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IDROTTSVETENSKAP
Rapporter
Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013
Volunteering Experiences
at a Sporting Event
Owe Stråhlman
Johan Pålshammar
GÖTEBORGS UNIVERSITET
Abstract
Title: Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013: Volunteering Experiences at a Sporting Event
Authors: Owe Stråhlman and Johan Pålshammar
Departments: Gothenburg University and GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon.
Pages: 26
Date: March 1, 2014
Keywords: Volunteer, event, motivation, half marathon, Gothenburg
Background: GöteborgsVarvet half marathon in Sweden is the largest running event in the world, and the race has undergone major developments. In May 2012, there were 44,093 participants who started the race. To accomplish the event about 4,000 volunteers1
are needed annually to organise all the necessary aspects and functions. In order to continue to develop the event, the organisers in 2013 carried out an investigation in order to gain experience and increase knowledge about informing and educating volunteers. A sample of volunteers was asked to take part in an evaluation study that was launched in May-June 2013.
Aims: The aims of the study are to describe (1) the kind of individual benefits provided by volunteering at GöteborgsVarvet and (2) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of the event.
Method: A questionnaire was sent out to the volunteers. The survey contained questions about two major areas of interest; (1) the respondent’s opinions about the organisation of the event and (2) the kind of individual benefits volunteering provides. In all, 607 respondents (39%) answered the questionnaire. Of those, 286 were women and 320 were men (one respondent did not answer the question about gender).
Results: The results from the sample in this study confirm that volunteering is an emotional experience and offers an emotional reward. There are important motivational factors such as enrichment, prestige and career enhancement, and the volunteers found these opportunities more or less useful in their careers. The respondents in this study felt a degree of altruism as part of their work as volunteers. Knowledge about developing and rewarding factors is essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers.
1 In the Swedish language, persons who work as volunteers in an event are usually called functionaries
(officials). In this text, we will use the word volunteer in the sense of a person who performs unpaid work in an organisation.
Content
Abstract 2 Foreword 4 1. Background 5 2. Earlier research 6 3. Theory 8 4. Method 9Validity and reliability 9
Ethics 10
Opinions about the organisation of the event 13 Individual benefits of volunteering 16 Motivation and volunteering 17
5. Discussion 23
Method discussion 23 Result discussion 23 Some final words 24
Foreword
The Event Based Innovation Project (EVINN) started in the year 2011 and is funded by the European Union, together with participating partners in Denmark (Aarhus), Norway (Oslo), and Sweden (Gothenburg). The idea of the project is to develop sporting events as a generator for economic growth with an emphasis on the importance of building, developing and disseminating technological solutions that will ensure the region's current leadership position as an event organiser.2
The goal of the project is to attract major events to the region by linking technology development projects and major events.
The EVINN project contains the following six thematic projects: 1. Tourist information
2. Sports gear 3. Public gaming 4. Sport casting 5. Event organisation
6. Impact and innovation process analysis
The overall target of the project is to create a new competence cluster within the region for the event industry and sports events. Utilising transnational cooperation, the EVINN project will contribute to the development and growth in the region through knowledge transfer, innovation, and product development. The project is expected to result in improved conditions for knowledge transfer and matchmaking between researchers and research clusters.
This report is carried out in Area 5 – event organisation. It is a report from a survey with the volunteer officials at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013 about their opinions and experiences of being a volunteer. A previous report has been published with results from an evaluation with volunteers at the European Indoor Athletics Championships in Gothenburg (iEM) 2014. Both the iEM report and this report were conducted with the same questionnaire, and therefore, some of the text sections are the same.
We will like to take the opportunity to thank Hedvig Adolfsson and Elina Söderberg for their work in the project and Bo Nielsén at the Faculty of Education, Gothenburg University for his work with the data collection.
Gothenburg 2014-03-01 The authors
2
1. Background
GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon in Sweden is the largest running event in the world, and the race has undergone major developments. In 1980, the first GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon started in the city centre of Gothenburg at the Heden exercise field and finished at the Ullevi Stadium. Approximately 1,800 runners started in this first race. In May 2012, there were 45,015 participants who started the race (which began and finished at the Slottskogsvallen Stadium in Gothenburg). Important athletes who participated in the early 1980s and popularized GöteborgsVarvet include the former world heavyweight champion in professional boxing, Ingemar Johansson (born in Gothenburg), and the famous Norwegian runner, Grete Waitz.3
TheGothenburg Athletic Association, which is a federation of sports clubs in the Gothenburg area, organises the event. To accomplish this task, about 4,000 volunteers4 are needed annually to organise all the necessary aspects and functions. The officials in the event are mainly volunteers from the participating clubs who receive no personal payment. Instead, part of the economic profit from the event is transferred to the participating sports clubs and their activities for children and youth. Other beneficiaries include charity organisations on local, national and international levels. In order to continue to develop the event for the future, the organisers carried out an investigation in 2013 to gain experience and increase knowledge about informing and educating volunteers. A sample of volunteers were asked to take part in an evaluation study that was launched in May-June 2013. The main results are presented in this paper.
Aims
The aims of the study are to describe (1) what kind of individual benefits are provided by volunteering at GöteborgsVarvet and (2) the respondents’ opinions about the organisation of the event.
The results are foremost addressed to the organisers of the GöteborgsVarvet event to use in their work to develop the event’s organisation, especially in the area of volunteering. The main questions in the study that focuses on the aims are what kinds of backgrounds the respondents have, and if there are patterns related to the backgrounds and experiences of being a volunteer and questions related to the management of the event and the respondents’ degree of satisfaction with the organisation. These questions are related to aspects of gender.
