Science 10 Chemistry

Science 10

Chemistry

Workbook

Chemistry: Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

The five major concepts developed in this unit are:

 Matter is classified on the basis of its properties

 Matter has a well-defined underlying structure

 Elements combine to form a vast array of compounds

 Energy is involved in each change that matter undergoes

 Matter is conserved in chemical reactions

Topic One: Understanding Matter

A Brief History of Chemistry...4

Understanding Matter...5

Laboratory Safety...7

Structure of Atoms...11

Chemical Symbols...16

Periodic Table...18

Periodicity of Elements...19

Atomic Structure...22

Isotopes and Atomic Molar Mass...23

Energy Level Diagrams of Atoms...27

Ions...28

Topic Two: Composition of chemical compounds Ionic Compounds...34

The Stock System...36

Ternary Ionic Compounds Polyatomic Ions...37

Hydrated Ionic Compounds...40

Acids...45

Molecular Compounds...48

Topic Three: Chemical Change Reactions Between Elements and Compounds...59

Balancing and Interpreting Equations...61

Formation and Decomposition Reactions...63

Single Replacement Reactions...66

Double Replacement Reactions...68

Combustion Reactions...70

Lab Report Guidelines and Terms Science 10 ESL

Title Page:Include the name of the lab, your name and lab partner(s), and the date and class period.

Problem: May be stated as a question or a statement.

Background Information: information relevant to the lab or that is needed to do any calculations in the lab. This section is usually given in the lab handout and in that case you do not have to do it.

Experimental Design: A one or two sentence explanation of your plan to solve the problem.

Hypothesis: If this lab is an experiment, a hypothesis will be required. The hypothesis states what you expect to happen and why.

Prediction: This is a statement of what you expect to happen, including

Variables: A list of variables such as the manipulated, responding and control variable as are stated

.

Materials: A list of materials and equipment required to complete the lab as well as a labelled diagram showing the lab setup.

Procedure: Step by step instruction to carry out the lab. Each statement should be an action. Number the steps and include any safety considerations for the lab.

Data: Include all observations, measurements, and estimates made during the lab. Data should be presented in a table wherever possible. Tables should indicate the uncertainty in each measurement recorded.

Analysis: Analyze the data, solve the problem, and include one sample calculation of each different calculation you make.

Evaluation: Draw an overall conclusion that answers the problem. Identify

limitations of the lab. Suggest improvements. This should be one

paragraph in length.

Laboratory Safety What is WHMIS?

In Canada, the WHMIS (___________________________________________________) label is one of the ways health hazard information is made available to anyone using the material. WHMIS laws require _________________.

Labels are important because they are the first alert that there may be _________________ associated with using the product covered by WHMIS legislation.

The labels also tell what ___________________ to take when using the product. In addition, labels also ________________ the person that there is a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) available which contains more detailed information on the product.

Who is responsible for labeling?

_______________, _______________ and sometimes _______________are all responsible for labeling products.

Are there different types of labels?

A WHMIS label can be a ________, ________, ________, ________, ________, ________, - ________or ________. It can be attached, imprinted, stenciled or embossed on the controlled product or its container. However, there are two different types that are used most often: the supplier label and the workplace label.

A supplier label must appear on all controlled products received at workplaces in Canada and must contain the following information:

 product identifier (name of product)

 supplier identifier (name of company that sold it)

 a statement that an MSDS is available

 hazard symbols (the pictures of the classification)

 risk phrases (words that describe the main hazards of the product)

 precautionary measures (how to work with the product safely)

 first aid measures (what to do in an emergency)

 have all text in English and French.

 have the WHMIS hatched border.

WHMIS

Hatched

Border

A - COMPRESSED GAS A compressed gas is a material that is a gas at normal room temperature (20C) and pressure but is packaged as a pressured gas, dissolved gas or gas liquefied by compression or refrigeration. The hazard from these materials, aside from their chemical nature, arises from sudden loss of integrity of the container. A compressed gas cylinder is usually quite heavy and when ruptured can become a projectile with the potential to cause significant damage.

B - FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL

Flammable or combustible materials will ignite and continue to burn if exposed to a flame or source of ignition. Materials are classified as a flammable gas, flammable aerosol, flammable liquid, combustible liquid, flammable solid, or reactive flammable material.

C - OXIDIZING MATERIAL An oxidizing material may or may not burn itself, but will release oxygen or another oxidizing substance, and thereby causes or contributes to the combustion of another material.

D - POISONOUS AND INFECTIOUS MATERIAL D1- Materials Causing Immediate and Serious Toxic Effects

Poisonous and Infectious Material Poisonous substance. A single exposure Immediate and serious toxic effects may be fatal or cause serious or permanent damage to health.

These materials may be classified as toxic or very toxic based on information such as LD50 or LC50.

D2 - Materials Causing Other Toxic Effects

A pure substance or mixture that may be any one of the following: a carcinogen, teratogen, reproductive toxin, respiratory tract sensitise, irritant or chronic toxic hazard.

Poisonous and Infectious Material Poisonous substance. May cause irritation Other toxic effects repeated exposure may cause cancer, birth defects, or other permanent damage.

D3 - Biohazardous Infectious Material

This classification includes any organisms and the toxins produced by these organisms that have been shown to cause disease or are believed to cause disease in either humans or animals. Bio-hazardous Infectious materials Drastic exposures may result in death.

