Do
Anglo
countries
still
form
a
values
cluster?
Evidence
of
the
complexity
of
value
change
Carolyn
P.
Egri
a,1,
Shaista
E.
Khilji
b,*
,
David
A.
Ralston
c,2,
Ian
Palmer
d,3,
Ilya
Girson
e,4,
Laurie
Milton
f,5,
Malika
Richards
g,6,
Prem
Ramburuth
h,7,
Audra
Mockaitis
i,8a
SimonFraserUniversity,8888UniversityDrive,Burnaby,B.C.V5A1S6,Canada
b
TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,2134GStreet,NW,WashingtonDC20052,USA
c
DepartmentofManagementandInternationalBusinessCollegeofBusinessAdministration,FloridaInternationalUniversity,11200SW8Street,n/aMiami,FL33199,USA
dRMITUniversity,300QueenSt,MelbourneVIC3000,Australia e
UniversityofWestminster,35,MaryleboneRoad,LondonNW15LS,UK
f
UniversityofCalgary,2500UniversityDr,NW,Alberta,Canada
g
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity–Berks,TulpehockenRoad,Reading,PA19610,USA
h
UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW2052,Australia
i
MonashUniversity,27SirJohnMonashDrive,CaufieldEast,VIC3145,Australia
1. Introduction
TheAnglocountries,primarilyaproductofBritish colonial-ism, are dispersed around the globe. Based on an analysis of researchconductedoverthreedecades(1960stoearly1980s),
RonenandShenkar(1985)designatedAustralia,Canada,Ireland,
New Zealand, South Africa, U.K., and the U.S. as a ‘cultural cluster.’Recentstudieshavealsoconcludedthatthesecountries constitute an Anglo cluster with variation regarding post-apartheidSouthAfrica.SouthAfricahasbeenidentifiedaspart
of an Africa cluster (e.g., Inglehart & Welzel, 2005; Schwartz, 2006). The GLOBE study’s ethnic segmentation approach identified that black South Africans belonged to an Africa cluster whereas the small minority of white South Africans remains in the Anglo cluster (Ashkanasay, Trevor-Roberts, & Earnshaw,2002).
A reviewof themacro-levelcharacteristics acrosstheAnglo countries indicatesthatwiththeexceptionofSouthAfrica,this groupofcountriesissubstantiallysimilar.Australia,Canada,New Zealand,U.K.,andU.S.scorehighondemocratization,economic developmentlevel,andtechnologicalsophistication(seeTable1). However,countriessuchasGermanyandJapancouldalsofitinto this typology of macro-level predictors. What has led to the clustering view for this group of Anglo countries can be summarized bytheintersectionintheir histories.Allwerepart ofthehistoricBritishEmpire,allareEnglish-speaking,andallhave Protestantismas their religiousbase(Smith&Schwartz,1997). While thesecommonalitieshavebeentheprime reasonforthe Anglo countries being designated a cluster,changes in country contextsduetoanarrayofexternal influencesemanatingfrom globalbusinesspractices(Steel&Taras,2010)raisesthequestion: Are these countriesstilla culturalvaluescluster? Ananswerwill provide a 21st century conceptualization of the Anglo country
relationships. ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Age Anglocluster Culturalvalues Gender Lifestage ABSTRACT
TowhatextentdoestheAngloClusterremainsaculturalclusterintoday’smanagerialandprofessional workforce?AcrosssixAnglocountries(Australia,Canada,NewZealand,SouthAfrica,U.K.,andU.S.),we foundsignificantdifferencesinvaluesorientations(opennesstochange,conservation, self-enhance-ment,andself-transcendencevalues)thatchallengetheconceptofacohesiveAnglocluster.Wealso exploredtheinfluenceofmicro-levelfactorsonvaluesorientationsandfoundconsistentlife-stageand genderdifferencesacrosscountries.Weconcludethat,evenwithinagroupofcountriesperceivedas similar,multi-levelanalysesareneededtofullycapturetheessenceofvaluesdifferencesacrossand withincountries.
ß2011ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+12029941146;fax:+12029944928. E-mailaddresses:egri@sfu.ca(C.P.Egri),sekhilji@gwu.edu(S.E.Khilji), ralstond@fiu.edu(D.A.Ralston),an.palmer@rmit.edu.au(I.Palmer), girsoni@westminster.ac.uk(I.Girson),laurie.milton@haskayne.ucalgary.ca (L.Milton),mur12@psu.edu(M.Richards),p.ramburuth@unsw.edu.au (P.Ramburuth),audra.Mockaitis@vuw.ac.nz(A.Mockaitis).
1 Tel.:+17787823456;fax:+17787825920. 2 Tel.:+14053219994;fax:+14053257688. 3 Tel.:+610399251412;fax:+610399255624. 4Tel:+4402079115000x3037;fax:+4402079115703. 5Tel.:+14032208523;fax:+14032820095. 6Tel.:+6103966000;fax:+6103966026. 7 Tel.:+61293855846;fax:+61293855933. 8 Tel.:+61399032807;fax:+61399054007.
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Journal
of
World
Business
j ourn a lhom e pa g e :ww w . e l se v i e r. c om / l oca t e / j w b
1090-9516/$–seefrontmatterß2011ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2011.04.014
Arguments that cross-culturalvalues similarities and differ-encesaredeterminedbybothmacroandmicrofactors(e.g.,Au&
Cheung,2004;Steel&Taras,2010)callforamorecomprehensive
investigationtoinclude micro, as wellas macro, influences on cultural values formation (Tung & Verbeke, 2010). Previous researchhashighlightedthesignificance of micro-levelfactors, suchasageandgender,inexplainingvaluesdifferenceswithinand acrosssocieties(e.g.,Ralston,Egri,Casado,Fu&Wagenheim,2009;
Setterson&Mayer,1997;Steel&Taras,2010).Atthe
individual-level,ageandgenderareimportantinfluencesonpersonalvalues orientations, whereas at the societal-level, these are common demographicsbywhichinstitutions(e.g.,family,educational,and occupational)areorganized(LaFontaine,1978).Accordingly,our secondresearchquestionis:Doesinvestigatingmicro-levelfactors provideadditionalinsightsregardingvalue orientationsamong the Anglo-clustercountries?
Ourinvestigationofthesetworesearchquestionsoffersnew insightsaswellprovideamoreviablefoundationfor contempo-rarycross-culturalresearch (Steel&Taras, 2010).Insum,this study’scontributionstotheinternationalmanagementliterature are twofold. First, we provide current empirical evidence regardingvalues similaritiesand differences amongtheAnglo countries.Second,wedeterminewhethermicro-levelinfluences onvaluesorientationsprovideempiricalevidenceofsimilarities and/ordifferencesacrossthesecountries.Theremainderofthis paperisorganizedasfollows.First,thetheoreticalbackgroundof valuesmeasurement,culturalvaluesofAngloclustercountries, andtheeffectofmicro-levelvariablesarepresentedtoformulate researchhypotheses.Wethenpresenttheresearchmethodology followed by study results. We conclude with a discussion of findings,researchlimitations,andidentifyimplicationsforfuture research.
2. Theoreticalbackgroundandformulationofhypotheses
2.1. Measuringvalues
Muchofearliercomparativeanalysesofculturalvalueshave beenconductedatthecountrylevel.Rokeach(1973)advocatedthe importance of capturing uniqueness of personal values and proposedthatculturalvaluesbemeasuredattheindividuallevel.