3 www.goteborgsvarvet.se.
4 In the Swedish language, persons who work as volunteers in an event are usually called functionary
2. Earlier research
Lockstone and Baum (2009) stated in an article that volunteers play a major role in mega and major events, both cultural and sporting, contributing invaluable human resources. In their study, they focus on media coverage and the perceptions related to volunteering at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The findings highlight various positive and negative aspects of the media’s coverage of volunteering, and Lockstone and Baum note the importance of focusing attention on volunteerism. Likewise Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura (2013) underline the importance of volunteer work in events. In a longitudinal study (n = 711 volunteers) with data collection both before and after the event, they concluded that volunteering is a highly emotional experience. They refer to volunteering as a give-and-take experience. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004) have conducted research on volunteers through the Volunteer Functions Inventory to find the motivating factors that are most abundant to understand the reasons behind the choice to volunteer. The results show that individuals who have chosen to participate as volunteers have a higher motivation to do a good job. Solberg (2003) concluded in his study that a large number of people enjoy volunteering and receive psychological rewards from their participation. People also volunteer because of their own intrinsic values (Clary & Snyder, 1999; Papadakis, et al. 2004), through the conception that it is important to help others (Grassman, 1994), for their own career development (Papadakis, 2004), to be part of a social context (Clary, et al., 1996), to gain new skills and experiences (Jarvis & Blank, 2011; Solberg, 2003), and to engage in sports (Clary et al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al., 2006).
In an article by Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse (2011), the authors discuss the relationship between volunteer motivation and volunteer satisfaction at a major golf tour event. They stress the importance of an adjusted organisation of volunteers for successful management in sports events. In the study, they extracted latent motivational factors that made it important for volunteers to participate; these were personal enrichment, prestige, and career enhancement. Surujlal (2010) points out the understanding of the underlying motives for volunteers to participate. He investigated three major sports events for people with disabilities in South Africa and conducted a principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA produced a four-factor model: external influence and free time, interaction and achievement, altruism, and diversion (change). The respondents’ main reasons for volunteering were to make a contribution to the community and to help make the event a success. May, Zhang, and Connaughton (2010) also emphasise that volunteers are important agents in the sports industry. Understanding the factors that explain sports volunteerism is, according to May et al., essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers. They examined motivation among volunteers (n = 1099) at different youth sports events, and a factor analysis revealed six latent factors: values, understanding, social, career, enhancement (improvement), and protective. A factorial MANOVA analysis revealed that volunteers working with large international and
special-needs sports events displayed higher motivations in all six factor areas than volunteers at smaller national and local events. Female volunteers displayed higher motivations in values and understanding factors.
To summarise, it seems that the same behavioural factors appear as motivational lure for volunteer work regardless of age, gender, and participation level. Grassman (1994) interprets this as demonstrating that it is people’s own interest in the sport and being part of a social context that motivates most. Mega events rely on volunteer workers to cope with the financial burden that a large affair requires. Therefore, it is important to develop the voluntary work by continuously improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996; Solberg, 2003). Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), and Papadakis et al. (2004) demonstrate that there are personal reasons for participation, but task-motivation is the most important motivating factor. To retain volunteers for further jobs requires coordination between duty and personal motivation. In conclusion, (1) people who do not feel that they are given the choice to volunteer feel less motivated and (2) to retain volunteers the work has to be voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for the task (Clary & Snyder, 1999).
3. Theory
Earlier research in the area of voluntarism shows that motivational aspects play a significant role in the decision to serve as a volunteer in an event (Grassman, 1994; Clary, et al., 1996; Clary & Snyder, 1999; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Solberg, 2003; Papadakis, et al. 2004; Costa et al., 2006; Jarvis & Blank, 2011; Love, Hardin, Koo and Morse, 2011). This fact also emphasises motivation theory as an important foundation to explain and understand processes in preferred behaviour (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Generally speaking, Mannell and Kleiber (1997) define motivation as factors that impel a person to action, and these factors occur in two stages. They describe the starting point as a person’s desire to correct a conscious imbalance. The first step is the detection of absent needs that cause a stated imbalance, and the second is the preferred action to correct this disequilibrium. Only when the individual finds it possible to fulfil his or her beliefs, is it possible for a person to take action towards unsatisfied needs. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also underpin a two-factor definition of motivation, and stress two aspects as explanatory: the direction and the intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013).
The origin of motivational behaviour is also twofold, the personal factors and the situational factors (or interior and exterior motivation). The personal factors include fulfilling different goals, needs or interests that create motivation to perform a specific task. The situational factors occur specific to each person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees as motivating in a specific situation. Weinberg and Gould (2011) also write that an analysis of motivation has to consider both situational factors and personal factors. Gagné and Deci (2005) highlight the motivation from a similar governing perspective, and they also emphasise internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) motivation (or no motivation at all). These motivators strive for mindfulness and balance to guide decision-making and behaviour. This concept is known as self-determination theory (SDT). The internal motivation has its origin in an autonomous concept (or self-concept) and gives an opportunity to individuals to express their own will to perform work for their own interests (as volunteers or voluntary workers). The extrinsic (controlling) motivation is defined as controlled and guided by someone or something else and is performed as a “must”, which is linked to the external motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005). Self-sustainment, governed by internal motivation, is a way for volunteers to feel part of the work being done. Their perceived feeling of being a part of a sport event could be linked to their motivation. Is there a possibility for officials to improve the direction and intensity of the volunteers’ motivation? And can the organisation acquire a better overall perspective on preferred work-tasks and volunteers keeping in mind that they do not receive any financial compensation for the work they perform?