E - CORROSIVE MATERIAL Corrosive materials can attack (corrode) metals or cause permanent damage to human tissues such as the skin and eyes on contact. Burning, scarring, and blindness may result from skin or eye contact. Corrosive materials may also cause metal containers or structural materials to become weak and eventually to leak or collapse.

F - DANGEROUSLY REACTIVE MATERIAL

Dangerously reactive materials may undergo vigorous polymerisation, decomposition or condensation. They may

1. Using the previous information write a short 1 sentence description of what these symbols mean.

2. What does MSDS stand for?

Understanding Matter: Laboratory Safety General Safety Guidelines

1. Do not joke around .

2. Be familiar with the emergency exit route.

3. Know the location of, and how to use of the fire extinguisher, eye wash station, first aid kit, fire blanket, spill mix, waste containers, broken glass

container, and MSDS binder.

4. Do not wear long, loose sleeves or a loose coat in the lab. Open-toed sandals should NOT be worn.

5. Lab aprons are required, long hair must be tied back and ALWAYS wear safety goggles to protect your eyes.

6. Do not bring backpacks or purses into the working lab area.

7. Check the label on the reagent bottle. Use only the amount of chemicals that are required in the experiment.

8. Never return unused chemicals to the reagent or stock bottle.

9. Dispose of all chemicals in a waste container as indicated by your teacher. Do not assume chemicals can go down the sink.

10.Do not turn on the gas or water taps unless they are required for a specific experiment.

11. Keep the work area clear and clean.

12. NEVER …

a.) taste chemicals

b.) leave a flame unattended

c.) pour a flammable liquid down the sink

d.) use a flammable substance near an open flame e.) perform unauthorised experiments

f.) remove chemicals or equipment from the laboratory without your teacher’s permission

13. If you spill something caustic, flood the area or part of the body with water immediately and notify your instructor.

14. When heating a test tube in an open flame, keep the test tube tilted at 45

and move it slowly back and forth through the flame. Do not concentrate the flame on the bottom of the test tube. Never point an open test tube at yourself or others.

15. When smelling chemicals (solids, liquids or gases) use your hand to waft the air towards your nose. Do not place your nose directly above the substance.

16. After using equipment and glassware, clean them before returning to their proper storage areas.

17. Always wash your hands thoroughly at the end of a lab experiment.

18. No food or drink should be consumed in the laboratory.

19. Know the WHMIS Hazard Symbols.

20. ALWAYS NOTIFY YOUR INSTRUCTOR OF ANY ACCIDENT, NO MATTER HOW

MINOR THE ACCIDENT SEEMS TO YOU!!!

Understanding Matter - Properties of Matter

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space. All matter has Physical and Chemical properties.

Physical Properties: colour, melting point, boiling point, density, lustre, hardness, conductivity, malleability, ductility...

Chemical Properties: how "reactive" it is. For example, some chemicals are quite capable of reacting at room temperature, while others must be heated or provided some other source of energy in order for the same reaction to be achieved

Matter is classified according to its physical and chemical properties.

Use your Science textbook to define the following words Pure Substances

Elements – are pure substances that cannot be broken into smaller substances.

 These are found on the periodic table

Compounds – are pure substances made of more than one element



Example: sugar ( C

H

O

), carbon dioxide (CO

) Mixtures

Mechanical Mixture

All Matter

Pure Substances Mixture

Elements Compounds Solutions Mechanical

Solutions

Practice:

1. Sort the following into the correct categories.

water, pop, cereal with milk, air, oxygen, spaghetti sauce, sugar, syrup, salt, vinegar, salad dressing, gasoline, wood, glass, lead shot, copper wire, soil, baking soda (also called sodium bicarbonate), sulphuric acid used to unclog drains, playground sand, nitrogen, aspirin, clear beef broth, swimming pool water, iron nails, Jell-O, mixed nuts, chocolate bar, toothpaste, glue, tears, saliva, carbon dioxide.

Mixtures Solutions Compounds Elements

A Brief History of Chemistry

Black Magic -Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of the Christian Era

 In this era most -people believed that spirits controlled natural processes and they relied upon magic to persuade the spirits to help in their favour.

 Very little chemical knowledge was gathered, but some elements such as iron, gold and copper were recognised.

 During this time the Greek philosophers Thales and Aristotle speculated on the composition of matter. They believed that earth, air, fire and water (some others imagined a fifth substance known as "quintessence") were the basic elements that composed all matter.

 Toward the end of this era people learned that iron could be made from dirty brown earthen rock, and that combining copper and tin could make bronze. This led many to believe that if yellowness and hardness could be combined, gold would form.

This belief that gold could be formed from other substances led to new era known as alchemy.

The Beginning of the Christian Era to mid 17th Century

 During this long era many alchemists believed that metals could be converted to gold.

 Many discoveries of new elements and compounds were made during this period.

 In the early 13th century alchemists like Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Raymond Lully began to realise that alchemists would better serve the world by discovering new products and new methods to improve everyday life.

 An important leader in this movement was a Swiss by the name of Theophrastus Bombastus. Bombastus felt that the object of alchemy should be the cure of the sick. He believed that salt, sulphur and mercury would give health if they were present in the body in proper proportions.

 The last influential chemist in this era was Robert Boyle. Boyle rejected the leading scientific theories of his day and started the list of elements that are still recognised today. In 1661 he founded a scientific society that later became known as the Royal Society of England.

The Mid 17th Century to mid 19th Century

 One of the great controversies during this period was the mystery of combustion.

