Phoneme: the smallest sound unit that serves to contrast/distinguish words, giving them different meanings.
Whenever a phoneme changes the meaning of the word changes
E.g. /p/ and /b/ are two phonemes. If one replaces the other in a word, the meaning of the word
changes. pit vs. bit, pat vs bat pet vs bet
Another example is the phonemes /n/ and /m/ nap vs map,
net vs. met, sum vs. sun
There are 44 phonemes in English: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.
Allophone: the variation/representation of a phoneme
E.g. the phoneme /t/ has different allophonic realizations:
1- Aspirated /t/ transcribed [tʰ] as in time [tʰ ɑim]
2- Unreleased /t/ transcribed [t̚] as in hat [hat̚] 3- Neutral /t/ transcribed [t] as in stay [stei]
E.g. 2 the phoneme /n/ in the prefix un- may also have different allophonic variations:
Unarmed [n] neutral Unpleasant [m] labialized
Unfavorable [ɱ] labio- dentalized
Instable [n] neutral
Uncomplicated [nˠ] velarized
Note: an allophone doesn’t change the meaning of words. Only a phoneme can change their meanings. Minimal pairs: pairs of words that differ in only one phoneme. They are called minimal pairs
because:
1) they are pairs (i.e. two words)
2) because they differ minimally (only one sound/phoneme).
Examples of minimal pairs: pet vs bet
nap vs map cat vs. hat
Exercise: which of the following sounds is an allophone and which is a phoneme?
/l/, /ɹ/,[ l ̴] (dark/ velarized l as in the word pill, tall)
Answer:
/l/ and /ɹ/ are phonemes because they contrast words. E.g. rip vs. lip, rot vs. lot
[l ̴] is an allophone: a variation of the phoneme /l/. It doesn’t change the meaning of the word when it is used. I.e. the phoneme remains the same:
Pill [p ɪ l ̴], tall [t ɒ l ̴]
Distinctive Features: phonological features that serve to establish a contrast between phonological units.
E.g. [+/- voicing] is a distinctive feature, because when voicing changes the meaning of the word
changes. Pit (p is a voiceless phoneme. If voicing changes, the meaning changes too: bit.
Redundancy Rules: rules that include useless repetitions. E.g. /p/ -voice -nasal +labial
-alveolar redundant features
+stop (lack of economy)
-fricative
-approximant +central
There should be more economical feature system. Feature Matrix
The three major class features are:
1- [+syllabic]: all vowels. Liquids /l/, /r/ and nasal /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ can sometimes be syllabic depending on the phonological environment. consonant are described as [-syllabic]
2- [+ consonantal] all phonemes but glides /j/, /w/ and vowels
3- [+sonorant] vowels, nasals, and all
approximants. All sonorants are voiced. [- sonorant] are oral stops and fricatives (they are called obstruents, which may be voiced or voiceless)
These three major class features allow distinguishing four major classes of segments/phonemes:
Vowels [+ syllabic, -consonantal, +sonorant]
Glides (j, w) [- syllabic, -consonantal, +sonorant]
Liquids (r, l) and nasals (m, n) [- syllabic, +consonantal, +sonorant]
Oral stops and fricatives (obstruents) [+ syllabic, + consonantal, -sonorant]
Manner of Articulation Features:
1- [+ Nasal] nasal Sounds
2- [+ Continuant] All but the stops which are [- continuant] because the airflow stop
completely in the vocal tract.
3- [+delayed release] applied on to affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ]: there is first a complete
obstruction of the airflow i.e. a stop, followed by a release of the air i.e. fricative.
Generating Rules:
Consider the phoneme /n/ in the prefix un- in the following words:
Unarmed [n] neutral Unpleasant [m] labial
Unthinkable [n̪] dental Instable [n] neutral
Uncomplicated [nˠ] Velar
The place of the phoneme /n/ changes depending on the phonological environment it occurs in.
For example, when it is followed by the bilabial
sound /p/, its place moves from the alveolar ridge to the lips, and it becomes bilabial. As in the word
Unpleasant
Another example is when /n/ is followed by a dental sound, such as / θ/ it become dental; As in the word Unthinkable.
Thus, the rule is:
The problem with this system feature is that it has some redundant rules. Therefore there should be a rule that holds all the rules together.
A rule that accounts for all the rules:
The phoneme /n/ simply shares the place of articulation the consonant that follows it:
The alveolar nasal /n/ matches the place of the following segment.
Economical features for place of articulations:
1- [+ Anterior] sounds articulated at the alveolar ridge or further forward, which also includes dental, labiodental, bilabial.
[- Anterior] are produced further back in the vocal tract starting from the post-alveolar area.
2- [+ Coronal] sounds are those produced by the tongue tip, blade, or front. I.e. the dental, the alveolar, the post-alveolar, and the palatal
consonants.
[-coronal] are the sounds that do not involve any of the above- mentioned parts of the tongue. E.g. bilabial, labiodentals, velars, uvulars, and glottal.
3- [+ strident] sounds are produced by forcing air through a constricted passage. [+ strident] sounds are [f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ]. In other
words, [+ strident] groups the fricatives and the affricates together. All the other consonants are [- strident]
Exercise:
The phoneme /k/ voiceless velar stop becomes palatal when followed by the front vowel [i], as in the word key [ki]. Write down a rule using the feature matrix that accounts for the phonological environment in which /k/ occur.
Natural classes: Any group of phonemes which show the same behavior in the same contexts, and which share the same features constitute a natural class.
E.g. although the phonemes /p/, /t/, /k/ have different places of articulation, they share some common features: they become aspirated [pʰ], [tʰ], [kʰ] when they occur at the beginning of stressed syllables. (pill, till, kill). Their
aspiration is neutralized when they are preceded by the phoneme /s/ (spill, still, skill).
This natural class is the voiceless stops. Other natural classes include liquids, nasals, etc.
