12
Bending of Metals
Bending is frequently used to increase the rigidity of shaped parts in pressworking operations. The simplest bending opera-tion is air bending, so called because the die does not touch the outside of the bend radius. The part to be bent is supported on each side of the bend and force is applied to the forming punch in the center.
Figure 12-1 illustrates a metal beam supported at two points, with a load applied at the midpoint. The load produces compres-sive stresses in the material on the inside of the bend as it is forced into compression. Tensile stress or stretching occurs on the out-side of the bend.
To produce a bend in a finished part, the yield point of the ma-terial must be exceeded. If the bending force applied does not ex-ceed the yield strength of the material, the beam will return to its
Figure 12-1. A metal beam supported at two points, with a load applied at the midpoint, resulting in bending or deflection.
original shape upon removal of the load as shown in Figure 12-2. However, if the stress exceeds the material-yield strength, the beam will retain a permanent set or bend when the load is removed, as illustrated in Figure 12-3.
Figure 12-2. If the applied force does not exceed the material-yield strength, the beam returns to its undeflected shape.
Figure 12-3. Simple beam deflection occurs in air bending. If the applied force exceeds the material’s yield strength, the beam retains a permanent set or bend when the load is removed.
The goal of the process is to bend the material the correct amount. Springback or elastic recovery will then occur until re-sidual stresses in the bend are equal to the stiffness of the mate-rial. This concept is illustrated in Figure 12-4.
Not all of the material in the bend zone is stressed equally. The material in the inner and outer surfaces is stressed the most, and the stress gradually diminishes toward a neutral axis between the two surfaces. At that point, the stress is zero, and there is no length change.
BEND ALLOWANCES
The exact length of a bend is determined by trial and error. The assumed neutral axis varies, depending upon the bending method used, the location in the bend, and the type of stock to be bent. The direction of grain in a steel strip relative to the bend has a slight effect on the length of metal required to make a bend. Bending with the grain allows the metal to stretch more easily than bending against the grain. However, this results in a weaker stamping.
Bend allowances depend upon the physical properties of the metal, such as its tensile and yield strength and ductility.
Empirical Rules
The exact bend allowance is the arc length of the true neutral axis of the bend (metal is stretched above the neutral axis; below it, metal is compressed). The neutral axis only can be approxi-mated. Many manufacturers assume the neutral axis is 1/3-stock thickness from the inside radius of the bend for inside radii of less than twice the stock thickness. For an inside radii of two times the stock thickness or greater, the neutral axis is assumed to be 1/2-stock thickness from the inside radii. One reason for the require-ment of relatively less metal to make a tight bend is that the sharp radius tends to be drawn or stretched slightly.
Many experts believe that the location of the true neutral axis from the inside radius varies from 0.2–0.5 times the stock thick-ness. An important factor that determines the neutral axis is how Figure 12-4. Springback occurs until the residual stress forces are balanced by the stiffness of the material.
the bend is accomplished. Less metal is required for a bend made by a tightly wiped flange than for an air bend on a press brake. Wiping the flange tends to stretch the metal.
Formulas and Data
Tabular data is available to determine the inside of the bend radii, from 0.015–1.250 in. (0.38–31.75 mm), including metric equivalents for various materials and types of bends. The for-mula used to develop these tables is based on extensive experi-mental data. Such tables were very useful before the availability of the electronic calculator. For 90° bends, the coefficient of 1.57 (the number of radians in 90°) determines the assumed amount of metal necessary to make the bend, which is multiplied by the as-sumed neutral axis. For bends that are not exactly 90°, it is neces-sary to multiply the number of degrees of bend times 0.0175 (the number of radians in 1°), and to substitute the result for the coef-ficient 1.57.
Springback or Elastic Recovery
Whenever forming metals, some springback occurs. The cause of springback is the residual stress that is a result of cold-working metals. For example, in a simple bend, residual compressive stress remains on the inside of the bend, while residual tensile stress is present on the outside radius of the bend. When bending pressure is released, metal springs back until residual stress forces are bal-anced by the material’s stiffness, which resists further strain. The most common method of correcting for springback is to overbend material to obtain the desired shape after forming.
Stiffness is a function of the material’s modulus of elasticity. This explains why materials, such as mild steel with a high modu-lus of elasticity (as compared to tensile strength), spring back less than materials with a lower modulus. However, some mate-rials do have comparable tensile strength, such as hard alumi-num alloys.
