h it c o u ld also b e u n d e r s to o d as a v e rs io n o f th e m o re u s u a l c u p -b e a r in g ritu a l in w h ic h E o w y n o c c u p ie s th e ro le s o f b o th lo r d ( s ta n d in g in fo r T h e o d e n ) a n d la d y (b e a rin g th e cup).

A w o r d s h o u ld b e s a id a b o u t H ig g in s 's u s e o f o u ts id e sc h o la rsh ip . W h ile c le a rly n o t w r itin g for a n a c a d e m ic re a d e r s h ip , sc h o la rly s u p p o r t is o fte n p re s e n t, p a rtic u la rly w h e n sh e is d is c u s s in g th e A n g lo -S a x o n e le m e n ts , a n d sh e f r e q u e n tly p ro v id e s fo o tn o te s (c o n v e n ie n tly lo c a te d a t th e b o tto m o f e a c h p a g e r a th e r th a n a t th e e n d o f th e c h a p te r o r v o lu m e ) to p r o v id e o p p o r tu n itie s fo r fo llo w in g u p o r e x p lo r in g fu rth e r. H o w e v e r, a t o th e r tim es,

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p a rtic u la rly w h e n sh e is d is c u s s in g T o lk ie n 's w o rk ra th e r th a n th e o ld e r m a te ria l, little sc h o la rly s u p p o r t o r o p p o r tu n itie s fo r f o llo w -u p a re p ro v id e d ; o fte n tim e s th e s e a re a re a s w h e re m u c h w o rk h a s a lr e a d y b e e n d o n e , b u t it is n o t h e re a c k n o w le d g e d . S he q u o te s in O ld E n g lish a n d p ro v id e s tra n s la tio n s , w h ic h w o rk s w ell; sh e also q u o te s in M id d le E n g lish w ith o u t p r o v id in g tra n s la tio n , w h ic h w o rk s less w ell g iv e n h e r lik e ly a u d ie n c e . F a c tu a l e rro rs a n d e d itin g m is ta k e s a re fe w a n d fa r b e tw e e n (th o u g h G a n d a lf's w e a r in g o f N a ry a is in fact re v e a le d in th e fin al c h a p te r o f The Lord o f the R ings, n o t o n ly The

Silmarillion as s ta te d [93] a n d F ro d o is n o t, stric tly s p e a k in g , B ilb o 's s iste r-so n

as c la im e d [97n.44]).

T h is is a b o o k I w o u ld r e c o m m e n d to s tu d e n ts lo o k in g to e x p lo re m o r e fu lly h o w T o lk ie n 's k n o w le d g e o f O ld E n g lish lite r a tu re a n d c u ltu re in fo rm s h is fiction. W h ile so m e o f th is is w e ll- tro d d e n g ro u n d , th e fin a l tw o c h a p te rs, p a rtic u la rly th e d e ta ile d e x p lo ra tio n s o f h o w A n g lo -S ax o n fe a st ritu a ls a re a d a p te d to c u ltu re s o f M id d le -e a rth a n d h o w th e la d y a n d c u p b e a r in g ritu a l a ss o c ia te d w ith h e r a re s im ila rly a d a p te d , a re q u ite in te re s tin g . I a m n o t s u re th e c e n tra l conceit, th a t T o lk ie n d id n o t s im p ly e x p lo re a n d a p p ly th e n o tio n o f A n g lo -S a x o n c o m m u n ity , b u t a c tu a lly p a rtic ip a te d in it, is p a rtic u la rly h e lp fu l, b u t th e id e a o f th e im p o rta n c e o f A n g lo -S a x o n c o m m u n ity to T o lk ie n 's fictio n is c e rta in ly v alid . T h is b e a u tifu l v o lu m e is w ell w o rth th e lo w cost a n d w o u ld m a k e a n e x c e lle n t a d d itio n to th e lib ra ry o f a n y T o lk ie n re a d e r , p a rtic u la rly o n e in te re s te d in th e so u rc e s o f T o lk ie n 's fiction.

—Y v ette K iso r

Su r p r i s e d b y t h e Fe m i n i n e: A Re r e a d i n g o f C .S . Le w i s a n d

G ENDER. M o n ik a B. H ild e r. P re fa c e b y C h ris to p h e r W . M itch ell. N e w York,

W a sh in g to n , D .C ./B altim o re, B ern, F ra n k fu rt, B erlin, B ru ssels, V ien n a, a n d O x fo rd : P e te r L an g , 2013. S tu d ie s in T w e n tie th -C e n tu ry B ritish L ite ra tu re series, V ol . 12. 207 p p . in c lu d in g n o te s , b ib lio g ra p h y , in d e x . US$84.95. ISBN 978-1-4331-1989-7.