Two chemists, Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl proposed the theory of phlogiston. This theory said that an "essence" (like hardness or yellowness) was supposed to escape during the process of combustion. No one could prove the theory of phlogiston. Joseph Priestly was the first chemist to prove that oxygen was essential to combustion.

 Oxygen and hydrogen were both discovered during this period. The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier formulated the present accepted theory of combustion.

 This era marked the first time in which scientists used the "modern method" of testing theories with experiments. This led to a new era known as Modern Chemistry, which many also refer to as Atomic Chemistry.

Mid 19th Century to Present

 Lavoisier's thesis gave chemists the first sound understanding of the nature of chemical reactions. Lavoisier’s work led an English schoolteacher by the name of John Dalton to formulate his atomic theory.

 By the middle of the 19th century, there were approximately 60 known elements.

 Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. Mendeleev's work set the foundation of theoretical chemistry.

 In 1896 Henri Becquerel and the Curies discovered the phenomenon known as radioactivity. This laid the foundation for nuclear chemistry.

 In 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered that elements could be transmutated.

Rutherford's work laid the basis for interpreting the structure of the atom.

 Niels Bohr and others finalised the atomic theory. Major advancements in chemistry have led to many distinct branches of chemistry such as: biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, chemical engineering, and organic chemistry.

Structure of the Atom

The Greek Concept of Atomos: The Indivisible Atom

Around 440 BCE, Leucippus of Miletus originated the concept of the atom. He and his pupil, Democritus (c460-371 BC) of Abdera, refined and extended it in future years. The Greek theory can be summarized as follows:

1. All matter is composed of atoms, which are bits of matter too small to be seen. These atoms CANNOT be further split into smaller portions.

In Greek, the prefix "a" means "not" and the word "tomos" means,

"cut". Our word atom therefore comes from atomos, a Greek word meaning uncuttable.

2. There is a void (empty space) between atoms.

3. Atoms are completely solid.

4. Atoms have no internal structure.

5. Atoms are different in their sizes, shapes, and weights.

The idea of the atom was strongly opposed by Aristotle and others. Because of this the theory of the atom receded into the background. Although there is a fairly continuous pattern of atomistic thought through the ages, only relatively few scholars gave it much thought. (1998 John L. Park)

John Dalton: The Father of the Chemical Atomic Theory

Modern scholars have identified four basic ideas in Dalton's chemical atomic theory.

1. Elements are made of indivisible particles atoms. A sodium atom will remain a sodium atom before and after physical and chemical changes. Daltonian atoms are usually thought of as being similar to featureless billiard balls.

2. The atoms of an element are identical in their masses. Atoms of the same element have the same properties, such as weight.

3. Atoms of different elements have different masses.

4. Atoms combine in small, whole number ratios.

Chemical combinations between two or more atoms occur in simple, numerical ratios (i.e. 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, etc.).

Other “Dalton” facts:

 Dalton proposed standard symbols for the elements.

 The unit for atomic weight was called a 'dalton' for many years. Today, it used often used in biochemistry (i.e. the atomic weight of that protein is 35,000

A representation of Dalton's Billiard Ball atoms

The Thomson Model of the Atom

 In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, the first subatomic particle.

 He was also the first to incorporate the electron into a structure for the atom.

 Thomson’s solution was to rule the scientific world for

about a decade and is often called Thomson's "plum

pudding model" See the picture below. There are NO

protons in this model.

The Rutherford Model of the Atom

When scientists aimed a stream of alpha particles at a thin gold foil for several months in 1909, there were three major findings:

 Almost all of the alpha particles went through the gold foil as if it were not even there. Those alpha particles, of course, continued on a straight-line path until they hit the detector screen.

 Some of the alpha particles were deflected only slightly.

 A very, very few (1 in 800 for platinum foil) alpha particles were turned through an angle of 90° or more.

 Rutherford explained that most of the mass of the atom was located at the center of the atom. He called this the nucleus.

 The rest of the atom was almost empty space.

 The particles that are positively charged in the nucleus are called protons.

 In other experiments the protons were found to have an opposite but equal charge to the electrons, and a mass about 1840 times greater that than of an electron (1.67252 x 10

g) .

 The diameter of a typical atom is 100 pm (pm is a picometre = 1 x 10

m).

 Rutherford hypothesized that there must be some other subatomic particles in the nucleus. The proof was provided by James Chadwick in 1932 (he was

working in Rutherford's laboratory) when he found this particles with a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. Chadwick named these particles

neutrons.

This is a diagram of Rutherford's device. R is the source of alpha particles and

The Bohr Model of the Atom

 In 1913 Bohr published a theory about the structure of the atom based on an earlier theory of Rutherford's.

 Bohr expanded upon this theory by proposing that electrons travel only in certain successively larger orbits.

 He suggested that the outer orbits could hold more electrons than the inner ones, and that these outer orbits determine the atom's chemical properties.

 Bohr also described the way atoms emit radiation (light) by suggesting that when an electron goes from an outer nucleus orbit to an inner one, that it emits light.

 Later other physicists expanded his theory into quantum mechanics. This theory explains the structure and actions of complex atoms.

actions of complex atoms. 1 st energy level 2nd energy level

The Electron Cloud Model

 This model refined the concept of electrons located in specific energy levels.

 Electrons were now considered to have wave properties and are thought to occupy orbitals (space surrounding the nucleus where there is the likelihood of finding an electron.) Thus electrons are described in terms of where they are likely to exist, rather than in terms of a definite path (orbit).