Schwartz’s(1994)integrativetheoryofvalueswasanimportant
stepin the development of values theory, and his instrument-Schwartz Values Survey (SVS) is considered to be a rigorous measureofvaluesattheindividual-level(Sawyerr,Strauss,&Yan, 2005). The SVS values model identifies a quasi-circumplex
structure with four higher-order values: openness to change, conservation, self-enhancement, and self-transcendence
(Schwartz,1994).Thesefourhigher-ordervaluesdimensionsare
thedependentmeasuresinourstudy. 2.2. Anglocountryvaluesorientations
Ronen and Shenkar(1985) identified language, religion,and
geographyasconstitutingthethreeprimarydriversleadingtothe creationofacluster.ThesixAnglocountriesinourstudysharea commonlanguage(English)aswellasreligiousandsocio-political ideologies (Ronen & Shenkar, 1985; Smith & Schwartz, 1997). Further,theysharecomparablehistoricalandpoliticallinkages.All weremembersoftheBritishEmpire(Ashkanasy,Trevor-Roberts,&
Earnshaw,2002)andhavehighlevelsofpoliticaldemocratization
(Marshall,Jaggers,&Gurr,2010).Unlikeothercountryclustersthat
arecharacterizedbygeographicproximity,countriesinthe Anglo-cluster are geographically dispersed (except for neighboring Canadaand theU.S.). WhiletheAnglo countries clearly donot have aproximalgeographic relationship,havingahighlevel of colonial association for years and the subsequent enduring economicassociationmayhaveservedasadefacto‘‘proximity’’ influenceforthesecountries.
Previousresearchsuggeststhateconomicprosperityis associat-edwithhigherimportanceaccordedtoopennesstochangeand self-enhancementvalues.Incontrast,conservationand self-transcen-dencevalues have been found to bemore important in poorer societies (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004;
Inglehart,1997;Inglehart&Welzel,2005;Wolf,1966).Asshown
inTable1,theU.S.,Canada,U.K.,NewZealand,andAustraliahave
high economicdevelopment levels whereas South Africa has a mediumeconomicdevelopmentlevel.Thus,wepropose:
H1. Therearedifferencesinvaluesorientationsofbusiness man-agersandprofessionalsacrosscountriesintheAnglocluster. H1a. BusinesspersonsinAustralia,Canada,NewZealand,theU.K., andtheU.S.attribute higherimportancetoopennesstochange valuesthanthoseinSouthAfrica.
H1b. BusinesspersonsinAustralia,Canada,NewZealand,theU.K., and the U.S. attribute higher importance to self-enhancement valuesthanthoseinSouthAfrica.
H1c. BusinesspersonsinSouthAfricaattributehigherimportance toconservationvaluesthanthoseinAustralia,Canada,New Zeal-and,theU.K.,andtheU.S.
Table1
ComparisonoftheeconomicindicatorsoftheAnglocountriesinthisstudy.a
Australia Canada NewZealand SouthAfrica U.K. U.S. GDPpercapita(inUS$) $26,485 $27,449 $34,121 $3622 $30,688 $37,685
Unemploymentrate 6.4% 7.6% 4.1% N/A 5.2% 5.8%
Inflationrate 3.0% 2.3% 3.1% 9.2% 1.3% 1.6%
GenderGapIndexscore(rank) .7163(15) .7165(14) .7649(5) .7125(18) .7365(9) .7042(23)
Polity 10 10 10 9 10 10 Culturalvalues Individualism 90 80 79 65 89 91 Powerdistance 36 39 22 49 35 40 Uncertaintyavoidance 51 48 49 49 35 46 Masculinity 61 52 58 63 66 62 Traditional/secular-rationalvalues .21 .26 .00 1.09 .06 .81 Survival/self-expressionvalues 1.75 1.91 1.86 .10 1.68 1.76 a
Sources:EconomicdatafromWorldEconomicOutlookDatabase2003(http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/01/weodata/);GenderGapIndex2006(http:// www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Gender%20Gap/GenderGap), note that a lower score indicates a larger gender gap; Polity IV data for 2003 (http:// www.systemicpeace.org/polity/polity4.htm);Individualism,powerdistance,uncertaintyavoidance,andmasculinityvalues(Hofstede,2001);Traditional/Secular-rational andSurvival/Self-expressionvalues(http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org).
H1d. BusinesspersonsinSouthAfricaattributehigherimportance toself-transcendencevaluesthanthoseinAustralia,Canada,New Zealand,theU.K.,andtheU.S.
2.3. Individualfactorsinfluencingvaluesorientations
Despiteanunderstandingthatindividualcharacteristics influ-encevaluesandthenatureofvaluesevolutioninasociety,there hasbeenarelativelackofcross-culturalresearchontheimpactof micro-levelfactorsonvaluesorientations(Ralston,2008).Previous research has identified age/life-stage and gender as important factorsin the study of values (e.g.,Lyons, Duxbury, &Higgins,
2005;Steel&Taras,2010),withsomescholarsarguingthatboth
age and gender operate interdependently (LaFontaine, 1978; Settersten&Mayer,1997).
2.3.1. Age/life-stage
Erikson’s (1997)life-stage modelpresents a progressionof
human development over an individual’s entire life that has oftenbeenusedtodevelopmeaningfulcomparisonsacrossage groups. The life-stage model is psychosocial in nature and addresses personality, cognition, external environment, and relationshipsoftheindividualtopostulatedifferentlifestages. Each life-stage is considered to be distinct in terms of its cognitive,emotional,andbehavioralexperiencesandresponses
(Erikson,1997;Ralston,Hallinger,Egri,&Naothinsuhk,2005).Of
Erickson’slife-stages,wefocusononlyearlyadulthood(20–39 years)andmiddleadulthood(40–59years),whicharethemost relevantintermsofbusiness careersin organizations.
Earlyadulthoodisaboutexperimentinganddevelopingsocial and professional lives. A young adult develops patterns of cooperationandcompetitionbybuildingthecapacitytoloveand committoothers for mutualsatisfaction. Earlyadulthoodis a periodof highspontaneity, creativity,andenergy.Incontrast, middleadulthoodisaperiodofpersonalmasteryandassuming leadership in family and work. During middle adulthood, a persondevelops futureeducation andtraining for others, and focusesoncontributingtothegreatergood,buildingalegacy, and makinga positive difference in one’s sphere of influence
(Levinson,1997).
Recent research has shown evidence of converging values, especially among young adults (Khilji, 2004; Warner, 2004).
Kwong(1994) alsonoted that individualismhad beengrowing
amongtheyoungergroupsofChinese,whichisinsharpcontrast with older Chinese who grew up in ‘seclusion’ under socialist regimes.EgriandRalston’s(2004)studysupportsthesearguments and showsthatAmericanandChineseyouthhavemoresimilar values orientations than do Chinese youth and Chinese older workers.Further,ourreviewofthevaluesliteraturedidnotreveal anylife-stageresearchthatusedtheSVStocomparecountriesof theAnglocluster.Thepresentresearchaddstoanunderstandingof
Erikson’s(1997)life-stagetheorybyexaminingvaluesorientations
acrosssixAnglocountries.
Tosummarize,researchhasshownthatyoungerindividualsare more open to change(Davis, Chatterjee, &Heuer, 2006; Khilji, 2004)andmoreachievementoriented(Lyonset al.,2005)than theiroldercounterparts.Life-stagetheoryalsosuggeststhatearly adulthoodisaperiodofhighenergy,creativity,anddesireforself/ social recognition and control (Levinson, 1997). Therefore, individualsinearlyadulthoodshouldfocusmoreonachievement ofpersonalgoalsthanwouldindividualsinmiddleadulthoodwho are more concerned with contributing to the societal good
(Erikson,1997).Thus,wepropose:
H2a. Early adulthood businesspersons attribute higher impor-tance to openness tochange values than do middle adulthood businesspersons.
H2b. Early adulthood businesspersons attribute higher impor-tancetoself-enhancementvaluesthandomiddleadulthood busi-nesspersons.