G e n d e r f l u i d i t y i s a t t h e c o r e o f M o n i k a H i l d e r 's a r g u m e n t in th is th ird a n d fin al v o lu m e o f h e r critical re -e x a m in a tio n o f C.S. L e w is a n d g e n d e r is su e s. H ild e r in s ists th a t "L e w is d o e s n o t c o n flate b io lo g ic a l sex w ith g e n d e r m e ta p h o r " (145; see also id. 22, 120, 155). R a th e r, "As th e n a r r a to r s ta te s in

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in fact, m e r e ly th e a d a p ta tio n to o rg a n ic life o f a f u n d a m e n ta l p o la r ity w h ic h d iv id e s all c re a te d b e in g s '" (22-23, q u o tin g L ew is). O n e o f th e m o r e in trig u in g a sp e c ts o f h e r a r g u m e n t in v o lv e s L e w is 's a p p a r e n t w illin g n e s s to a p p ro p r ia te a n d a p p ly g e n d e r m e ta p h o r acro ss th e lin e s o f b io lo g ic a l sex. F o r e x a m p le , H ild e r s u g g e s ts th a t L e w is u n a b a s h e d ly e m b ra c e d d e s c rip tio n s o f h im s e lf as " o ld w o m a n " o r " h o u s e w ife ," c o m p a re d w o m e n w h o w o rk o u ts id e th e h o m e to s o ld ie rs in activ e c o m b a t service, a n d o th e r w is e d r e w fre e ly o n c ro s s -g e n d e r a n a lo g ie s in h is w ritin g s (6-7, 10).

H ild e r h e r e fo cu ses o n L e w is 's le s s e r-k n o w n w o rk s, " f ro m h is e a rlie s t p o e tr y a n d p ro s e , s u c h as D ym er (1926) a n d The P ilgrim 's Regress (1933), to h is la s t n o v e l Till We Have Faces (1956)" (2).1 S h e s u g g e s ts th a t L e w is is " n o t sex ist b u t in s te a d a c u ltu re critic o f se x ism ," a n d th a t h e " o ffe rs a c ritiq u e o f c u ltu ra l c h a u v in is m so d e e p -g o in g a n d p r o f o u n d th a t it h a s, fo r th e m o s t p a rt, b e e n o v e rlo o k e d " (2).

I t is a slim v o lu m e . In C h a p te r O n e, "T h e O ld W e ste rn E n fa n t Terrible" (1-31), H ild e r p ro v id e s a n o v e rv ie w o f th e critics' a rg u m e n ts a b o u t L e w is a n d g e n d e r, a n d m a p s o u t h e r th esis. In C h a p te r T w o, " O ld W ives, V irg in s, a n d T e m p tre sse s; T h e ir H u s b a n d s , L o v ers, a n d T e m p te rs" (32-92), H ild e r tack les d is p a ra te w o rk s o f p ro s e a n d p o e tr y s p a n n in g th re e d e c a d e s, a n a ly z in g m a le a n d fe m a le c h a ra c te rs th e m a tic a lly b y c h a ra c te r ty p e . S he la rg e ly fo cu ses o n w h e th e r a n d to w h a t e x te n t e a c h c h a ra c te r is a "c la ssic a l" h e ro o r a n tih e ro , as o p p o s e d to a " s p ir itu a l" h e ro .1 2 C h a p te r T h re e (93-148) a n a ly z e s Till We Have

Faces, a n d C h a p te r F o u r, " E v e 's L ast, B est W o rd " (149-57), p ro v id e s th e

c o n c lu sio n .

I a d m ire th e p ro je c t H ild e r h a s u n d e rta k e n , a n d I la rg e ly a g re e w ith h e r in s tin c ts a b o u t h o w b e s t to r e a d o r in te r p r e t L ew is. H e r d is c u s s io n o f Till

We Have Faces is p a rtic u la rly sa tisfy in g , a n d I w o u ld s tro n g ly e n c o u ra g e

1 N arnia and the space trilogy are referenced only in passing, as H ilder addressed them in her first tw o volumes. Of the w orks H ilder covers here, I am most familiar w ith The

Great Divorce, w hich shaped m y understanding of Christian theology. I h ad also

previously read w ith careful attention The Screwtape Letters, Till We Have Faces, the "N orthern Dragon" poem from The Pilgrim's Regress, "The Shoddy Lands," and a fair num ber of the essays H ilder discusses. However, m any of the narrative poem s and shorter fictional works are new to me, as I first read them in preparation for this review. 2 H ilder defines and contrasts tw o heroic models in w estern thought (11-18). In her terminology, the "classical" hero is an active hero w ho is "m otivated b y egocentric pride in the effort to dom inate others" (20) and will be adm ired for qualities such as self reliance and forcefulness. A "spiritual" hero, b y contrast, is "m otivated by theocentric hum ility to release love w hich m ay em pow er others" (id.), an d m ay be characterized by qualities such as cooperation and meekness. H ilder repeatedly returns to the contrast betw een an "ethos of pride, conquest, and autonom y" and an "ethos of humility, receptivity, and interdependence" (152).