Springback Compensation
The most common method used to compensate for springback is to bend material a sufficient amount, beyond the desired angle, and allow it to spring back to the desired angle after elastic recov-ery occurs. This method of springback compensation is termed
overbending. Because of the uncertainty of the exact location of
the neutral axis, it is best to use trial-and-error methods when developing close-tolerance stampings.
Many complex factors determine the amount of springback that will occur in a given operation. Because the exact amount of springback is difficult to predict, data for a specific material and forming method is often developed under actual production con-ditions to aid process control and future product development. If the die designer and builder fail to include correct springback com-pensation in the die, correction will need to be done by the repair facility of the press shop that uses the tool.
Factors Affecting Springback
Some factors that increase springback are: • higher-material strength,
• thinner material, • lower Young’s modulus, • larger die radius,
• greater wipe-steel clearance, • less irregularity in part outline, • and flatter part-surface contour.
If a flanged part is irregular compared to either the outline or surface contour, the springback will be slight. The springback for large-wipe-steel clearances can be several degrees or more.
PRESS-BRAKE OPERATIONS
Press-brake tooling for air bending (see Figure 12-5) is quite simple. Air bending is one of the most common press-brake operations.
This method of bending requires minimum tonnage for the work performed. Exact repeatability of ram travel is required to main-tain close repeatability of the bend angle. The amount of over-travel is determined experimentally to compensate for springback.
Causes of Bend-angle Variation
There are several causes of bend-angle variation when bending materials in pressworking operations. These include:
• changes in the stock’s yield strength; • variation in stock thickness;
• machine variations due to temperate changes; and
• machine deflection, especially in long press-brake bending operations.
Compensation for any change of the conditions that affect the bend angle may require adjustment of the ram travel. With press-brake bed deflection, shimming also may be required. In addition, shims may be required to correct for additional machine deflec-tion. Some press-brake designs have automatic-deflection compen-sating devices such as hydraulic cylinders built into the bed. If high force is required in press-brake bending because of an in-crease in stock thickness or hardness, a simple ram adjustment may not be enough to correct the problem.
Figure 12-5. Simple tooling of the type used to air-bend sheet metal parts in press brakes. The upper die is lowered and a hit is made until the desired bend angle is obtained.
Coining the Bend to Control Springback
Coining has the advantage of producing sharp, accurate bends with less sensitivity to material conditions than air bending. The disadvantages of coining compared to air bending are high-force requirements and accelerated die wear.
Figure 12-6 illustrates a press-brake die designed to coin the bend for a precise angle. This coining action eliminates the root causes of springback, including the tensile and compressive re-sidual stresses on opposite sides of the bend. Coining action is accomplished with pressure that is sufficient to subject the metal to the yield point in the bend area.
The tonnage required for coining might be five to ten times that required for simple air bending. Higher forces increase ma-chine deflection. Air-bending jobs that produce acceptable bend angles throughout the entire length of the bend may need shim-ming if coining is required. The amount of machine deflection in-creases approximately in proportion to the developed tonnage.
WIPE-BENDING DIE OPERATIONS
It is often not feasible to use V-bending tooling for bending. V bending is popular for press-brake work. The tooling is simple and a variety of work can be accomplished with it. Usually, only a single bend occurs per stroke. Accurate work requires that each
Figure 12-6. Coining the bend requires high tonnage to obtain a sharp, accurate bend.
previous step be accurate. Skilled and experienced operators are required. A limiting factor is the cost of press-brake work, because of low throughput and the high skill required to produce accurate work.
Wipe Flanging and Springback Control
Figure 12-7 illustrates a sectional view through a wipe-flanging die. In this design, the flange steel attached to the upper die wipes the metal around the lower die. A popular method for controlling springback is to coin the top of the bend with the flange steel. A disadvantage is the limited springback compensation that can re-sult in a distorted bend-angle condition. A close-up view of this is shown in Figure 12-8. The top thickness of the bend can be squeezed beyond the material yield point by careful adjustment of the die’s shut height. Only the top portion of the bend is coined.
This can result in a score mark that might weaken the stamping and extrusion of the metal being coined.