 This model overcomes the problems that were associated with the Bohr model.

However, it is mathematically complex.

Bohr Atomic Model

Structure of the Atom – Summary

Dalton Thomson

Rutherford Bohr

Chemical Symbols

Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) proposed the system that is in common use today. He suggested that the first letter of each element would represent the atoms of that element.

C -carbon P -phosphorus H –hydrogen S -sulphur F –fluorine I -iodine

O -oxygen N –nitrogen

However, it soon became apparent that with over 100 elements and only 26 letters in the alphabet it was necessary to have a second letter.

He -helium Li -lithium

Be -beryllium Al -aluminium Ar -argon Br -bromine

Cl -chlorine Ba -barium Cs -cesium Zr –zirconium

Some chemical symbols are not derived from the common English name. These elements have had Latin names that have been used for hundreds of years and chemists have chosen to honour these names in the chemical symbol for these elements.

Common

Name Alchemist's

Symbol Symb

ol Latin Name

antimony Sb stibnum

copper Cu cuprum

gold Au aurum

iron Fe ferrum

lead Pb plumbum

mercury Hg hydrargyru

m

tin Sn stannum

silver Ag argentum

Some elements were given symbols based on German names honoring their

discoverers. To this day German and Russian is considered the language of choice for

potassium K kalium

sodium Na natrium

tungsten W wolfram

For newly discovered elements, the names and symbols are established by the

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

Dmitri Mendeleev - Father of the Modern Periodic Table

 Scientists realized that some of the elements exhibited similar chemical and physical properties and many attempts were made to organize the known elements in a table.

 In 1869, the Mendeleev (a Russian chemist) assembled detailed descriptions of more than 60 elements and, presented them to the Russian Chemical Society.

1. The elements, if arranged according to their atomic weights, exhibit repetition of properties.

2. Elements that are similar in chemical properties have atomic weights that are either the same value (e.g. Pt, Ir, Os) or which increase regularly (e.g. K, Ru, Cs).

3. The arrangement of elements or groups of elements in the order of their atomic weights, correspond to their chemical properties (e.g. Li, Be Ba, C, N, O, and Sn).

4. The elements that have the least density have the smallest atomic weights.

5. The size of the atomic weight determines the character of the element.

6. We should expect the discovery of yet unknown elements (e.g. elements related to aluminium and silicon whose atomic weight would be between 65 and 75).

7. The atomic weight of an element may be determined by knowledge of elements that neighbour it. Thus the atomic weight of tellurium must lie between 123 and 126, and cannot be 128.

8. Certain characteristic properties can be predicted from their atomic weights.

It was not until November 1875 when the Frenchman Lecoq de Boisbaudran

discovered one of the predicted elements (eka-aluminium) which he named gallium

caused Dmitri's ideas to be taken seriously. Another two elements were discovered

later and their properties were found to be remarkably similar to those predicted by

Mendeleev. These discoveries verified his predictions and took him to the top of the

science world.

The Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table is a classification system that applies to the elements. The arrangement of the elements in this table allows us to group elements with common chemical and physical properties, as well as common atomic structure.

Each square in the periodic table represents one element and contains a large amount of information about that element. These squares may also contain information that we may not be studying this year.

The elements are then arranged in a table as follows.

Periodicity of Elements - Elements are arranged in periods and groups. Each group (also called a family) has similar physical and chemical properties. In the Periodic

26

+3 +2

Fe

Iron 55.85 Atomic Mass

Common Ion Charge Other Ion Charge

English Name

Element Symbol (the state of the element under standard conditions is indicated in outline for gases, italics for liquids, and solid black for solids Atomic Number

GROU P

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

H He

1

1 2

Li Be B C N O F Ne

2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A

3

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 6

55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 Periodic Table of the Elements

83 84 85 86 Fr Ra Lw Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt

7

87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

10

6 7

P E R I O D

Group 3

Staircase

All elements in these rows have the same number of energy levels in which

electrons are found. Note that the elements in the block under the main

table belong in the sixth and seventh period respectively, but for the sake of

Table of Elements groups are arranged in columns while

periods are arranged in rows.

Symbols for elements are:

- one capital letter or

- one capital letter followed by one lower case letter Example:

Na Al Ag

na al AG

Elements should be written in lower case unless at the beginning of a sentence

Example:

“Silver, not magnesium, is used in jewellery.”

States of Mater: There are three basic states of matter. solids, liquids and gasses.

SATP refers to the standard ambient temperature and pressure of the surroundings.

(Really SATP helps describe our basic room conditions)

Questions:

1.What are “groups” on the periodic table?

2.What are “periods” on the periodic table?

3.What are the correct symbols for communicating calcium and magnesium?

4.Where is the atomic number located on the periodic table?

5.What does the atomic number communicate?

6.What does SATP stand for?

7.What are the three states of matter? Can you think of any others?

Classification of the Elements

Elements can be classified into very distinct groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics.

Metals: Form cations (positively charged particles that will be discussed later in this unit). Most metals are conductors of electricity and heat and are solids with a metallic luster. They are malleable and ductile. Many of these elements are hard and have high physical strength. The metal series includes all elements left of the staircase on the periodic table.

Non-metals: Form anions (negatively charged particles that will be discussed later in this unit). These elements, in general, are poor conductors, are brittle, and are dull.