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a n y o n e w h o is o p e n - m in d e d a b o u t th e re c e iv e d criticism s o f L e w is to r e a d th e b o o k in its e n tire ty . H ild e r o ffers a n u a n c e d a n d c a re fu l d is c u ssio n o f m a n y " s tic k in g p o in ts " a n d p ro v id e s so m e sig n ific a n t c o rrectiv es as w e ll as fo o d for th o u g h t. T h r o u g h o u t th e b o o k , fo r e x a m p le , sh e ta k e s care to n o te re le v a n t s ta te m e n ts L e w is m a d e b e fo re h e e n c o u n te re d Jo y D a v id m a n , as a c o u n te r p o in t to th e n a r r a tiv e th a t L e w is 's v ie w s o n w o m e n s o fte n e d w ith ag e a n d m a rria g e .3

U n fo rtu n a te ly , as a d e fe n s e o f L e w is a g a in s t c h a rg e s o f sexism , th e b o o k falls s o m e w h a t flat. T h e p ro b le m m a y lie in th e first c h a p te r, w h ic h sets th e sta g e fo r H ild e r 's s u b s e q u e n t a n a ly sis. It is h e r e th a t sh e m u s t p e r s u a d e re a d e r s to c o n s id e r h e r s u g g e s te d in te rp re ta tio n , e v e n as sh e p ro v id e s an o v e rv ie w o f c o m m o n ly e x p re s s e d a rg u m e n ts a n d e v id e n c e o n th e to p ic of L e w is a n d g e n d e r. She c a re fu lly d e fin e s h e r c o n tr a s tin g h e ro ic m o d e ls (supra n 2), a n d e x p la in s th e c o n c e p t o f " th e o lo g ic a l fe m in is m " (19-24)4 as w e ll as th e h ie ra rc h ic a l w o r ld v ie w th a t u n d e r g ir d s it (id. 24-30). It is, fro m th e sta rt, a n u p h ill b a ttle , b e c a u se e v e n if w e a d m it th a t L ew is w a s e n g a g in g in a c o u n te r c u ltu ra l th e o lo g ic a l fe m in is m w h ic h sees h u m a n ity itself as " fe m in in e " in re la tio n to th e " m a s c u lin e " d iv in e , so th a t h u m ility , su b m iss io n , a n d o b e d ie n c e to th e d iv in e a re th e n a tu r a l o r d e r o f th in g s , w e s h o u ld n o t e x p e c t fe m in ists to e m b ra c e L e w is as a lo n g -o v e rlo o k e d ally. T h a t is, if L e w is is s a y in g th a t all h u m a n s , m a le a n d fem ale, m u s t s u b m it to G o d a n d a re e le v a te d th r o u g h th e ir su b m is s io n to th e d iv in e , th is w o u ld s e e m (at m o s t) m e r e ly to c o m p lic a te th e d is c u s s io n o f L e w is a n d g e n d e r, ra th e r th a n to " r e d e e m " h im . F o r th e g e n d e r a n a lo g y to w o rk as H ild e r su g g e sts, th e r e m u s t b e so m e id e a th a t le s se r b e in g s (w h e th e r w o m e n o r c h ild re n o r u n e d u c a te d p e o p le ) are e le v a te d th r o u g h su b m is s io n to th e ir n a tu r a l s u p e r io rs (p e r h a p s m e n o r p a re n ts o r th e le a r n e d ).5 In d e e d , H ild e r a c k n o w le d g e s th a t th e e th o s o f " s im u lta n e o u s s u b m is s io n a n d a u th o r ity " in h e r e n t in a C h ris tia n -in s p ire d M e d ie v a l v is io n o f h ie r a rc h y is " n o t c o m p re h e n s ib le w h e n seen o n ly fr o m a M a rx is t o r re la te d so c io -p o litic a l le n s "

3 Lewis first received a letter from D avidm an in 1950 (Gresham 44), an d they met in 1952 (Green and Hooper 257). D avidm an and her sons m oved to nearby Oxford in 1955 (Gresham 62-63; Green an d Hooper 260).

4 Essentially, "theological feminism" is shorthand for the idea th at a "feminine" hum ankind is paradoxically elevated "through obedience to the 'm asculine' divine," so th at "hum ility [is] the m eans of life" (Hilder 20).

5 In the "ancient orthodox tradition of European ethics from Aristotle to Johnson," according to Lewis, "Everything except God has some natural superior; everything except unform ed m atter has some natural inferior. The goodness, happiness, and dignity of every being consists in obeying its natural superior and ruling its natural inferiors" (A