If excessive coining pressures are applied, the metal at the top of the bend will extrude and result in a weak and distorted bend con-dition. An improved flanging method relieves the radius in the flange steel so it does not contact the top of the bend radius. One way to do this is to relieve the flange steel at an angle that is approximately 20° tangent to the radius. Another method is to machine the flange steel to a radius that is larger than the outside of the bend. The flange steel is positioned so the tightest point is 45–60° beyond the top of the radius. The side of the form steel is relieved 5° or more to permit the material to be overbent (see Figure 12-9). This method is more effective than coining the top of the bend. In addition, the improved bending process is not as sensitive to variation, due to press adjustments and material conditions.
ROTARY-ACTION DIE-BENDING OPERATIONS
A patented rotary-action bender known as the Ready™ bender combines the low-tonnage requirements of air bending with the accuracy and multiple-bend capabilities of wipe-flange tooling. Figure 12-10 illustrates a Ready bender making initial contact with the stock. As the upper die travels down, the stock is clamped Figure 12-8. Close-up view is shown of the point of flange steel contact on the bend radius in a wipe-flanging die.
and bent by the rotating bender. As the die closes, the rotary-bend-ing action progresses (see Figure 12-11). An optional relief angle in the lower die permits the rotary member to overbend the stock at the bottom of the stroke to provide springback control, as shown in Fig-ure 12-12.
Figure 12-9. The side of the radius is coined and a relief angle is provided in the lower-die steel in this improved springback control method.
Figure 12-10. A Ready™ bender makes initial contact with the stock. As the die closes, the bender clamps and bends the stock. (Courtesy Ready Tools, Inc.)
Figure 12-11. A Ready™ bender bends the stock through rotary action of the circular member. (Courtesy Ready Tools, Inc.)
Figure 12-12. A Ready™ bender overbends the stock at the bottom of the stroke to compensate for springback. (Courtesy Ready Tools, Inc.)
Rotary-action benders can bend angles up to 120°. The rotary member is usually made of tool steel that is heat treated for long wear. The bending pressure is typically 50–80% less than that re-quired for conventional wipe bending. The lower pressure per-mits many types of prepainted materials to be fabricated without damaging the finish. Rotary benders also can be constructed of nonmetallic materials, such as hard thermoplastics, for work with prefinished materials.
Fine Adjustment of Bend Angle
The bend-angle adjustment of conventional wipe-flange tooling is usually made by adjusting the flange steel up or down with shim-ming. In the case of rotary-action benders, the bend angle is ad-justed by moving the assembly containing the bender in the horizontal plane, relative to the lower-die member or anvil. At-tempts to obtain a tighter bend by excessive lowering of the press shut height can result in tooling damage.
CONTROL OF BEND ANGLE
BY ADJUSTING PAD PRESSURE
One of the most frequent stamping variables affecting quality is that of incorrect bend angles. Press-brake tooling for air bend-ing can easily compensate for bend-angle variation by makbend-ing a shut-height adjustment. Many wipe-flange dies allow coining of the bend radius slightly to control springback. Often pressroom technicians try adjusting shut height immediately to attempt to correct a part’s dimensional problems. Shut-height changes can affect other part features that are sensitive to shut height, such as embossments and identification stamps. Any shut-height ad-justment should be thought out carefully before a change is made to avoid undesired results.
The wipe-bending sequence shown in Figures 13 through 12-16 shows how the bend angles of a wipe-flanging operation can be controlled by adjusting pad pressure. Technicians in a pressroom where this procedure is used have found that low pad pressures result in substantial overbend in a 90° wipe-flanging operation. The
Figure 12-13. A wipe-flanging die closes with a blank to be formed in place. Note the die-cushion pressure pins and pad-bottoming blocks.
Figure 12-14. A wipe-flanging die has low cushion pressures nearing the bottom of stroke. Note that the blank has a crown or bow.
job operates in a 60-ton (534-kN) open-backed inclinable (OBI) press. Why this overbending condition occurs is unclear and re-quires further study and documentation.
Pad Pressures
Normal pad pressures typically are in the range of 5–20% of the forming force. However, in the following case study, pad pressures this high result in varying bend angles that are less than the speci-fied 90°. In addition, coining or restriking the bend to control springback is not possible in the wipe-flanging detail design. How-ever, carefully controlling pad pressure at low values has been found a workable method to obtain 90° bends on this type of job. In fact, several degrees of overbend can be obtained if desired. Figure 12-16. Examples of how bend angles can vary with pad-pressure settings. Figure 12-15. A wipe-flanging die shown at the bottom of the stroke. As the pad forcefully contacts the bottoming blocks, the loose metal is forced into the bend radii, resulting in a controllable overbending condition.