4. Method
The questionnaire in the study of the volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet Half Marathon was developed by Hanstad et al. (2011). The language of the original questionnaire was Norwegian, as it was used in Norwegian volunteer surveys at the Holmenkollen Ski World Cup (Oslo 2010–2011), the World Ski Flying Championships in Vikersund, and the Birkebeiner-rittet (cycling). The questions and response alternatives have since been translated to Swedish and have been slightly changed. The Swedish and Norwegian languages have similarities since they are in the same language family, so there were no major translation obstacles to overcome. The questionnaire was also used at the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) 2013.
The questions in the survey began with demographic questions (for example, gender, age, education, residence) and questions about the respondent’s own athletic background, earlier experiences of being a volunteer, his or her assignments, and time spent in connection with the event. Two other major areas of interest were (1) the respondent’s opinions about the organisation of the event (information, work assignments, feedback, relations with persons responsible for the event, and also views about the individual’s attention to his or her work), and (2) the kind of individual benefits volunteering provides.
In early June of 2013, the questionnaire was sent to the volunteers. The survey was online, and the respondents provided their answers on a web page. The e-mail addresses used for the respondents were provided by the GöteborgsVarvet organisation. There was 1560 e-mail addresses captured. Of those, a total of 607 (39%) respondents answered the questionnaire.5 Concerning the high decline in the survey, we could crosscheck for age and gender. There
was a slight overrepresentation of women and elderly people in the sample. Concerned over the high decline rate of the survey, we conducted a crosscheck for age and gender and no distortion was found in control items.
Validity and reliability
In order to justify the arguments presented in this methodological discussion, it is necessary to provide a discussion on validity and reliability, and accurately conveyed, the discussion about measurement theory outcomes gives the chosen methods a certain degree of legitimacy. A measurement theory approach is important in order to improve both validity and reliability and is fundamental in this respect.
5 A few answered only one question, but submitted the response. Additionally, 292 or 20% looked at
In this study a nomothetic6
approach is used, which distinguishes specially adapted methodology to be used, providing appropriate tools from the methodological toolbox. According to Cohen and Manion (2011), challenging data by means of different methods and instruments of analysis also challenges the researcher to move away from his/her favourite methods. Nevertheless, different methodological equations are best solved with specially adapted methods. The validity in this study is strengthened by the fact that Hanstad et al. (2011) used the questionnaire with good results. Additionally, the Swedish version has been tested in events similar to the GöteborgsVarvet and has been discussed with responsible employees in the current event.
Ethics
Concerning the ethical considerations, the necessary requirements have been fulfilled, including those for dissemination (the obligation to inform the respondents about the aims of the study), request for approval (agreement to participate in the study), confidentiality (the information gathered will be handled in confidence), and professional security (the collected data will be used only for scientific purposes).
6 Nomothetic and idiographic are terms coined by the Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband to
describe two distinct approaches to knowledge, each corresponding to a different intellectual tendency. Nomothetic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalise and find expression in the natural sciences. It describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena. Idiographic is based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify and find expression in the humanities. It describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, accidental, and often subjective phenomena (Stråhlman, 2006).
4. Results
In all, 607 respondents (39%) answered the questionnaire. Of those, 286 were women and 320 were men (one respondent did not answer the question about gender). The mean age for women was 50 years (SD = 16) and for men 43 years (SD = 14). The oldest person who responded was 91 years old and the youngest was 14 years old.
The respondents’ educational levels were relatively high; slightly more than 55% of women noted university studies as their highest educational level (men – 45%). Most of the respondents had full-time occupations (women - 44% full-time and men - 54% full-time). Women were overrepresented in part-time jobs and studying, while men were overrepresented in the group retired people.
Table 1: Respondents’ present work situation (several response alternatives possible). Sex
Men Women
Count % Count %
How do you look upon your present work situation?
Full-time job 167 47,3 186 52,7
Part-time job 19 23,2 63 76,8
Looking for job 11 52,4 10 47,6
Studies 28 34,6 53 65,4
Retired 67 73,6 24 26,4
Sick-listed 2 50,0 2 50,0
Other 2 100,0 0 ,0
The distribution of income shows that the respondents are relatively well paid in their daily work. About 59% of the full-time working men and 33% of the full-time working women earned more than 400.000 SEK (about 50.000 EURO) per year. Among part-time workers 24% of men and 6% of the woman earned more than 400.000 SEK per year.
The majority of the respondents had their residences close to the event. Only 33 out of 607 respondents had their residences more than 50 kilometres from Gothenburg (most often in cities like Trollhättan, Uddevalla, Varberg and Borås). No person had his/her residence in a country other than Sweden.
Gothenburg is the second largest city in Sweden, and is, as many other major cities, divided into minor districts (Swedish: stadsdelar). It is a well-known fact that geographic housing has socio- and economically influenced incentives. People with high incomes often live in areas where houses are more expensive.
Table 2: The respondents’ residences divided into districts in greater Gothenburg area by sex (N = 273)
Sex
Men Women Total Count % Count % Count %
If you live in the city of Gothenburg, what is the name of the local district?