H2c. Middleadulthoodbusinesspersonsattributehigher impor-tancetoconservationvaluesthandoearlyadulthood businessper-sons.
H2d. Middleadulthoodbusinesspersonsattributehigher impor-tancetoself-transcendencevaluesthandoearlyadulthood busi-nesspersons.
2.3.2. Gender
Socialstructuralorigintheoryprovidestherationaleforgender differences inpersonal values orientations.Specifically, gender-based differencesareproposedtobetheresult offemales’ and males’ adjustment to the different roles into which they are socialized(Eagly,1995).Sincemostsocietiessocializefemalesand malestoplaydifferentroles,genderdifferencesinvaluespriorities
Table2
Demographiccharacteristicsofcountrysamples(N=1057).
Australia Canada NewZealand SouthAfrica U.K. U.S.
N 153 256 91 132 237 188 Age:mean(s.d.) 29.0(7.4) 39.8(10.9) 43.7(12.4) 39.6(9.4) 41.4(10.8) 32.5(6.5) Male(%) 65% 58% 50% 67% 50% 65% Educationlevela :mean(s.d.) 3.8(.8) 4.3(.7) 3.9(.9) 4.0(.7) 4.1(.9) 4.7(.5) Positionlevel(%) Non-supervisory 37% 40% 28% 33% 15% 47%
First-levelmanager 26% 27% 21% 16% 15% 25%
Middle-levelmanager 27% 20% 8% 22% 27% 20%
Upper-levelmanager 10% 13% 43% 29% 43% 8%
Companysize
Lessthan100employees 32% 28% 49% 21% 18% 17%
100–1000employees 24% 36% 21% 30% 40% 22%
Morethan100employees 44% 36% 30% 49% 42% 61%
Industry(%) Manufacturing 13% 4% 13% 20% 16% 22% Resource-based 2% 3% 3% 2% 2% 1% Services 34% 31% 45% 31% 19% 45% Publicsector 20% 26% 36% 33% 23% 27% Other 31% 36% 2% 14% 40% 6% a
arelikely toemerge(Lyonset al.,2005).Struch,Schwartz,and
Kloot(2002,p.18)arguedthat:‘‘Becausesocialexperiencesaffect
theassociations that develop among values, thedifferent role-basedexperiencesofmenandwomenmayyielddifferencesinthe meanings of some values.’’ They further reason that a similar structure of distinct gender roles across societies may lead to consistentgenderdifferencesinvaluesacrosscultures.
Genderdifferencesinpersonalitytraitsseemtobepersistent acrossadiversearrayofmeasures,datasources,ages,andcultures
(Schmitt, 2008). For example, the NEO Personality Inventory
conductedacross76 culturesrevealedthatfemalesarewarmer, moreopentofeelings,anxious,andaesthetic;whereasmalesare moreassertive,excitement-seeking,andopentoideas(McCrae&
Terracciano,2005). Aninterestingfindinghasbeenthat gender
differences are often greater in wealthier nations. Improved national wealth and gender equality results in larger value differences between males and females (Costa, Terraccino, &
McCrae, 2001; McCrae, 2002). Conversely, Schwartz and Rubel
(2005)foundthatgenderdifferencesinself-directionvaluesare
smallerinricherandmoreindividualisticcountriesthaninpoorer countries with more collectivisticcultures. Similarly, Steel and
Taras’ (2010) meta-analysis found that gender differences are
indeedsmallerincountrieswithhighergenderequality. While the notion of gender differences is widely accepted, recentresearchusing theSVS hasnot shownconsistentgender patterns(Lyonset al.,2005).Forinstance,Struchet al.’s(2002)
studyofgenderdifferencesacrossandwithineightculturalregions foundnonoteworthygenderdifferencesinvalues.Theyconcluded thatmalesandfemalesconstruedthemeaningofvaluessimilarly acrossandwithinvariouscultures.However,SchwartzandRubel
(2005)showedthat across70countries, malesattribute higher
importancetoself-enhancementandopennesstochangevalues thandofemales,whilefemalesattributehigherimportanceto self-transcendence values than males. While the previous cross-culturalresearchongenderdifferencesisnotintotalagreement, wepropose:
H3a. Malesattribute higher importancetoopenness to change valuesthandofemales.
H3b. Males attribute higher importance to self-enhancement valuesthandofemales.
H3c. Femalesattributehigherimportancetoconservationvalues thandomales.
H3d. Femalesattributehigherimportancetoself-transcendence valuesthandomales.
3. Methods
3.1. Sample
Our study consisted of 1057 managers/professionals from Australia(n=153),Anglo-Canada(n=256),NewZealand(n=91),
SouthAfrica(n=132), theU.K.(n=237),and theU.S. (n=188). Participantsrespondedtoamailsurveyconductedin2002–2003 forAustralia,Canada,SouthAfrica,U.K.,andU.S.A.,andin2009for New Zealand. The average response rate was 23%, with all countries exceeding15%,which is comparable toquestionnaire survey response ratesin international business research(Yang,
Wang,&Su,2006).Across-sectionalsamplingdesignwasusedto
ensureconsistencyindatacollectionacrossthesixcountries.The goalofthedatacollectionwastoobtaincountrysamplesthatwere representativeofthebusinesspopulationasawhole,ratherthan targeted samples of a specific sub-group (e.g., gender, race, industry)inthecountry.Furthermore,participantswereremoved fromthesampleiftheywerenotnationalsoftheircountryandhad notspentthemajorityofthefirst15yearsoftheirlivesintheir country. The demographics of the Anglo country samples are presentedinTable2.
3.2. Instrument
The SVSwas usedto measureindividual values preferences
(Schwartz,1994).ThesurveywasadministeredinEnglish,sinceit
is the official language or an official language in the sampled countries.TheSVSinstrumentconsistsof56itemsmeasuredwith a9-pointLikertscalerangingfrom( 1)‘‘opposedtomyvalues’’to (7)‘‘ofsupremeimportance.’’Thecross-culturalequivalencefor45 oftheseitemshasbeenconfirmedinextensivereplicatedstudies across63countries(Schwartz,1994;Schwartz&Bardi,2001).We usedthese45 itemstodevelopscoresforthefourhigher-order values dimensions of openness to change, conservation, self-enhancement,and self-transcendence.Within-subject standard-ized scoreswere calculated to address potentialcross-national differencesinscaleresponsestyle(cfFischer,2004).Thecountry standardized means, standard deviations, and scale reliabilities (Cronbach
a
)arepresentedinTable3.Forthetotalsample,the scalereliabilitieswere:opennesstochangea
=.78(countryrange ofa
=.74 to .80); self-enhancementa
=.82 (country range ofa
=.77 to.83); conservationa
=.84(countryrangeofa
=.79to .88);and self-transcendencea
=.84(countryrangeofa
=.81to .85).3.3. Analyticprocedures
A MANCOVA and post hoc group comparisons were conducted to test study hypotheses. The dependent variables in the MANCOVAwere the four SVSdimensions (openness to change, conservation, self-enhancement, self-transcendence), and the independent variables were country, life-stage group (earlyadulthood,middleadulthood),andgender.Todetermine whethertherewerecountrydifferencesintheinfluenceof life-stage and gender on personal values orientations, we also includedthecountry-by-life-stageandcountry-by-gender inter-actions. Given the country sample characteristic differences, educationlevel,positionlevel,companysize,andindustrywere included as covariates.Post hocgroup comparisons using the
Table3
Personalvaluesorientations:Standardizedmeans,standarddeviations,andscalereliabilities(N=1057).