The Effect of Low Pad Pressure on Overbending
In this case study, the pad-pressure adjustment is critical. While conventional overbending, bend coining, or Ready bender rotary-bending methods may be preferred, this particular method may be useful under some circumstances.
The operation involves wipe bending a 0.050-in. (1.27-mm), 6 × 9 in. (152.4 × 228.6 mm) rectangular steel blank on two sides. The cold-rolled steel material was checked and showed a minimum yield strength ranging from 45–50 ksi (310–345 kPa). Pressroom trouble-shooters expect normal variations in material thickness and hard-ness to cause product variation. The finished part is a symmetrical U-shaped stamping with two straight flanges of equal length. A sectional view of the die with the blank in place is shown in Fig-ure 12-13.
The die cushion that supplied pad pressure with cushion pins oper-ated in the 5–7 psi (35–48 kPa) range. The available cushion force at 80 psi (552 kPa) was 5 tons (45 kN). This provided a pad force of only 625 lb (2.8 kN) over a 6-in. (152.4-mm) square pad. This pres-sure was quite low for accurate stock control. However, the sym-metry of the part, with good press and die alignment, avoided part slippage and product variation.
Figure 12-14 illustrates the flange die near the bottom of the stroke. The excess metal in the crown or bow is deformed, but the yield point of the material is not exceeded. As the die bot-toms out on the pad-bottoming blocks, the excess metal is forced into the bend radii in the corner of each flange. Having excess metal in the crown or bowed blank as the die closes is a result of using low pad pressure. This loose or excess metal is also the key to achieving controlled overbending.
Using Pad Pressure to Control Overbend (Smith 1990)
As pad pressure is increased, the amount of bowed or loose metal is reduced between the forming punch and pressure pad. This factor decreases the amount of overbend because there is less metal to force into the bend radius as the pad bottoms out. If pad pressure is high enough to hold the blank firmly against the forming punch throughout the press stroke, the part flanges will
be formed at less than a 90° angle. The action of the metal being forced into the bend radii at the bottom of a stroke is shown in Figure 12-15. The product variation as a function of slight pres-sure variations is shown in Figure 12-16.
Practical Applications and Process Limitations
Using pad pressure to provide springback control is not recom-mended for the following forming application types and conditions: • die cushions operated at very low pressures are apt to pro-vide non-uniform forces due to temperature changes and a stick-slip, packing-adhesion phenomenon known as stiction; • slight changes in stock thickness or temper will result in
flange-angle variation;
• especially likely in the case of non-symmetrical parts, low pad pressures are apt to result in blank slippage and product variation.
Wipe-flange details that provide for bend-radii coining and the use of a Ready bender are effective and dependable methods of controlling the bend-angle variations caused by springback. This method can be useful under some difficult flange-bending condi-tions when a strong and dimensionally accurate part is required. One example of a difficult-to-bend stamping is a commercial truck or trailer spring-hanger bracket. Other parts include tilting-chair hardware and a variety of appliance stampings.
The main disadvantage of using low pad pressure to control overbend is the care required to deal with process variables. It is not considered the best method for springback control for the flang-ing operation in the previous case study. The factors that permit part geometry to be held within specifications include:
• The part is symmetrical, which balances the lateral forces resulting from the wipe-flanging operation.
• The flat blank is nested in accurately doweled gages that help prevent lateral shifting until the bend is correctly started as the forming punch contacts the work.
• The operator frequently checks the parts to assure confor-mity to dimensional tolerances. This includes catching the
parts in a small plastic bin as they are produced for inspec-tion before putting them in the shipping container.
Lateral shifting of the blank is the greatest concern when using less pad pressure than that recommended by good design practice. Low pad forces that permit bowing of the stock, which is subsequently forced into the bend radius, can have practical applications for heavy parts that are difficult to flange. Recommended stock locating and control measures include:
• The blank should be nested in accurate robust gages to pre-vent lateral shifting until the bends are correctly started as the forming punch contacts the work.
• Two or more locating pins projecting from the forming punch should be used to pick up mating holes accurately located in the blank.
• The locating pinholes can be considered “nonfunctional” tool-ing holes if they do not affect the function of the finished part. The use of robust pins in the punch will prevent lateral shifting if the side forces are not great enough to distort the locating pin holes in the blank.
REFERENCE
Smith, D. 1990. Die Design Handbook. Section 6, Shear Action in Metal Cutting. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing En-gineers.