Elements in this group can exist as solid, liquid or gas at room temperature. These elements occur to the right of the staircase on the periodic table.

Alkali Metals: metals in the first column or Group 1 of the periodic table (i.e. lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium). With the exception of francium, these metals are all soft and silvery. These elements react vigorously, even violently, with water and must be stored in oil to prevent contact with the moisture in the air. These elements are never found in their pure form naturally.

Alkaline Earth Metals: elements in the second column or Group 2 of the periodic table.

These elements are in general white, differing by shades of colour. These elements may be made into rods, wire or plate. These elements are less reactive than the alkali metals.

When the surface of these metals comes in contact with oxygen in the air, a strong protective oxide coating is formed. This coating must be removed for further reaction to occur

Metalloid: refers to elements that exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals.

These elements tend to be semiconductors. Silicon is an extremely important example of these elements. This group of elements includes B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, and At. These elements occur immediately to the right or left of the staircase.

Transition Metals: this series includes all elements in Groups 3-12 and the sub-series Lanthanides and Actinides (inner transition metals). In general these elements are known for their hardness, high density, high melting and boiling points and heat conduction although there are exceptions. Some of these elements form coloured ions.

Halogens: the reactive non-metals in Group 17 of the periodic table. These elements are so reactive that they are never found as elements in nature.

Noble Gases: elements belonging to Group 18. These elements are very un-reactive, however, they are not non-reactive as compounds containing these elements have been synthesized. There are no naturally occurring compounds that are made up of these elements.

Lanthanides (rare earth elements): the fourteen elements of the upper row on the inner transition metals that follow the element lanthanum (57). Some reference sources include lanthanum in this series others do not. This series is a sub-series of the transition metals. These elements are found in very small amounts naturally, hence the term "rare earths".

Actinides: the fourteen elements in the bottom row of the inner transition elements of the periodic table that follow the element actinium (89). This series is a sub series of the transition metals.

Transuranides: all elements that follow uranium. These elements do not occur naturally.

They can only be produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. While some of these elements of this series are commonly lumped in with metals, not enough information is available for us to positively conclude whether elements 116 and 118 should be included with the metals or non-metals.

An Elemental Tale

'The Kid' mounted his trusty steed, old (B) ____________. His

shooting (Fe)____________ strapped to his side, he headed out for the bright (Ne) _________ lights of Cameras, aiming to rob the Cactus Stage. There was sure to be a load of precious (U)__________ on board, and probably (K) _________ too. Inhaling a deep breath of (O)__________, the coughed on the (S)__________ fumes from the nearby gas plants. Since the (Hg) ___________ was climbing, he

quenched his thirst with some H

O, tasting the (Cl)__________ all big cities add to their 'aqua pura'. As he headed North, his bones ached from (Ca)__________ built up over years of riding the (Zn)__________

trail. Overhead a (He)_________ filled balloon floated in the breeze and the sun beat down like burning (P)___________. Soon he spotted the stage, guarded only by a sheriff with a (Sn)_________ badge. He (Kr)____________, slowly approaching the stage. "Halt," he yelled, "or I'll fill you full of (Pb)__________!" The Sheriff drew his gun, but alas, he was too slow. The Kid's gun, blazing like flaming (Mg)___________

did the (Cu)____________ in. All anyone could do was (Ba)___________.

Anyone who drew on the Kid would know that his life wasn't worth a plugged (Ni)__________! A (Pt)____________ blonde riding beside the (Al)___________ framed coach rode for her life when the Kid pulled out some (N)___________ compounds, preparing to blow the

strongbox to atoms. Suddenly a shout rang out. "Hi Ho (Ag)___________." A masked man on a white horse with an

(In)____________ friend raced across the (Si)___________ sands like (Na)____________ skittering on water. A (H)___________ bomb would not have stopped the lawman; the Kid had met his doom. The rest of his life was to be spent as a (Si)____________ behind

(Co)____________ steel bars, a warning to all who flirt with danger.

Your first detention may be the initial step in a (C)__________ copy of

the life of the (Au)_________ Dust Kid!

Understanding Matter - Periodic Table Assignment

1. Fill in the group (family) members on the following outline of the periodic table.

Also write the common names for the families or series of elements in the appropriate areas on the table.

Complete the following table.

Use/Source English

Name Atom

ic No.

Eleme nt Symb

ol

Grou

p No. Period Numb

er

SAT P Stat

e 1. Rich ores at Great

Bear Lake, NWT

Iron

2. Rich deposits at Bernie Lake,

Manitoba

1 (IA) 6

3. Potash deposits in

Saskatchewan 19

4. Extracted from Alberta sour Natural gas.

S

5. Radiation source

for cancer treatment 9

(VIIIB )

4

6. World scale production in Sudbury.

28

7. Fuel in Candu

nuclear reactors. U

Understanding Matter - Atomic Structure

Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons

Particle Location Relative Mass Relative Charge

Electron Outside Nucleus 1 -1

Proton Inside Nucleus 1836.12 +1

Neutron Inside Nucleus 1838.65 0

Use the Periodic Table of Elements to find the number of p

, n

and e

For an atom:

Number of Protons = Atomic number

Number of Neutrons = (Round the Atomic Mass) - Atomic Number

Number of Electrons = Number of protons Practice:

1. Use your periodic table to complete the table below.

Element symbo

l Protons Neutrons Electrons nitrogen

cadmium chlorine strontium

nickel antimony

silicon

13

55

Isotopes and Atomic Molar Mass

The atoms of all elements are composed of an impossibly small nucleus at the centre surrounded by clouds of electrons. All the atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons in the nucleus and electrons in their various energy levels. The precise number of neutrons in the nucleus is variable. Atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons are called ISOTOPES.