Opennesstochange Self-enhancement Conservation Self-transcendence Mean (s.d.) a Mean (s.d.) a Mean (s.d.) a Mean (s.d.) a
Australia .11 (.42) .80 .00 (.37) .83 .26 (.30) .84 .14 (.24) .84 Canada .08 (.43) .76 .17 (.41) .83 .18 (.31) .84 .20 (.25) .84 NewZealand .18 (.38) .77 .25 (.43) .83 .31 (.28) .82 .34 (.28) .84 SouthAfrica .02 (.45) .79 .28 (.44) .82 .08 (.36) .88 .17 (.28) .85 U.K. .12 (.40) .78 .13 (.39) .80 .27 (.33) .82 .25 (.28) .85 U.S. .10 (.40) .74 .03 (.38) .77 .20 (.26) .79 .09 (.27) .81
LeastSignificantDifferencetestwereconductedforsignificant effects.Toidentifythenatureof theculturalvalues profilefor eachcountry,paired-sample t-testsusingthefourSVS dimen-sions (after adjusting for the influence of covariates) were conducted.
4. Results
AsreportedinTable4,theMANCOVAshowedsignificanteffects for country (Wilks
l
=.87, F=6.71, p<.001), life-stage (Wilksl
=.93,F=18.42,p<.001),andgender(Wilksl
=.93,F=17.33, p<.001).Thecountry-by-life-stage(Wilksl
=.97, F=1.39)and thecountry-by-gender(Wilksl
=.97,F=1.35)interactionswere notsignificantoverall.Inaddition,thereweresignificanteffectsfor thecovariatesofeducation(Wilksl
=.95,F=11.37,p<.001)and positionlevel(Wilksl
=.97,F=5.83,p<.001).4.1. Countryandvaluesorientations
Hypothesis1proposedthattherewouldbesignificant differ-encesinvaluesorientationsamongtheAnglocountries.Specifically, Hypotheses 1a to 1d proposed country differences in values orientationssuchthatSouthAfricanparticipantswouldattribute lowerimportancetoopennesstochange(H1a)and self-enhance-ment(H1b)valuesandhigherimportancetoconservation(H1c)and self-transcendence(H1d)valuesthanwouldparticipantsinother Anglocountries(Australia,Canada,NewZealand,U.K.,U.S.).
ThedatainTable5indicatesthatthereweresignificantcountry
differences for all four values: openness to change (F=3.84, p<.01), self-enhancement (F=9.43, p<.001), conservation (F=9.42, p<.001), and self-transcendence (F=6.81, p<.001).
Table5presentstheresultsoftheposthocanalysesofcountry
differences. As proposed, South African participants attributed
Table4
MANCOVAresults:Influenceofcountryandlife-stage/genderonpersonalvaluesorientations.
Opennesstochange Self-enhancement Conservation Self-transcendence Wilks’lambda(F)
F F F F Country 3.84** 9.43*** 9.42*** 6.81*** .87(F=6.71***) Life-stage 13.63*** 68.75*** 13.34*** 21.05*** .93(F=18.42*** ) Gender 4.31* 26.72*** 2.77 13.59*** .93(F=17.30*** ) CountryLife-stage .23 1.68 1.58 1.96+ .97(F=1.39) CountryGender 1.13 .73 2.07+ .77 .97(F=1.35) Education 13.40*** 1.18 29.89*** 4.03* .95(F=11.37*** ) Positionlevel 5.82* 19.78*** 3.59+ 11.87*** .97(F=5.83***) Companysize 5.18* 1.56 2.60 .27 .99(F=1.49) Industry 1.22 1.15 .19 3.59** .97(F=1.44) + p<.10. * p<.05. ** p<.01. *** p<.001. Table5
Multiplecomparisontestfindingsforcountrydifferencesforthefourvaluesdimensions.a
Opennesstochange NewZealand U.K. Australia U.S. Canada * SouthAfrica * * * * *
NewZealand U.K. Australia U.S. Canada
Self-enhancement U.S. Australia U.K. * * Canada * * NewZealand * * * SouthAfrica * * * *
U.S. Australia U.K. Canada NewZealand
Conservation SouthAfrica Canada * U.S. * Australia * * U.K. * * * NewZealand * * *
SouthAfrica Canada U.S. Australia U.K.
Self-transcendence NewZealand U.K. * Canada * * SouthAfrica * * Australia * * * U.S. * * * *
NewZealand U.K. Canada SouthAfrica Australia
a
lowerimportancetoopennesstochangeandconservationvalues thanparticipantsinthefiveotherAnglocountries.SouthAfrican participantsalsoattributedlowerimportancetoself-enhancement valuesthanparticipantsinAustralia,Canada,U.K.,andU.S.,withno significantdifferencewithNewZealandparticipants.Inrespectto self-transcendencevalues, South African participantsattributed higherimportancetoself-transcendencethandidU.S.participants, buthadlowerself-transcendencescoresthanNewZealandandU.K participants.Insum,Hypotheses1aand1cwerefullysupported, Hypothesis1bwasmoderatelysupported,andHypothesis1dwas notsupported.
Theposthocanalysesalsoidentifiedseveralinterestingvalues differencesamong the five countries that wereexpected tobe similar based on economic development level and common historicandpolitical roots.Withrespecttoopenness tochange values,NewZealandparticipantshadsignificantlyhigherscores than Canadian participants. With respect to self-enhancement values,U.S.andAustralianparticipantshadhigherscoresthanU.K., Canada,andNewZealandparticipants,andtheU.K.participants scored higher than New Zealand participants. With respect to conservationvalues, Canadian and U.S. participantshad higher scores than U.K. and New Zealand participants, and Canadian participants had higher scores than Australian participants. In regardsto self-transcendencevalues, New Zealand participants hadhigherscoresthanU.K.participantswhohadhigher scores thanparticipantsinCanada,Australia,andtheU.S.Furthermore, Canadianparticipantshadhigherself-transcendencevaluesscores thanAustralianparticipants.Thus,insupportofHypothesis1,we foundsubstantial evidence of values heterogeneity among the countriesoftheformerAnglocluster.
4.2. Life-stageandvaluesorientations
Hypothesis2proposedthatearlyadulthoodparticipantswould attributehigherimportancetoopennesstochange(H2a)and self-enhancement(H2b)values than middle adulthoodparticipants, whointurnwouldattribute higherimportancetoconservation (H2c) and self-transcendence (H2d) values than their younger counterparts. Consistent with Hypothesis 2, early adulthood participantshadhigheropennesstochange(F=13.63,p<.001) and self-enhancement (F=68.75, p<.001) scores than middle adulthoodparticipants; and middle adulthoodparticipants had higherconservation(F=13.34,p<.001) andself-transcendence (F=21.05,p<.001)scoresthanearlyadulthoodparticipants.The onlyposthocanalysisinconsistencywiththeoverallfindingswas no significant life-stage difference in self-transcendence for Australianparticipants.Thus,Hypothesis 2wasfully supported withrespecttolife-stagedifferencesforopennesstochange, self-enhancement,and conservation values, and strongly supported (fiveofsixcountries)forself-transcendencevalues.
4.3. Genderandvaluesorientations
Hypothesis3proposedthatmaleparticipantswouldattribute higher importance to openness to change (H3a) and self-enhancement(H3b) values, whereas female participantswould attribute higher importance to conservation (H3c) and self-transcendence(H3d)values.ConsistentwithHypothesis3,male participantshadhigheropennesstochange(F=4.31,p<.05)and self-enhancement(F=26.72,p<.001)scoresthan female parti-cipants who in turn, had higher self-transcendence (F=13.59, p<.001) scores than male participants. Inconsistent with Hy-pothesis 3, there was no significant gender difference in the importanceof conservation values (F=2.77). The country-level post hoc analyses identified only one inconsistency with the overall findings. For conservation, male participants attributed
higherimportancethanfemaleparticipantsinAustraliaandthe U.S., whereas there were no significant gender differences in conservationvaluesforparticipantsinCanada,NewZealand,South Africa,andtheU.K.Thus,Hypothesis3wasfullysupportedwith respect to gender differences for openness to change, self-enhancement,andself-transcendencevalues,withmixedsupport foundforconservationvalues.