Angered 12 9,0 9 6,4 21 7,7 Askim-Frölunda-Högsbo 20 15,0 19 13,6 39 14,3 Centrum 15 11,3 13 9,3 28 10,3 Lundby 10 7,5 9 6,4 19 7,0 Majorna-Linné 12 9,0 12 8,6 24 8,8 Norra Hisingen 21 15,8 19 13,6 40 14,7 Västra Göteborg 18 13,5 11 7,9 29 10,6 Västra Hisingen 8 6,0 18 12,9 26 9,5 Örgryte Härlanda 8 6,0 23 16,4 31 11,4 Östra Göteborg 9 6,8 7 5,0 16 5,9
The table above shows that there is a certain proportion of socioeconomic influence in the recruitment of volunteers. The districts with over 10% recruited respondents are areas with a somewhat higher socioeconomic index and status, in comparison with those having a low proportion of volunteers. The differences cannot be explained by variations in inhabitant numbers. Earlier research by Patriksson (1995) and Stråhlman (2006) shows that athletes in track and field recruit from higher socioeconomic groups, as compared, for example, to representatives from different team sports. The respondents’ proportions of memberships in sport clubs and especially in track and field clubs clearly show that memberships are an important agent in volunteer socialisation. About 38% of the men were members in track and field clubs and 31% of the women. A total of 39% of the men and 39% of the women were members in some kind of other sports club, and 11% of the men and 13% of women had previously been members in a sports club. This explains a considerable portion of the residence distribution and the fundaments of recruitment. Socioeconomic distribution and residence areas are a well-known correlation, and when we add the knowledge about socioeconomic patterns in sport recruitment, we capture a lot of the explained variance, as in the study about the European Indoor Athletics Championships (iEM) 2014 (Stråhlman, et al. (2013). The covariance of these three factors is an important key to understand recruitment patterns and knowledge about future recruitment strategies. The respondents also, in a relatively large proportion, participate in (leisure time) sport activities (particularly the younger respondents). Many of the respondents have also been volunteers in other sporting events.
Sports and sporting events are often discussed in relation to internationalisation and also to aspects of integration, especially how sports can contribute to extended socialisation. Attention has been given to these questions, especially by the Swedish government. They
have launched a mega project (the Sports Lift) and the idea is that sport clubs can apply for funding to launch projects that make sports and the sports movement more attractive for different groups in Swedish society. Implementing sports on a large scale can be an important catalyst for integration matters, in order to open up society for people with immigrant backgrounds to join the sports movements and use it to gain socialisation. Together these governmental projects, so far, have been funded with about 5 billion crowns (520 million Euro) over a period of 12 years.
A total of 488 of the 607 respondents had earlier been volunteers at the GöteborgsVarvet (no gender differences). Several had also been engaged in their own club activities, but not in as large an event as Världsungdomsspelen or Way Out West in Gothenburg.
Volunteering in large sports events is also an aspect of integration, so how are people with an immigration background represented among the volunteers in GöteborgsVarvet?
Table 3: The respondents’ country of origin and parents’ country of origin by sex.
Sex
Men Women
Count Total Count Total Respondents born in a
country other than Sweden?
Respondents 12 286 20 320 Respondent’s father 38 286 44 320 Respondent’s mother 41 286 45 320
The vast majority of the volunteers were born in Sweden, as were their parents. A total of 32 respondents (5%) were born in a country other than Sweden. The majority of these were born in the same country as both their parents. Finland and Denmark were the two countries where most of the respondents had their origin. Approximately 1.4 million people in Sweden (of the 9 million population) were born in another country, which is more than 10% of the whole population. In this inquiry, 5% have a background of immigration, and in this case there were no gender differences.
Opinions about the organisation of the event
As mentioned in the aims of this report, the results in this study are foremost addressed to the organisers of the GöteborgsVarvet to use in their work to develop the event’s organisation, especially in the area of volunteering. To contribute to knowledge development in the field, we have first concentrated on the backgrounds of the respondents. This helps to establish causal correlations to facilitate the understanding of other results in the study, because it is
vital in all forms of development work to give target groups (the GöteborgsVarvet organisation) as much information as possible to improve their course of action.
A fundamental aspect of people’s willingness to participate in volunteer work is that they receive information on how to apply to become a volunteer and receive communication regarding the form and content of the assignments. The most common ways to receive information about how to apply as a volunteer are presented below.
Table 4: Alternatives to obtain information about how to work as a volunteer at GöteborgsVarvet 2013. How did you get information about the possibility
of working as a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013? (several answering alternatives possible)
Sex Men Women Count Count
From the event management 90 84
Via mail 198 225
Via homepages 53 46
Via Facebook 15 15
Via Phone 32 31
Other 51 76
The most common ways to receive information were primarily from mail, but also from other available digital resources, such as different homepages and information meetings with the GöteborgsVarvet management. Facebook and other social media had less importance in this respect. Looking at the age distribution, one can see that the older respondents receive information more often from the event management and from their clubs, while the younger respondents to a larger extent obtained information from digital resources.
As shown in Table 5, the majority of the respondents experienced clear instructions on their tasks before the event and about the given information.
Table 5: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N=597-599).
Not significant.
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements:
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD
I did not receive sufficient information
about the event before it started! 2,32 1,33 2,34 1,14 I was given clear instructions on my tasks
One has to acknowledge the dispersion, which indicates heterogeneous conceptions.
As previously mentioned, the respondents were given certain assignments in the event. The organisers had the goal of assigning persons who were suitable for the given tasks.