The symbol for an isotope of the element X is as follows:

From the diagram above it is pretty obvious that the number of neutrons in the nucleus is given by subtracting the value of Z from A. We must never forget that the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus - i.e., for an atom the number of electrons is the same as Z.

Consider the examples on this page and over leaf in which you have to determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each atom/ion:

17 protons, 18 neutrons and 17 electrons - Chlorine-35 Z = 35, A = 17

17 protons, 20 neutrons and 17 electrons - Chlorine-37 Z = 37, A = 17

1 proton, 2 neutrons and 1 electron - Tritium... a unique name.

Z = 3, A = 1

1 proton, 1 neutron and 1 electron - Deuterium... another unique name.

Z = 2, A = 1

A Z

A is the Mass Number:

The number of protons and neutrons in the nuclei of this

Isotope’s atoms X is the element

Symbol (Isotopes can be ions too).

Z is the Atomic Number: the number of protons in the nucleus of this atom.

37 Cl

17

2 H

1 35 Cl

17

3 H

1

X

Z = 1, A = 1

Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons and Suggest a name for each of the isotopes in the list below

e.g. 16 protons 17 neutrons 16 electrons sulphur - 33

13 C

6 32 S

16

18 O

8 33 S

16

16 O

8

207 Pb

82 210 Pb

82

209 Bi

83

238 U

92 14 C

6

Define the words and

: Empirical:

Theoretical:

1. Use page 25 of your text book to provide an empirical definition of a metal?

2. Provide an empirical definition of non-metals?

3. (Discussion) how and why do chemists classify elements?

4. Complete the following table:

Element

Name Eleme

nt Symbo

l

Atomi c Numb

er

Group Numb

er

Period Numb

er

Metal (m) Non (nm)

Stat

e Family

Name

a. chlorine b. magnesiu

m

c. 30

d. N

e. 17 5

f. 79

g. 3 alkali

metals h. thorium

i. 12 (l)

j. Br

k. argon

l. 11 5

m 19

n. calcium

o. 1 (g)

5. Locate on your periodic table where all the non-metals are and where all the

metals are. What could be a theoretical definition of a metal and a non-metal?

Understanding Matter - Energy Level Diagrams of Atoms

All the electrons a given element has are arranged in shells around the nucleus.

Each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons before it is 'full'.

SHELL FULL NUMBER of e-

1st shell 2 electrons total 2

2nd shell 8 electrons total 10

3rd shell 8 electrons total 18

4th shell 18 electrons total 36

5th shell 18 electrons total 54

6th shell 32 electrons total 86

7th shell 32 electrons (total 118)

 You have to memorize only the bolded sections

A diagram of an atom with all its electrons might be presented like this.

This diagram shows boron

a - electrons

b - 1st electron shell c - nucleus

d - second electron shell

A more simplified diagram of boron shows:

---3e

--- # of electrons in second shell (to a maximum 8 electrons)

---2e

--- # of electrons in first shell

5p

number of protons

6n

number of neutrons

B symbol of the element or ion

Energy Level Diagrams for ATOM

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

IONS

Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons to achieve a filled outer energy level. Because the electron has very little mass (almost none), the mass does not change. However, the charge of the atom does change.

The reason atoms form ions is that certain electron configurations have a lower energy (are more desirable). These configurations are also called noble gas or

They are like:

helium 2 electrons neon 10 electrons argon 18 electrons krypton 36 electrons

xenon 54 electrons

radon 86 electrons

If an element can lose or gain electrons it will try to form an ion with 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 or 86 electrons.

Note: The transition elements obey slightly different rules.

Cation Formation:

When a metal atom forms an ion, it will lose its valence (outermost energy level)

previous period. As a result a positively charged ion (cation) is formed. We name these particles by adding the word -ion to the atoms name.

EX: sodium will become a sodium ion:

Sodium has 11 electrons and 11 protons it could attain the stability of neon if it lost 1 electron. The only problem is that it would have 1 more proton than electrons. This gives it a charge of +1.

sodium atom (Na) sodium ion (Na+) 8e

2e

11 protons = 11+ 11 protons = 11+

11 electrons = 11- 10 electrons = 10 -

11p

_________ _________ 12n

0 1+

Na

The ion will become charged because it has more protons (positive charges) than

electrons (negative charges).

Anion Formation:

When non-metals form an ion they gain electrons to fill their valence level with enough electrons to have the same configuration as the next noble gas. The resulting ion has more electrons than the atom and it called an anion. To name the ion we add the ending –ide to the atomic name.

For example chlorine will become a chloride ion:

Chlorine has 17 electrons and 17 protons it could attain the stability of argon if it gained 1 electron. The only problem is that it would have 1 more electron than protons.

This gives it a charge of -1.