4.4. Culturalvaluesprofiles
We also determined the cultural values profiles for each countryintermsofdifferencesintherelativeimportanceaccorded to each value (at the p<.05 level) after controlling for the covariates.Australia,NewZealand,theU.K.,andtheU.S.hadthe followingvaluesprofile:self-transcendence>opennessto chan-ge>self-enhancement>conservation. For Canada, the values profile was: self-transcendence>openness to change> (self-enhancement, conservation). And for South Africa, the values profile was: self- transcendence>openness to chan-ge>conservation>self-enhancement.
4.5. Resultsforthecovariates
The MANCOVA showed that education level was positively related to the importance attributed to openness to change (F=13.40, p<.001), and negatively related to conservation (F=29.89, p<.001) and self-transcendence (F=4.03, p<.05). Position level was positively related to openness to change (F=5.82, p<.05), self-enhancement (F=19.78, p<.001), and self-transcendence(F=11.87,p<.001),butnegativelyrelatedto conservation(F=3.59,p<.10).Participantsin largercompanies attributed higher importance to openness to change (F=5.18, p<.05),andparticipantsinmanufacturingandservicesindustries attributed lower importance to self-transcendence (F=3.59, p<.01)thanthoseinotherindustrysectors.
5. Discussionandconclusions
We began this studyby asking two questions. One,are the Anglo countries still a values-cluster? Two, does investigating micro-level factors assist in understanding values orientations acrosstheAnglocountries?Thisstudyaddressesthesequestions inanumberofrespects.
5.1. SimilaritiesanddifferencesamongtheAngloclustercountries
We begin our summary review of values similarities and differenceswithafocusonthecountryculturalvaluesprofiles(see
Table6).Onenoteworthysimilarityacrossallsixcountriesisthat
self-transcendencevaluesarerankedasthemostimportantvalue withopenness tochangerankedas thesecondmostimportant value. Lower rankings are accorded to self-enhancement and conservationvalues.Self-transcendencevaluesareassociatedwith the post-materialistic concern for the welfare of others and interpersonaltrust,whereasself-enhancementvaluesare associ-atedwiththepursuitofself-interestedmaterialisticandsurvival needs(Schwartz,2006).Thehighemphasisonself-transcendence acrossthesesixcountrieswithhighpolityratings(Marshallet al., 2010)isconsistentwithpreviousresearchthathasfoundahigh emphasisonself-transcendencevaluesisassociatedwithsocietal democratizationandpro-socialbehavior(Schwartz,2007).Inthat participantsinallsixcountriesviewedself-transcendencevalues asrelativelymoreimportantthanself-enhancementvalues.Our findings differ from those of Ashkanasy et al. (2002) who concludedthattheAngloculturalvalues profileplacesagreater emphasisonindividualmaterialisticgoalsandintereststhanon
collectiveinterests.Evenso,ourfindingthatopennesstochange valuesareconsistentlyratedasmoreimportantthanconservation values is somewhatconsistent with Ashkanasy et al.’s(2002)
characterizationofAngloclustervalues ashavingahighfuture orientationandmoderateuncertaintyavoidancevalues.
Despitetheseoverallprofilesimilarities,wefoundsignificant differenceswithintheAngloclusterwithrespecttotheimportance accordedtoallfourvalues(seeTable6).Asexpected,becauseofits less developed political and economic systems, South Africa exhibitsadifferentvaluesprofilefromtheothercountrieswiththe highestnumberofsignificantdyadicvaluesdifferences(17outofa totalof20).Comparedtotheotherfivecountries,SouthAfrican participantsattributedsignificantlyhigherimportanceto conser-vationvaluesandlowerimportancetoopennesstochangevalues and withoneexception,significantly lowerimportanceto self-enhancement values. Although the South Africa culture values profilewassimilarinrespecttothehighestimportanceaccorded to self-transcendence values and then to openness to change values, one unique aspect was that conservation values were viewed as significantly more important than self-enhancement values.We notethatfora sampleofwhiteSouth Africanswho represent a small minority of the South African population,
Ashkanasyet al.(2002)identifiedthatSouthAfricahasadistinct
culturalvalues profile withmuchhigher uncertainty avoidance values.In sum,ourfindingsprovidefurther evidencethat post-apartheidSouthAfricashouldnolongerbeconsidered anAnglo clustercountry(e.g.,Inglehart&Welzel,2005;Schwartz,2006).
FortheremainingfiveAnglocountries,oneimportantfinding relatestonosignificantvaluesdifferencesbetweenAustraliaand the U.S. Participants in these two countries were more self-enhancingand lessself-transcendent thantheir counterpartsin Canada,NewZealand,andtheU.K.WhereastheU.S.hasoftenbeen identified as beingsomewhat culturally and politically distinct from other Anglo countries (e.g., Inglehart & Welzel, 2005;
Schwartz,2006;Shafer,1999),recenteventsmayhave
exacerbat-edthesedifferences.TheU.S.hasbeenexperiencingdifficulttimes with evidence of eroding trust with political establishments, inequality in education, rising economic imbalances, declining civil/socialcapital,growingmilitarypresenceinAfghanistanand Iraq, and increased concerns with international terrorism and domesticsafety(Andersen,Curtis,&Grabb,2006;Putnam,2000;
Wolnicki, 2009). Such economic distress,along withsocial and
physicalinsecurity,canleadtoaculturalshiftfocusingmoreupon survivalvalues(Inglehart,1997).Ourfindingsalsosuggestthatthe enduring American values of independence, achievement, and personal power, which form the very core of U.S. culture,
(Kitayama,Conway,Petromonaco,Park,&Plaut,2010)mayalso
becharacteristicofAustralianculture.Forinstance,thepastthree decadeshasseen a neoliberal shiftin Australianeconomic and socialpublicpoliciestowardsfreemarketprinciplesand deregu-lationsimilartothoseintheU.S.(Westernet al.,2007).Cultural supportforthesechangeswouldbeindicatedbySchwartz’s(2006)
findingthataself-enhancementvalues orientationis associated withsupportforcentre-rightpoliticalideology.Anotherfactorthat indicates aculturalvaluesdifferencebetween Australiaandthe other Commonwealth member countries in this study is that AustraliahashadanactiveRepublicanismmovementtoreplace thecurrentconstitutionalmonarchyformofgovernment.While the1999AustralianRepublicReferendumwasdefeated(55%voted no),thereremainssignificantlymoresupportforformalseparation fromtheU.K.monarchythaninCanadaandNewZealand(Ritchie &Markwell,2006).
Incontrast,NewZealanderswerethemostself-transcendent, andalthoughsimilartoCanada,theleastself-enhancingofthese five Anglo countries. Inglehart (1997) argued that prolonged periods of peace and prosperity in a society has the effect of satisfying lower order needs of individuals to allow for the satisfaction of higher order self-esteem and self-actualization needs that engenderpost-materialistic values ofegalitarianism, interpersonaltrust,tolerancefordiversity,andself-transcendence. This explanation fits New Zealand, which has enjoyed a high degreeofsocialandpoliticalstabilityandamodernwelfaresystem for the past few decades(New Zealand Government,2010). In 2009,NewZealandwasrankedthesecondleastpoliticallyrisky countryintheworld(IMD,2009).Itseconomyalsoexperiencedthe longestsustainedperiodof growthin threedecadesduringthe yearsfrom1999to2008,includingarobustlabormarket(New
ZealandGovernment,2010).