Table 6: The respondents’ assignments divided by task and sex (N =411). What kind of assignment did you have during
GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
(several answers allowed) Men %
Women % Bicycle 1 0,2 1 0,2 Cleaning 11 2,6 20 4,4 Construction 30 7,0 18 4,0 Deposit 1 0,2 1 0,2 Finish 34 8,0 38 8,4 Fluid control 37 8,7 63 14,0 Food 7 1,6 8 1,8 Guard 25 5,9 17 3,8 Health care 12 2,8 12 2,7 Host 6 1,4 6 1,3 Information 36 8,5 33 7,3 Massage 2 0,5 12 2,7
Number plate delivery 12 2,8 20 4,4
Parking 15 3,5 2 0,4 Shower 1 0,2 1 0,2 Start 25 5,9 31 6,9 The course 69 16,2 78 17,3 Traffic guard 54 12,7 56 12,4 Transport 13 3,1 10 2,2 Other 34 8,2 24 5,3
In regard to the distribution of tasks between sexes in certain assignments, it was more or less randomised, with exception for certain areas such as construction, fluid control, guard, parking and massage. Whether or not this distribution is typical for events like this is hard to say. One can draw the conclusion that gender patterns are present in some of the assignment groups. If we look at the age distribution we find the young female volunteers (generally speaking) work as hosts at the start of the event, while young men work with taking care of personal property at the start and in cleaning. Older women work generally with traffic and older men with parking and food.
It is important in all organisations, especially for people in leadership positions, to manage their tasks in ways that make all volunteers feel comfortable in their work groups. Some questions in the survey were put to the respondents about their experiences in the working situation. Most of the respondents were assigned as volunteers with certain work tasks (80% of the men and 86% of the women), while a smaller proportion of volunteers were assigned as
were overrepresented. The respondents also felt that there was a good or very good work climate in the work groups, with certain differences. Over 80% of the respondents, both men and women experienced a good or even very good work climate in their work groups, and also with the supervisors for the work groups. The respondents were quite satisfied with how people in top management positions (in the organisation) fulfilled their obligations. They also found the climate of cooperation as constructive, both in the work groups and in the overall management of the event. There were only minor differences between men and women, and they were not statistically significant.
Individual benefits of volunteering
Lockstone and Baum (2009) state that volunteers play a major role in event organisation and recommend hat they should be officially recognised by, for example, media coverage with attention given to volunteerism as such and to the volunteers’ different assignments (Gallarza, Arteaga & Gil-Saura, 2013). How the volunteer comprehends the individual benefits of volunteering might depend on what kind of event and/or assignment the respondents have. The assignments for volunteers in GöteborgsVarvet were divided into many different tasks, and as mentioned above, also organised into work groups. The respondent’s personal assignments were basically related to their previous experience and knowledge about the management of the event. The fundamental question is how the volunteers understand the different tasks and the resources they were given to fulfil their tasks.
Table 7 below shows if the respondents maintained a positive attitude towards volunteering.
Table 7: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 595-600).
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The items above are correlated to each other in a relatively large proportion. Therefore we might cluster the three items together to a latent expression where satisfactory - desirable aspects are prominent. It is important when a person looks back on the management assignments, that the expectations the person had before the event are fulfilled. If the expectations are suppressed, there is a fundamental risk that the person will not volunteer
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements: Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD The work as volunteer was in line with my expectations! 4,14 0,81 4,14 0,88 In the future I will say no to all kinds of voluntary work! 1,30 0,73 1,23 0,65 I have an increased desire to be an official/volunteer! * 3,52 0,97 3,80 0,96
again. Solberg (2003) saw in his study that a large number of people enjoyed volunteering and
received psychological rewards from their participation, which underlines the importance of intrinsic motivation.
The conditions under which the volunteers work are another important factor. Even if volunteers are assigned to provide service to other people, it is also important that they themselves are served. Reasonable possibilities to rest, opportunities to be served good food, and receive praise from others will probably enhance their work. Table 8 below shows aspects that are important in that respect and the respondents were both positive and negative about the service they received.
Table 8: Understanding about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale: item one (1) representing disagree and item five (5) representing agree (N= between 592– 599).
(In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The items about clothing are slightly correlated to each other, but the other items have quite a low correlation between each other. We have to acknowledge that possession aspects are important for volunteering and the willingness for future assignments. The right proportions of good food and an individually adopted workload is a successful prescription, even if some respondents have doubts about if that was the case here. The respondents stress that the official clothing has to be appropriate for work tasks (adopted to individual work situations) and something that the volunteers would proudly wear, in other words - practically fashionable without disregarding functionality.
Motivation and volunteering
How do volunteers perceive the different values of being assigned certain tasks? Are the qualities and experiences that they gain through volunteer work transferable to everyday life situations or perhaps related to the labour market? Answers to these questions summarise, to a large extent, how a high motivation creates participation in volunteer work. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis et al. (2004) found motivating factors behind the
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements: Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD We got good food during the event! 2,91 1,20 2,96 1,30 The workload was quite enough! 3,86 1,08 3,86 1,10 The official clothing was functional! * 3,70 1,14 4,03 1,09 The official’s costumes were fashionable! 3,47 1,20 3,66 1,28
Surujlal (2010) and May et al. (2010) have all extracted latent factors and answers to the questions above that seem to be found in a data reduction procedure. Different questions about understanding motivating tasks in the assignments were asked, and answers were given on a 5-item rating scale.
Table 9: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 597-599).