8e

chlorine atom (Cl) chloride ion (Cl-) 8e

2e

17 protons = 17+ 17 protons = 17+

17 electrons = 17- 18 electrons = 18 -

17p

_________ _________ 18n

0 1-

Cl

Energy Level Diagrams for IONS

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

Understanding Matter - Review of Atoms and Ions

1. Write the English names for each of the following elements:

H : P : Na : Cu :

I : Cl : Hg : Ni :

2. Give an empirical (based on observation) definition of a metal.

3. Give a theoretical (based on theory) definition of a metal.

4. Give an empirical definition of a non-metal.

5. Give a theoretical definition of a non-metal.

6. What does SATP mean?

7. From the periodic table give the symbol and state of the elements that are a) gasses and

b) liquids at SATP

8.. Draw the simplified energy level diagrams for the following chemical species:

boron atom chloride ion aluminum

ion neon atom oxide ion

9. Horizontal rows on the periodic table are referred to as _____________________.

10. Vertical rows are referred to as a _________________ or ________________.

11. Predict, where possible, the number of valence electrons for each of the following atoms.

argon - carbon - oxygen - nitrogen - calcium -

12. Predict, where possible, the most likely charge on the following ions.

alkali metals

____ Alkaline earth metals

____

Group 13

____ Group 15

____

Group 16

____

Halogens

____

Group 5

____

13. Complete the following table:

English

Name Chemic

al

Symbol

No. of

Protons No. of Electro ns

# of e

Donated

or Accepted

Net Charge

eg

. chloride ion Cl

17 18 gained 1 1-

eg

. sodium atom Na 11 11 0 0

1. 20 18

2. 1 1-

3. Ar

4. Mg 12

5. chlorine atom

6. 9 10

7. 6 0

8. H

9. sodium ion 10

. 1 1

11

. 7 0

12 .

16

argon atom

13 . S

14

. I

15

. uranium

atom 16

. 10 gained 2

17

. 5 0

18

. aluminum ion 3+

Composition of Chemical Compounds - Ionic Compounds

Binary Ionic Compounds:

The simplest ionic compounds are formed when two ions combine due the electrostatic attraction between a positive (cation) and a negative ion (anion).

When each ion has the same charge the ratio of anions to cations is one-to-one.

However when anions and cations differ in their charge their ratio must be such as to yield a neutral compound.

Consider the case lithium and fluorine below. Lithium could attain the electron configuration of helium if it could lose its valence electron. Fluorine could become like neon if to could gain an electron. When lithium and fluorine react the electron is transferred from sodium to fluorine forming sodium fluoride.

Lithium fluoride has formed

Li F Li

F

In this exercise, circle all the metal ion names, and underline all the non-metal names.

1.

zinc sulfide magnesium chloride

potassium iodide strontium nitride

2. What generalization can you make about the names of each of these binary ionic compounds?

Ionic compounds - Are made of just one metal ion and one non-metal ion. Ionic

compounds are always named with the positive ion (cation) first followed by the a negative ion (anion). For example NaCl is named sodium chloride.

When the formula for the compound is written, it must be written in such a way

that it has a neutral charge. eg. the sodium ion, Na

, plus the chloride ion, Cl

combine to form NaCl. The charge is neutral because the metal ion has a one positive charge and the non-metal has a one negative charge.

Not so with magnesium iodide,

The magnesium ion, Mg

and the iodine ion, I

do not produce a neutral compound when they are put together. - MgI. Instead, we must balance the compound by adding an additional negative ion to produce a compound with a neutral charge.

Thus the compound requires one Mg

,I

, I

. This forms the compound

magnesium iodide, MgI

. Two iodide ions are needed to neutralize the charge of the one magnesium ion. Chemists say that the combining ratio of

magnesium and iodine are 1:2.

Complete the following table by either writing the correct chemical formula or IUPAC name.

Chemica l

Formula

Summary of Charge Name of Compound

eg. CaCl

Ca

, Cl

, Cl

calcium chloride

1 potassium iodide

2 MgO

3 aluminum chloride

4 NaBr

5 CaO

6 lithium nitride

7 Al

O

8 barium chloride

9 sodium chloride

10 ZnO

11 silver bromide

12 magnesium hydride

13 magnesium chloride

14 zinc chloride

15 Ag

S

17 CaF

18 sodium sulfide

19 CaH

20 zinc sulfide

Composition of Chemical Compounds - The Stock System

The transition metals can form ions with more than one charge. The reason for this lies in the structure of an energy level shared by all transition metals. In order to distinguish the ions when naming ionic compounds involving transition elements we use roman numerals that correspond to the ion charge. For example, iron can exist as Fe

and Fe

.

 Fe

is called the iron (III) ion, pronounced iron three ion, and

 Fe

is called the iron (II) ion, pronounced iron two ion.

Write the chemical formula for iron (II) oxide. ________ and for iron(III)oxide. ________

Most transition metals can and do form more than one ion and must be named using this system. There are, however, some exception like zinc and silver and for these we do not use the stock system.

Complete the following table using the Stock System for naming ionic compounds. Remember that all transition metals except for aluminum, zinc and silver require the Roman numeral to specify ion charge.

Chemical

Formula IUPAC Name Summary of Charges

1 Cu

N

copper(II) nitride Cu

, Cu

, Cu

, N

, N

2 gold (I) chloride

3 Cr

S

4 tin(II) oxide

5 antimony(V) bromide

6 SbF

7 CuCl

8 Fe

Se

9 ZnCl

10 nickel (III) oxide

11 mercury(I) nitride

12 TiP

13 Ni

S

15 cobalt(II) phosphide

16 chromium(II) hydride

Composition of Chemical Compounds – Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

 Polyatomic ions contain more than one type of atom and they make up polyatomic compounds.