AlthoughU.K.participantsattributedlowerimportanceto self-transcendencevaluesandhigherimportancetoself-enhancement values than didNew Zealand participants, we foundthat both countrieshadsimilartypesofvaluesdifferenceswithAustraliaand
Table6
Numberofsocietaldyaddifferencesandcountryculturalvaluesprofiles.a
Australia Canada NewZealand SouthAfrica U.K. U.S. Australia (10) 3(self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence) 2(self-enhancement, self-transcendence) 3(opennesstochange, self-enhancement, conservation) 2(self-enhancement, self-transcendence) 0
Canada (13) 3(opennesstochange, conservation, self-transcendence) 3(opennesstochange, self-enhancement, conservation) 2(conservation, self-transcendence) 2(self-enhancement, self-transcendence)
NewZealand (13) 3(opennesstochange,
conservation, self-transcendence) 2(self-enhancement, self-transcendence) 3(self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence)
SouthAfrica (17) 4(opennesstochange,
self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence) 4(opennesstochange, self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence) U.K. (13) 3(self-enhancement, conservation, self-transcendence) U.S. (12) Cultural values profile Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >self-enhancement >conservation Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >(self-enhancement, conservation) Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >self-enhancement >conservation Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >conservation >self-enhancement Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >self-enhancement >conservation Self-transcendence >opennesstochange >self-enhancement >conservation
theU.S. WhereasNewZealandandU.K.values differenceswith Australiawere limitedto havinghigherself-transcendence and lowerself-enhancementvalues,theyalsoattributedsignificantly lowerimportancetoconservationvaluesthan U.S. participants. Relative to Canada, both New Zealand and U.K. participants attributedlower importanceto conservationvalues and higher importanceto self-transcendence, howeverthere was an addi-tional values difference for New Zealand participants who attributedhigherimportancetoopennesstochangevalues.Thus, withthisoneexception,NewZealandandU.K.appeartodenotea very similar configuration of values within this set of Anglo countries.
Canadaemergesasadifferentcountrythatprojectsadistinct valuessystemderivedfrombeingbothanext-doorneighborofthe U.S.and an adherent toBritish traditions.Thisis suggested by crossvergencetheory(Ralston,Holt,Terpstra,&Yu,2008).Unlike the other four Anglo countries, Canadian respondents rated conservationvaluestobeofsimilarimportanceto self-enhance-mentvalues.OtherresearchhasshownthatCanadiansaremore conservativethanotheradvancedindustrialdemocracies(
Ingle-hart,Basanez, Diez-Medrano,Halman, &Luijkx, 2004;National
Post,2005).OurfindingsindicatethatCanadaisatasimilarlevelto
that ofthe U.S. Canadiansare alsoself-reliantand skeptical of lettingorganizations becometoo powerful, but are in favor of competitionandachievement(lessthantheU.S.),concernedabout socialinequitiesandstrongsupportersofsocialsafetynetsforall (NationalOpinionPoll,2006).Inthisregard,wefoundthatCanada respondentswereinamiddlepositionbeingmore self-transcen-dentandlessself-enhancingthanAustralianandU.S.respondents but beingless self-transcendent and beingsimilarly (low) self-enhancingasNewZealandandU.K.respondents.
Insum,thisstudy’sfindingsofdifferencesinvaluesorientations indicate current-day heterogeneity across the Anglo countries. AssumingthatpreviousstudiesthatidentifiedtheAnglocluster wereaccurate,andsubscribingtotheperspectivethatvaluesare likely to change over a period of time (Bardi, Lee,
Hofmann-Towfigh,&Soutar,2009;Rokeach,1973;Schwartz&Rubel,2005),
this study hasidentified a complex pattern of values variation acrossAnglocountries.Thisfindingisindirectcontrasttoprevious researchthatreportedvaluesconvergenceacrossAnglocountries, whicharguedthattheAngloclusterisamodernlegacyofthevast power oftheBritish Empire(Ashkanasyet al.,2002; Ronen&
Shenkar,1985).Apossibleexplanationofthisvaluesheterogeneity
isthatrapidglobalizationandtechnologicaladvancementsover thepasttwodecadesmayhaveinfluencedthesesocietiestoevolve indifferingwayswithrespecttotheirpersonalvaluessystems.In thiscontext,ourcurrentfindingsreviseratherthanrefutethoseof previousstudies.
5.2. Contributionofmicro-levelinfluencestounderstandingvalues orientations
AsidentifiedbySteelandTaras(2010),wefoundthatdespite societal-level similarities in economic development level and polity, micro-level influences or individual characteristics (life-stageandgender)playanimportantroleininfluencingpersonal values orientations. Consistent with life-stage theory (Erikson, 1997),peopleinearlyadulthoodweremoreopentochangeand self-enhancingbut lessconservative and self-transcendentthan peoplein middleadulthood.Thisindicatesthat aspeople grow older,theytendtobecomemoreembeddedinsocialnetworksand committedto habitual patterns.Olderpeople are less likely to respondtonewchallenges(Schwartz,Melech,Lehmann,Burgess,
&Harris,2001).Withrespecttotheinfluenceofgender,wefound
thatmalesattributedhigherimportancetoself-enhancementand opennesstochange,whilefemalesattributedhigherimportanceto
self-transcendencevalues.Thesefindingspartiallysupport previ-ousresearchbySchwartzandRubel(2005),butcontradictStruch
et al. (2002) who argue that females have the same values
orientations asmales.For conservationvalues, ourfindings are contrarytothoseofSchwartzandRubel(2005)whofoundthat femalesattributedhigherimportancetoconservativevaluesthan males. One explanation for not finding significant differences betweenmalesandfemalescouldbethedifferentnatureofstudy participants.SchwartzandRubel(2005)hadageneralpopulation samplewhereasoursampleconsistedofbusinessmanagersand professionals. Globalizationmay beadvancing a morecommon ‘‘global business culture’’ that affects individuals across the economic development continuum. Thus, businesspeople (both maleandfemale)maybemoresimilartoeachotherthantothe general populationsoftheircountries duetothehomogenizing influenceofaglobalbusinessculturethatencouragesthemtobe lessconservative.
In summary,workingfromtheassumptionthat theseAnglo countries couldlegitimatelyhave beendescribedas a clustera quartercenturyormoreago(Ronen&Shenkar,1985),webelieve thatwhatwemaybeseeingisdeviating-crossvergence(Ralston, 2008). Simply stated, deviating-crossvergence is: countries be-cominglessalikeduetodifferingsetsofexternaleconomicand/or political influences being placed upon them over time. While seeing these Anglo countries become different is part of the answer,whatisintriguingistheconsistentpatternofmicro-level influences acrossthese countries. A questionthis raisesis: are thesemicro-levelpatternsofpersonalvaluesuniversalbeyondthe Anglo cluster? Although our study data cannot address this question, Steel and Taras (2010) found that significant cross-culturalvarianceinvalues isexplainedbyindividual character-isticssuchasage,education,andgender.Theconsistencyof micro-level influences in this study also supports the relevance of investigating these factors. We raise this as an issue for consideration because it emphasizes the complexity of under-standing behavior cross-culturally and points to the fact that collectively,todate,wehavemerelyscratchedthesurfaceinthis areaandthatweneedtodevelopmoreencompassingandcomplex culturalmodelsofbehavior.
5.3. Limitations
This researchhaslimitations that we wish to acknowledge. First,ourdataiscross-sectional,andwasnotabletocapturethe evolvingnatureofvaluestransitions.Second,thisstudyusedthe SchwartzValues Surveywhereas themajorityof studieswhich haveidentifiedanAngloclusterofcountriesuseddifferentcultural valuestypologiesandmeasures,primarilythatoforbasedupon
Hofstede (1980). Hence, there is the question about the
comparabilityofvaluesdata(andfindings)tootherAnglocluster studies.Third,oursampleconsistedofmanagersandprofessionals. Whilerelevantforbusinessresearchandfordeveloping interna-tionalmanagementtheories,wemustbecautiousingeneralizing thesefindingstogeneralpopulationsamples.Finally,althoughwe argued that culture is not static, we treated culture as an independentvariableintheanalyses.Thiswasalsodoneinthe previous Anglo cluster studies (e.g., Ashkanasy et al., 2002;
Hofstede,2001).