How important is the following statement for your motivation to work as a volunteer?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD I feel important when I make a contribution as a volunteer! 3,10 0,91 3,27 0,86 When I work as a volunteer, I feel happy with myself! 3,01 0,94 3,14 0,93 I can make a tangible impact on something that interests me! 3,02 1,04 3,12 0,99
No sign.
Relating the results of the table above to Weinberg and Gould (2011) shows that these three items underline the personal or intrinsic values/aspects. The personal aspects include
fulfilling different goals, needs or interests and creating motivation to perform a specific task. A large proportion of respondents are of the opinion that there are important intrinsic values that motivate volunteering that have little to do with material rewards, while others do not. Solberg (2003) found in his study that people enjoyed volunteering and received psychological rewards.
The respondents also acknowledge extrinsic rewards with volunteer work. Motivation in this case has its origin in the fact that volunteering contributes to the respondents’ willingness to develop skills and collect experiences, a position in which a lot of the respondents were doubtful.
Table 10: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 585-590).
How important is the following statement for your motivation to work as a volunteer?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD It is good a good merit to work as a volunteer! * 3,29 1,23 3,04 1,30 Working as a volunteer can give me contacts in the labour market! 3,87 1,10 3,69 1,26 I learn more about events when I make a contribution as volunteer! 2,45 1,07 2,35 1,17 As a volunteer, I get practical experience of events! 2,44 1,09 2,28 1,15 (In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
As previously mentioned, the situational or extrinsic aspects that occur are specific to each person, such as personal gains or losses, or what the person sees as motivating in a specific situation (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Questions about extrinsic aspects were asked and here we find significant differences between men and women in one of the items. The rating is not very high but there are some correlations between the items that underpin our statement about some respondents acknowledging extrinsic values. We can also see that men, to some extent, experience developmental aspects in being a volunteer. Clary and Snyder (1999) and Papadakis, et al. (2004) also found career development aspects to be important for volunteers.
Extrinsic development can also incorporate social development. To maintain or enlarge your social sphere/network and social contacts are aspects of development that give people more contacts, contacts that could be beneficial, for example to one’s social (career) development.
Table 11: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item rating scale, with item one (1) representing not at all important and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589-597).
How important is the following statement for your motivation to work as a volunteer?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD People around me have encouraged me to work as a volunteer! 2,95 1,24 3,05 1,36 I feel the ambient pressure to participate as a volunteer! 3,66 1,21 3,63 1,36 I have friends who work as volunteers! 2,17 1,16 2,30 1,39 I can use the work I put in as a social merit! 1,98 1,03 1,88 0,99 It is common in my family to work as a volunteer. 3,03 1,46 3,08 1,56 Not sign.
The results show that the respondents are doubtful about the notion of socialising positive personal aspects related to their participation, and they are also doubtful if volunteering could be useful as a merit in their daily lives as well as in the labour market. There are no major differences between men and women. Earlier studies (Stråhlman, et al. (2013) have shown that these five items in Table 11 could be clustered together as an extrinsic or as a social relations aspect – to work as a volunteer is improving socialisation perspectives and relations
(Clary, et al., 1996). Low correlations in this study shadow this statement somewhat.
Other positively related rewards of volunteering are new concepts of acquired knowledge, and usefulness in different aspects of life. Several respondents indicate that they have used their presence at GöteborgsVarvet to gain new useful knowledge.
Table 12: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale, with item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 592-596).
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD I have gained insight into how it is to organise large events! 3,96 1,15 3,93 1,14 I have gained new skills and experience! * 3,86 1,08 3,86 1,12 I have expanded my network! 2,91 1,24 2,96 1,30 I have actively contributed to the organisation of this event! 3,47 1,20 3,66 1,28 I've got insight into athletics at various levels! 4,14 0,85 4,14 0,95 (In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
A fairly large amount of the respondents felt that they gained new knowledge and experiences that can be useful in career development. There were only small differences in the sample between men and women (except for the item about new skills and experiences), and the majority were not statistically significant. The items disclose that there is experience aspects in participating that can be described as knowledge or a career aspect. Jarvis and Blank
(2011) and Solberg (2003) also indicate career aspects as important in volunteer recruitment.
The respondents also referenced certain communicative and participating implications as important experiences to gain. The volunteers have to feel safe in their work, that the work is exciting and free, and that they receive appreciation for their work. If these conditions are satisfied they would recommend others to work as a volunteer. Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura (2013) conclude that volunteering is a highly emotional experience.
Table 13: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale, item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589-597).
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD I think that the work was exciting! * 3,54 1,05 3,78 1,05
I've been praised for my work! 3,55 1,17 3,63 1,17 I feel that I developed as a person by working as volunteer! 3,03 1,24 3,01 1,24 I would recommend others around me to work as volunteer!* 3,97 0,88 4,20 0,88 I felt safe when I was working as a volunteer! 4,28 0,94 4,26 0,92 (In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
Both the men and the women in the study felt the importance of what we can call a
communicative aspect in relation to their work assignments. Being a volunteer is a give-and-take business; you learn from others, and you teach newcomers if you are an experienced volunteer. The communicative aspects also implied that you have something to tell friends, regardless if you have good or bad experiences. In the large events you also can meet and talk to well-known people, maybe from other countries.
Table 14: Comprehension about management aspects of the event (N = 490) on a 5-item rating scale: item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 589-592).