 Polyatomic ions form compounds according to the same rules as monoatomic (one atom) ions.

 Polyatomic ions are listed on the back of your periodic table and are for the most part negatively charged ions.

 Most polyatomic ions have a different ending than -ide. This allows you to easily recognize when you are dealing with polyatomic ions.

For example: If asked to write the formula for sodium sulfate. You can

recognize the sodium part but sulfate may be a word you don't recognize. In that case check the box containing the polyatomic ions. Sulfate shows up as SO

. This means it is a polyatomic ion with a charge of -2.

To write the formula for the compound sodium sulfate, you need two

sodium ions and one sulfate ion. Na

+ Na

+ SO

makes Na

SO

and it has a neutral charge so you are done. Whenever you need multiple

polyatomic ions, you must put parentheses around the polyatomic ion and add the subscript outside the parentheses.

e.g. Write the name of Mg(ClO)

____________________________________.

The following table requires you to name some common polyatomic ions.

Remember that complex ions are not molecules and cannot exist by themselves as they are on the periodic table or in this exercise.

Ion Name Formula Ion Name Formula

1. hydrogen

sulfate 6. sulfite

2. ClO

7. NO

3. NH

8. hydrogen

sulfide

4. dichromate 9. HPO

5. OH

10

. CH

COO

Naming Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Use the table of polyatomic ions to complete the following exercise. Only those polyatomic ions listed on the periodic table are used in science 10. (Remember to use the stock system when applicable.)

International

Formula Summary of Charges IUPAC English Name

1 Na

CO

2 (NH

)

CO

3 FeSO

4 lithium hydroxide

5 aluminum hydroxide

6 NaClO

7 potassium dichromate

8 LiC

H

CO O

9 NaNO

10 ammonium sulfate

11 sodium hydrogen

carbonate 12 Na

PO

13 calcium dihydrogen

phosphate 14 PbCrO

15 sodium hydrogen

sulfate

16 KMnO

17 aluminum silicate

18 Li

CO

Naming Compounds Containing Polyatomic ions.

Complete the following table using the stock system and polyatomic ions for naming compounds.

Chemical

Formula Summary of Charge Name of Compound

eg. Cu

SO

Cu

, Cu

, SO

copper(I) sulfite

1 uranium(IV) oxide

2 lead(IV) sulfate

3 Sn(HPO

)

4 Al

O

5 manganese(IV) iodate

6 Sb

S

7 thallium(III)

hydroxide

8 HgS

9 MoS

10 polonium (II)

thiosulfate

11 FeSO

12 lead(IV) chlorate

13 Hg(NO

)

14 ZnSe

15 V

O

16 tin (II) borate

17 chromium (III)

phosphate

18 TiO

19 Ag

SO

21 uranium(IV) cyanide

22 NiBr

23 cobalt(II) hypochlorite

Composition of Chemical Compounds - Hydrated Compounds

Hydrated compounds are compounds that contain water as part of their structure. Some compounds are water seeking and are most stable when they are attached to many water molecules.

To name these substances we need to know the common prefixes so that the compounds can be described correctly.

The common substance, Epsom salt, is named magnesium sulfate heptahydrate and its

formula is MgSO

7H

O. If you remove the water by heating or by some other means, the

compound can be used to soak up water as it gets back the water you have taken away.

Antiperspirants are made in this way.

Generally the chemical formula ends with __H

O

- where the blank is the correct value for the number of water molecules that are bonded to the ionic compound.

The IUPAC name can be written in two different ways. For the above example MgSO

7H

O would be written either;

- using the prefix system as magnesium sulfate heptahydrate or - using the number system as magnesium sulfate-7-water.

***You must be able to read and write the names of hydrated compounds using either system.

E.g. – Cu(NO

)

 4 H

O

 tetrahydrate copper (II) nitrate

Full Name: copper (II) nitrate tetrahydrate 1 - mono

2 - di 3 - tri 4 - tetra 5 - penta

6 - hexa

7 - hepta

8 - octa

9 - nona

10- deca

Try to find the name for these:

LiOH  2 H

O

PbCl2  6 H

O

Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate

Naming Hydrated Compounds . Complete the following table.

Name of Hydrate Common Name, Use or Description Formula e.g. copper(II)

sulfate

pentahydrate

blue vitriol, bluestone, copper plating,

blue solid

CuSO

5H

O

1. Epsom salts, white solid

explosives, matches MgSO

7H

O

2. sodium carbonate

decahydrate washing soda, soda ash, water softener,

white solid

3. white solid, fireproofing wood,

disinfectants, parchment paper MgCl

6H

O

4. barium chloride

dihydrate white solid, pigments, dyeing fabrics,

tanning leather

5. white solid, photographic

emulsions Cd(NO

)

4H

O

(s)

6. white solid, embalming material,

fireproofing lumber, vulcanizing ZnCl

5H

O

7. zinc sulfate

heptahydrate white solid, clarifying glue, preserving wood and skins

8. lithium chloride

tetrahydrate white solid, soldering aluminum in fireworks

9. photographic hypo, antichlor,

white solid Na

S

O

5H

O

1

0 cobalt(II) chloride

hexahydrate pink solid, humidity and water indicator, foam stabiliser in beer 1

1 white solid, antiperspirant AlCl

6H

O

1

2 de-icer used on icy highways,

added to cement mixtures to prevent freezing

CaCl

2H

O

1

3 barium hydroxide

octahydrate white solid, manufacture of glass,

water softener