5.4. Managerialrelevance
Formanagerstoperformsuccessfullyintheglobaleconomy, knowledge about societal values is crucial given that values precede behavior. Understanding values helps in planning for business entry, growth, marketing as well as management of humanresources.Thefastpace of globalizationalong withthe
mergingof economicphilosophies, the Internetrevolution, and technological advancements, are guiding societies towards the developmentofnewconfigurationsofculturalvalues.Therefore, one key implication for practitioners concerns the need to re-evaluatethenotionofcountryclusters.Inparticular,ourfindings indicatethattheAngloclusterconceptappearstobeno longer helpfulincategorizingtheculturalvalues ofbusinesspersonsin thesecountries.Whatmaybehelpfulisaheightenedawarenessof theinfluenceofindividual(micro-level)factorsonculturalvalues. Thus,ratherthanjustfocusingoncountrydifferences,managers should also be sensitive to interpersonal values differences residingwithincountries.
Asglobalization hasproceeded, ithascreated manychanges that influenceall of us.Another managerial implication is that values/behavior evolution is both inevitable and dynamic. The outcomesareoftencomplexandparadoxicalinnatureasourstudy reveals. In reality, these paradoxes are helpful and frequently essentialforunderstandingandhighlightingthechangesthatare occurringbecauseofglobalization.Managersneedtobecognizant ofthecomplexityunderlyingthesechangesinordertominimize inaccurategeneralizationsaswellastodevelopin-depthcountry analyses(Gannon,2008).
5.5. Contributionandfuturedirectionsforresearch
Our study contributes to the international management literaturein at least three ways. First, this studyfound values differencesamongtheAnglocountries,implyingthattheremay havebeenlongitudinalvalueschangeacrosstheAnglocountries. Second,wefoundthatmicro-levelfactors(life-stageandgender) contributed to understanding the nuances of within-societal differencesacrosstheAnglocountries.Third,ourfindingssuggest thatfutureresearchinthisareamustbedesignedwithcaution, andincorporatemicro-levelinfluencesforacompleteanalysis.An ‘either/or’ approach (i.e., micro or macro factors) to capture a countryvaluesprofiledoesnotappeartobesufficient.
Such acomplex patternof values systems amongtheAnglo countriesleadsustoaskasetofimportantquestionsforfuture research:Whydosomecountriesshowgreaterevidenceofvalues transitionthanothers?Whataspectsorfactorsdeterminechange inpersonalvalues?Inparticular,whydosomecountriesattribute higherimportancetoavaluemorethanothercountries,despite havingfairly similar levelsof economic development, a British legacy,andstablepoliticalsystems?Thesequestionsaredifficult toanswerduetotheuniquenatureofsocio-economicandpolitical eventsineachoftheAnglocountries(Ralston,2008;Tan,2002). Ourfindingshighlighttheneedformorein-depthandintegrative analysesofvaluestransitionsprovidedbyqualitativeanalyses.
In conclusion, acrossthe former Anglo cluster we observed deviating-crossvergence.AmongthecountriesoftheAnglocluster wesee a fragmentationof thecluster.In essence, theU.S. and Australia have values convergence. To a lesser degree, we identified important values similarities between New Zealand andtheU.K.WefoundCanadatobeacountrythatisanapparent exampleofvaluescrossvergence(Ralstonet al.,2008),wherebyit exhibitsuniquevaluesinfluencedbybothapowerfulneighborto thesouthaswellasallegiancetoQueenandcountry.Inaddition, SouthAfricaisthetrueoutlierfragmentofthissetofcountries,itis theonethathasgonethroughthemostradicalsocialchangeover thepastthreedecades.Rememberingthatoursampledesignwas toberepresentativeofthebusinesspeopleofacountry,ourSouth Africa sample includes all ethnic/racial groups that would be subsumedwithintoday’spopulationofbusinesspeople,asistrue oftheother countrysamples.Thus, ifthedemographicsof the businesspopulationshavechangedinanyorallofthesecountries, sobeit.Thequestionastowhetherthesecountriesareacluster
todayremainsavalidone.Clearly,our21stcenturydatafindings
disputethenotionthattheformerAngloclusterexiststoday.
References
Andersen,R.,Curtis,J.,&Grabb,E.(2006).Trendsincivicassociationinfour democra-cies:ThespecialcaseofwomeninUnitedStates.AmericanSociologicalReview,71: 376–400.
Ashkanasy,N.M.,Trevor-Roberts,E.,&Earnshaw,L.(2002).TheAnglocluster:Legacy oftheBritishEmpire.JournalofWorldBusiness,37:28–39.
Au,K.,&Cheung,M.W.L.(2004).Intra-culturalvariationandjobautonomyin42 countries.OrganizationStudies,25(8):1339–1362.
Bardi,A.,Lee,J.A.,Hofmann-Towfigh,N.,&Soutar,G.(2009).Thestructureof intra-individualvaluechange.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,97:913–929. Costa,P.T.,Terracciano,A.,&McCrae,R.R.(2001).Genderdifferencesinpersonality traitsacrosscultures:Robustandsurprisingfindings.JournalofPersonalityand SocialPsychology,81:322–331.
Davis,H.J.,Chatterjee,S.R.,&Heuer,M.(2006).ManagementinIndia:Trendsand transition.NewDelhi:Sage.
Eagly,A.H.(1995).Scienceandthepoliticsofcomparingmenandwomen.American Psychologist,50:145–158.
Egri,C.P.,&Ralston,D.A.(2004).Generationcohortsandpersonalvalues:A compari-sonofChinaandtheUnitedStates.OrganizationScience,15:210–220. Erikson,E.(1997).Thelifecyclecompleted.NewYork:Norton.
Fischer, R.(2004).Standardizationtoaccountforcross-culturalresponsebias: A classificationofscoreadjustmentproceduresandreviewofresearchinJCCP. JournalofCross-CulturalPsychology,35:263–282.
Gannon,M.J.(2008).Paradoxesofcultureandglobalization.London:Sage. Hofstede, G.(1980).Culture’sconsequences:Internationaldifferencesinworkrelated
values.NewburyPark,CA:Sage.
Hofstede,G.(2001).Culture’sconsequences:Comparingvalues,behaviours,institutions, andorganizationsacrossnations(2nded.).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
House,R.J.,Hanges,P.J.,Javidan,M.,Dorfman,P.W.,&Gupta,V.GLOBEAssociates. (2004). Leadership,culture,andorganizations:TheGLOBEstudyof62societies. ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
IMD.(2009).IMDWorldCompetivenessYearbook.AccessedMarch2010.Available onlineathttp://www.imd.ch/research/publications/wcy/index.cfm.
Inglehart, R.(1997).Modernization andpostmodernization:Cultural,economic,and politicalchangein43societies.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress. Inglehart,R.,Basanez,M.,Diez-Medrano,J.,Halman,L.,&Luijkx,R.(2004).Human
beliefsandvalues:Acrossculturalsourcebookbasedonthe1999–2002valuessurveys. CuidaddeMexico:SigloXX1Editores.
Inglehart,R.,&Welzel,C.(2005).Modernization,culturalchange,anddemocracy:The humandevelopmentsequence.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress. Khilji,S.E.(2004).Withertradition:Anevidenceofgenerationaldifferencesinhuman
resourcesatisfactionfromPakistan.InternationalJournalofCrossCultural Manage-ment,4(2):141–156.