What kind of experiences did you receive
from being a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013? Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD I had an outlet for my interest in sports! 2,96 1,23 3,01 1,25 I saw the famous practitioners of athletics! 2,62 1,40 2,67 1,51 I saw celebrities (in general)! * 2,12 1,22 2,16 1,38 (In items with an asterisk *, the differences between sexes are statistically significant at a 5% level)
The results show that the respondents did not feel that they had the opportunity to see famous and well-known persons; GöteborgsVarvet is above all an event for leisure-time athletes, even if famous people are in the starting line-up. We have constituted what we can call a fame attraction aspect, even if that aspect is not strong in GöteborgsVarvet. The volunteer’s engagement in sports (as practicum) could also be another reason for volunteering (Clary et al., 1996; Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Costa et al., 2006). The volunteers also felt that they contributed to their hometown (in the majority of cases) by donating personal time to his/her city as well as to the event.
Table 15: Comprehension about management aspects of the event on a 5-item Rating Scale: item one (1) representing not at all and item five (5) representing very much (N= between 593-597).
What kind of experiences did you receive from being a volunteer at the GöteborgsVarvet 2013?
Sex
Men Women
Mean SD Mean SD By working as a volunteer, I feel more involved in what is
happening in my hometown! 3,58 1,13 3,64 1,23 I feel more important after having participated as a
volunteer! 3,29 1,10 3,29 1,23
My friends were also volunteers! 3,89 1,21 3,88 1,32 I do not really like being an official! * 1,61 0,99 1,44 0,88
The respondents appreciated the importance of making contributions both to their city and to the event as such (Gallarza, Arteaga and Gil-Saura, 2013). No major gender differences could be seen in the results of these questions. The respondents also felt that they volunteered because of their duties towards the city of Gothenburg (Grassman, 1994), and that the work they did in the event made them feel more interested in volunteering in the future. We might call this personality and loyalty aspects.
Questions were also asked about activities related to the marketing of GöteborgsVarvet. The volunteers had the opportunity to ride the Gothenburg tram for free in connection with the event. Approximately 67% of the volunteers had discovered this, but only 22% used this benefit. A clear majority also felt that the sponsors contributed to the overall experience of the event for the runners and the spectators. The volunteers also felt that GöteborgsVarvet is a festival (almost every one of the respondents indicated that). Questions were also asked as to whether the volunteers perceived the sponsors' advertising. Here, the responses were more scattered; some sponsors had as much as 60% identification, while for others, only 10% of the volunteers recognised the sponsors’ logotype.
5. Discussion
Method discussion
Initially, we discussed the methods that were used as well as the eventual problems with the sample decline. The problem with web-based questionnaires is twofold (Eriksson et al., 2007). First, there is an age problem, as web services are based on digitised technology. For older people, it can be a problem to manage computer-based correspondence. We also know that many people, especially older people, do not have the same confidence in electronic mailing as they have in mailing by post. Second, access to computers (as well as smartphones, e-book readers, or tablet computers) can also be a problem. Furthermore, even in a highly technology-based country like Sweden, not every individual has a computer. Even so, we crosschecked three variables and did not find any skewness in background variables (sex, age, and residence). The validity and reliability in relation to the questionnaire have to be considered as high. The questionnaire has been tested and used before by Hanstad (2012), which strengthens the validity.
Result discussion
It seems that the same behavioural factors as motivational lure for volunteer work appear in this study as in the Stråhlman et al. (2013) study about the volunteers in the Indoor European Championships in Athletics. This means that regardless of gender and participation level, people have more or less the same attitudes towards volunteering, and in general the results in this study also share many aspects as other researchers. For example Grassman (1994) states that it is people’s own interest in sport matters and being part of a social context that is a strong motivator. An earlier athletic background in track and field in this study, as well as in Stråhlman et al. (2013), seems to be a desirable aspect in volunteering with the aims being to do a good job for the city, the organiser, and for the volunteers themselves. Therefore, volunteer work has, by support from earlier research, a general impact in most countries, which makes volunteering in sporting events an internationalising activity. Therefore it is strongly recommended to all kinds of sport event organisers to develop volunteering in an international context and it is important to develop the voluntary work by continuously improving the organisation of the event (Clary et al., 1996; Solberg, 2003, Stråhlman et al., 2013).
An important factor in recruitment of volunteers is “the payback” to the volunteers’ efforts. Volunteering is, as mentioned above, a give-and-take relation between organisers and volunteers. Clary et al. (1996), Clary and Snyder (1999), Papadakis et al. (2004) and Stråhlman et al. (2013) point out strong personal reasons for volunteer participation, and they
for the assignment of future volunteers to find the match between duty and personal motivation. The respondents in this study indicated aspects of task-motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects and the payback had psychological and social implications. The point here is that work has to be voluntary and attract different people with different reasons for performing the task (Clary & Snyder, 1999).
Being part of a sporting event is strongly linked to personal motivation for the volunteer. If the volunteers have a direction and an intensity towards their work tasks, than the work can be improved and a better overall perspective on preferred work-tasks is achieved by the organisation. This shows that both intrinsic and extrinsic gains motivate volunteer work.
We can conclude that motivation theory is an important theoretical standpoint in explaining and understand the volunteer (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997, Weinberg & Gould, 2011, Stråhlman, et al. 2013). Stråhlman (2013) discussed Mannell and Kleiber’s (1997) definition about motivation as factors that impel a person to action, with a desire to reach some kind of self-adaptation. This imbalance has its origin in individual needs that could be satisfied through a volunteer’s contribution. It seems to be a persons’ desire to do something for someone else that makes them feel that they are contributing. In this study, as well as in Stråhlman et.al (2013) study, the respondents felt that they were doing something good for the city, for the organisers of the event, and, of course, for themselves, and when praised for their actions, they felt that they developed personal assets. Weinberg and Gould (2011) indicated the
direction and the intensity of action (Adolfsson & Söderberg, 2013) and the respondents in the study experienced both personal and situational factors while fulfilling different goals, needs or interests. Gagné and Deci (2005) found that there has to be both internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) motivation, and supports self-determination theory (SDT) as a useful tool for further analysis.