Kitayama,S.,Conway,L.G.,III,Pietromonaco,P.R.,Park,H.,&Plaut,V.C.(2010).Ethos ofindependenceacrossregionsintheUnitedStates:Theproduction-adoption modelofculturalchange.AmericanPsychologist,65:559–574.
Kwong,J.(1994).IdeologicalcrisisamongChina’syouths:Valuesandofficialideology. TheBritishJournalofSociology,45:247–285.
LaFontaine,J.S.(1978).Sexandageasprinciplesofsocialdifferentiation.NewYork: AcademicPress.
Levinson,D.J.(1997).Theseasonsofawoman’slife.NewYork:Ballentine. Lyons,S.,Duxbury,L.,&Higgins,C.(2005).Aregenderdifferencesinbasichuman
valuesagenerationalphenomenon?SexRoles,53:763–778.
Marshall,M.G.,Jaggers,K.,Gurr,T.R.(2010).PolityIVproject:Politicalregime character-isticsandtransitions,1800-2003.Availableat:http://www.systemicpeace.org/polity/ polity4.htm.
McCrae,R.R.(2002).NEO-PI-Rdatafrom36cultures:Furtherintercultural compari-son.InR.R.McCrae&J.Allik(Eds.),Thefive-factormodelofpersonalityacross cultures(pp.105–125).NewYork:KluwerAcademics.
McCrae,R.R.,&Terracciano,A. 78MembersofthePersonalityProfilesofCulture Project.(2005).Universalfeaturesofpersonalitytraitsfroobserver’sperspective: Datafrom50cultures.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,88:547–561. NationalPost.(2005).TheCanadianValuesSurvey:AjointprojectofInnovativeResearch
Group,theDominionInstituteandtheNationalPost.DayFiveRelease.Availableat
http://www.innovativeresearch.ca/Canadian%20Values%20Study_Fac-tum%20280905.pdf.
NewZealandGovernment.(2010).NewZealand:EconomicandFinancialReview2009. Availableathttp://www.nzdmo.govt.nz/publications/nzefo/2009/nzefo-09.pdf. Putnam,R.D.(2000).Bowlingalone:America’sdecliningsocialcapital.NewYork:Simon
andSchuster.
Ralston,D.A.(2008).Thecrossvergenceperspective:Reflectionsandprojections. JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies,39:27–40.
Ralston,D.A.,Egri,C.P.,Casado,T.,Fu,P.P.,&Wagenheim,F.(2009).Theimpactoflife stageandsocietalcultureonsubordinateinfluenceethics:AstudyofBrazil,China, Germany,andtheU.S..JournalofInternationalManagement,15:374–386. Ralston,D.A.,Hallinger,P.,Egri,C.P.,&Naothinsuhk,S.(2005).Theeffectsofculture
andlifestageonworkplacestrategiesofupwardinfluence:Acomparisonof ThailandandtheUnitedStates.JournalofWorldBusiness,30:321–337. Ralston,D.A.,Holt,D.A.,Terpstra,R.H.,&Yu,K.C.(2008).Theimpactofnational
cultureandeconomicideologyonmanagerialworkvalues:AstudyoftheUnited States,Russia,Japan,andChina.JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies,39:8–26.
Ritchie,J.,&Markwell,D.(2006).Australianandcommonwealthrepublicanism.The RoundTable,95(387):727–737.
Rokeach,M.(1973).Thenatureofhumanvalues.NewYork:TheFreePress. Ronen,S.,&Shenkar,O.(1985).Clusteringcountriesonattitudinaldimensions:A
reviewandsynthesis.AcademyofManagementReview,10:435–454.
Sawyerr,O.O.,Strauss,J.,&Yan,J.(2005).Individualvaluestructureanddiversity attitudes:Themoderatingeffectsofage,gender,race,andreligiosity.Journalof ManagerialPsychology,20:498–521.
Schmitt,M.J.(2008).Whycan’tamanbemorelikeawoman?Sexdifferencesinbigfive personalitytraitsacross55cultures.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,94: 162–182.
Schwartz,S.H.(1994).Culturaldimensionsofvalues:Towardsanunderstandingof nationaldifferences.InU.Kim,H.C.Triandis,C.Kagitcibasi,S.C.Choi,&G.Yoon (Eds.),Individualismandcollectivism:Theoreticalandmethodologicalissues(pp.85– 119).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Schwartz,S. H. (2006). A theoryofcultural valueorientations: Explication and applications.ComparativeSociology,5(2/3):137–182.
Schwartz,S. H. (2007). Universalismvalues and theinclusiveness ofourmoral universe.JournalofCross-CulturalPsychology,38:711–728.
Schwartz,S.H.,&Bardi,A.(2001).Valuehierarchiesacrosscultures:Takinga similari-tiesperspective.JournalofCrossCulturalPsychology,32:268–290.
Schwartz,S.H.,Melech,G.,Lehmann,A.,Burgess,S.,&Harris,M.(2001).Extendingthe cross-culturalvalidityofthetheoryofbasichumanvalueswithadifferentmethod ofmeasurement.JournalofCrossCulturalPsychology,32:519–542.
Schwartz,S.H.,&Rubel,T.(2005).Sexdifferencesinvaluepriorities:Cross-cultural andmultimethodstudies.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,86:560– 584.
Setterson,R.A.,Jr.,&Mayer,K.U.(1997).Themeasureofage,agestructuring,andthe lifecourse.AnnualReviewofSociology,23:233–261.
Shafer,B.E.(1999).Americanexceptionalism.AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience,2:445– 463.
Smith,P.B.,&Schwartz,S.H.(1997).Values.InC.Kagitcibasi&M.H.Segall(Eds.), Handbookofcross-culturalpsychology.Boston:AllynandBacon.
Steel,P.,&Taras,V.(2010).Cultureasaconsequence:Amulti-levelmultivariate meta-analysisoftheeffectsofindividualandcountrycharacteristicsonwork-related culturalvalues.JournalofInternationalManagement,16:211–233.
Struch,N.,Schwartz,S.H.,&VanderKloot,W.A.(2002).Meaningsofbasicvaluesfor womenand men: Across-culturalanalysis.Personalityand SocialPsychology Bulletin,28(1):16–28.
Tan,B.L.B.(2002).Researchingmanagerial values:Across-culturalcomparison. JournalofBusinessResearch,55:815–821.
Tung,R.L.,&Verbeke,A.(2010).BeyondHofstedeandGLOBE:Improvingthe qualityofcross-culturalresearch.JournalofInternationalBusinessStudies,41: 1259–1274.
Warner,M.(2004).HumanresourcemanagementinChinarevisited:Introduction.The InternationalJournalofHumanResourceManagement,15:617–634.
Western,M.,Baxter,J.,Pakulski,J.,Tranter,B.,Western,J.,vanEgmond,M.,Chesters,J., Hosking,A.,O’Flaherty,M.,&vanGellecum,Y.(2007).Neoliberalism,inequality andpolitics:ThechangingfaceofAustralia.AustralianJournalofSocialIssues,42(3): 401–418.
Wolf,E.R.(1966).Kinship,friendship,andpatron-clientrelationsincomplexsocieties. InM.Banton(Ed.),Thesocialanthropologyofcomplexsocieties(pp.1–22).New York:FrederickA.Praeger.
Wolnicki,M.(2009).Thepost-conservativeorphan:WhytheU.S.needsaneffective economicgovernmentpolicy.InternationalJournalofSocialEconomics,36(1/2):5– 22.
Yang,Z.,Wang,X.,&Su,C.(2006).Areviewofresearchmethodologiesininternational business.InternationalBusinessReview,15:601–617.