Some final words
To accomplish the GöteborgsVarvet event, as well as the iEM and most huge sporting events, volunteers are essential; without them, it would be very difficult to implement such an event. Therefore, as Lockstone and Baum (2009) and Stråhlman, et.al (2013) discuss, it is important to enlighten the people in general about the importance of voluntary work. The results from the sample in this study, as in Stråhlman, et al. (2013), confirm that volunteering is an emotional experience (Gallarza, Arteaga & Gil-Saura, 2013) and offers an emotional reward (Solberg, 2003). Love, Hardin, Koo, and Morse (2011) and Stråhlman, et al. (2013) have found important motivational factors such as enrichment, prestige, and career enhancement. and they have also found that the volunteers experienced these opportunities useful in their careers. The respondents felt a degree of altruism (Suruajal, 2010; Stråhlman, et al, 2013) as
part of their work as volunteers. Finally, we underline May, Zhang, and Connaughton’s (2010) findings, that knowledge about developing and rewarding factors is essential for recruiting and retaining volunteers.
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Idrottsvetenskapliga rapporter
–
Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap
Göteborgs universitet
Adress:
Box 100
405 30 Göteborg
Redaktör: Owe Stråhlman
1. Stråhlman, O., (2004). Idrott – mål eller medel. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan. 2. Patriksson, G., Eriksson, S., Augustsson, C. & Stråhlman, O. (2004). Utveckling och
förnyelse av idrottsverksamhet” - en utvärdering av projektverksamhet som fått medel ur Allmänna arvsfonden. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
3. Patriksson, G. & Stråhlman, O., (2004). Young peoples lifestyle and sedentariness - the case of Sweden and Denmark. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
4. Annerstedt, C. (2006). Framgångsrikt ledarskap inom elitidrott. Göteborgs universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
5. Stråhlman, O (2006). Elite sport career process, career analysis of former Swedish elite athletes. Göteborgs universitet: Idrottshögskolan.
6. Stråhlman, O., Patriksson, G. & Annerstedt, C. (2008). Arbete – livsstil – hälsa. Resultat och analyser av AB Previas databas Arbetsliv och Hälsa. Göteborgs universitet,
Idrottshögskolan.
7. Stråhlman, O. & Patriksson, G. (2008). Att rätta mun efter matsäcken. Förutsättningar för att bedriva projekt om kostnadseffektivitet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs
universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
8. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O., Eriksson, S. & Kristén, L. (2008). Handslaget – från idé till utvärdering. Om projekt, ekonomi och verksamhet. Utvärdering av Handslaget. Göteborgs universitet, Idrottshögskolan.
9. Annerstedt, C., Annerud, E. & Stråhlman, O. (2009). Hälsoform: en analys av ett
hälsofrämjande koncept. Institutionen för pedagogik och didaktik, Göteborgs universitet. I samband med omorganisationen av verksamheten vid UFN år 2010 påbörjades ny indexering:
2012:
1. Patriksson, G., Stråhlman, O. & Eriksson, S. (2012). Blev Idrottslyftet ett lyft? Analys och utvärdering av Riksidrottsförbundet, Akademiska Idrottsförbundet, Flygsportförbundet och Korpen – Svenska Motionsidrottsförbundet. Göteborgs universitet: Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
2. Patriksson, G., (2012). Swedish young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical (in)activity and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature.Göteborgs universitet:
Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
3. Kougioumtzis, K (2012). Greek young peoples´ lifestyles with focus on physical (in)activity and overweight/obesity - a review of the research literature. Göteborgs universitet: Institutionen för Kost- och Idrottsvetenskap.
4. Backman, J. (2012). I skuggan av NHL: En organisationsstudie av svensk och finsk elitishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för Kost- och idrottsvetenskap (licentiatuppsats).
2013:
1. Patriksson, G. & Persson, C. (2013). Physical literacy among inactive Swedish young people - An interview study of a neglected group in sport science research. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
2. Kougioumtzis, K. (2013). Physical literacy in Greek children and adolescents. A study within the Active Lifestyles project. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
3. Samuelsson, D. (2013). En sportchefs vardag - en kvalitativ studie om sportchefens uppgifter i elitserien i ishockey. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap.
4. Adolfsson, H & Söderberg, E. (2013). Att arbeta utan lön? En studie om
funktionärerna på GöteborgsVarvet. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och idrottsvetenskap.
5. Teng, G. (2013). Uppdrag samspel - en studie om elevers samspelskunnande i bollspel i ämnet idrott och hälsa. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för kost- och
idrottsvetenskap (licentiatuppsats).
6. Högman, J., (2013). Young people´s experiences of organized spontaneous sport.
University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
7. Stråhlman, O & Marting, S., (2013). Volunteers at the 2013 European Indoor Athletics Championships – a study on volunteerism in sport events. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
2014:
1. Stråhlman, O & Pålshammar, J., (2013). Volunteers at GöteborgsVarvet 2013, Volunteering Experiences at a Sporting Event. University of Gothenburg: Department of Food, Nutrition and Sport Science.
