A
A
Viable Model a
Viable Model and Sel-Report M
nd Sel-Report M
easure
easure
o Spiritual Intelligence
o Spiritual Intelligence
A our-actor
A our-actor model o spiritumodel o spiritual intelligence al intelligence is rst proposed. is rst proposed. Supportive evidence iSupportive evidence is reviewed s reviewed or theor the capacities o critical existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awareness, capacities o critical existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awareness, and conscious state expansion. Based on this model, a 24-item sel-report measure was developed and conscious state expansion. Based on this model, a 24-item sel-report measure was developed and modied across two consecutive studies (N = 619 and N = 304, respectively). Te nal version and modied across two consecutive studies (N = 619 and N = 304, respectively). Te nal version o the scale, the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), displayed excellent internal o the scale, the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), displayed excellent internal reliability and good t to the proposed model. Correlational analyses with additional measures o reliability and good t to the proposed model. Correlational analyses with additional measures o meaning, metapersonal sel-construal, mysticism, religiosity, and social desirability oer support meaning, metapersonal sel-construal, mysticism, religiosity, and social desirability oer support or construct and criterion-related validity. According to both intelligence criteria and current or construct and criterion-related validity. According to both intelligence criteria and current psychometric standards, ndings validate the proposed model and measure o spiritual intelligence. psychometric standards, ndings validate the proposed model and measure o spiritual intelligence. Future directions are discussed.
Future directions are discussed.
he nature o human intelligence and itshe nature o human intelligence and its psychological stpsychological study have been areas o continuousudy have been areas o continuous scientic debate (or a review, see Cianciolo & scientic debate (or a review, see Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004). Many have argued that the sum o Sternberg, 2004). Many have argued that the sum o human intelligence is best described as a single constr human intelligence is best described as a single construct,uct, such as the intelligence quotient (IQ), while others have such as the intelligence quotient (IQ), while others have suggested multiple intelligences (Cianciolo & Sternberg, suggested multiple intelligences (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004; Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1988). Howard 2004; Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1988). Howard Gardner, a leading advocate o the latter standpoint, Gardner, a leading advocate o the latter standpoint, has proposed eight intelligences, including linguistic, has proposed eight intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, naturalist, and logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, naturalist, and bodily-kinesthetic (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 1999). Recent bodily-kinesthetic (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 1999). Recent decades have also witnessed extensive literature on social decades have also witnessed extensive literature on social and emotional intelligences, which describe cognitive and emotional intelligences, which describe cognitive abilities o emotional perception and management on abilities o emotional perception and management on intra- and inter-personal levels (e.g., Gardner, 1983; intra- and inter-personal levels (e.g., Gardner, 1983; Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
In order to evaluate potential additional In order to evaluate potential additional intelligences (e.g., moral intelligence; Gardner, 1993), intelligences (e.g., moral intelligence; Gardner, 1993), leading theorists have suggested rigid criteria that leading theorists have suggested rigid criteria that must rst be satised. It is generally established that must rst be satised. It is generally established that an intelligence should (1) include a set o moderately an intelligence should (1) include a set o moderately interrelated mental abilities (i.e., core capacities or which interrelated mental abilities (i.e., core capacities or which cognition is primary; those which are distinct rom cognition is primary; those which are distinct rom preerred behaviors or traits), (2) acilitate adaptation, preerred behaviors or traits), (2) acilitate adaptation,
problem-solving, and reasoning in all environmental problem-solving, and reasoning in all environmental contexts, and (3) develop with age and experience contexts, and (3) develop with age and experience (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Gardner (1983) also recommended neurological/ Gardner (1983) also recommended neurological/ biological evidence, e
biological evidence, evolutionary plausibility, and suppovolutionary plausibility, and supportrt rom psychometrics and experimental psychology. rom psychometrics and experimental psychology.
Spiritual I
Spiritual Intelligenntelligencece
O
O
the additional intelligences proposed, t the additional intelligences proposed, the concepthe concept o spiritual intelligence has remained a orerunner o spiritual intelligence has remained a orerunner in the past decade (Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000a; in the past decade (Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004; Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, Nasel, 2004; Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000). Emmons (2000a) 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000). Emmons (2000a) provided support or spiritual intelligence according to provided support or spiritual intelligence according to Gardner’s (1983) criteria, proposing ve core abilities: Gardner’s (1983) criteria, proposing ve core abilities: 1) the capacity or transcendent awareness (o a divine 1) the capacity or transcendent awareness (o a divine being or onesel); 2) the ability to enter spiritual states being or onesel); 2) the ability to enter spiritual states o consciousness; 3) the ability to sanctiy everyday o consciousness; 3) the ability to sanctiy everyday experiences; 4) the ability to utilize spirituality to solve experiences; 4) the ability to utilize spirituality to solve problems; and 5) the capacity to engage in virtuous problems; and 5) the capacity to engage in virtuous behaviors (e.g., orgiveness). Te last o these capacities behaviors (e.g., orgiveness). Te last o these capacities has since been removed (Emmons, 2000b) due to its has since been removed (Emmons, 2000b) due to its more accurate interpretation as preerred behavior more accurate interpretation as preerred behavior (Mayer, 2000).(Mayer, 2000).
Noble (2000) concurred with Emmons’ (2000a) Noble (2000) concurred with Emmons’ (2000a) conception o spiritual intelligence and added two conception o spiritual intelligence and added two additional core abilities: (1) “the conscious recognition additional core abilities: (1) “the conscious recognition
David
David B.
B. King
King
eresa
eresa L.
L. DeCicco
DeCicco
rent
rent University
University
Peterborough, ON, Canada
Peterborough, ON, Canada
that physical reality is embedded within a larger, that physical reality is embedded within a larger, multidimensio
multidimensional reanal reality” (p. 46); ality” (p. 46); and (2) “the consciousnd (2) “the conscious pursuit o psychological health, not only or ourselves but pursuit o psychological health, not only or ourselves but or…the global community” (p. 46). Te rst o these or…the global community” (p. 46). Te rst o these abilities can be readily amalgamated with Emmons’ abilities can be readily amalgamated with Emmons’ (2000a) capacity or transcendent awareness, while the (2000a) capacity or transcendent awareness, while the second more c
second more closely resembles preerred behavior.losely resembles preerred behavior.
Te capacity or transcendent awareness has been Te capacity or transcendent awareness has been equally emphasized by Wolman (2001) and Vaughan equally emphasized by Wolman (2001) and Vaughan (2002). Others have added the capacity or existential (2002). Others have added the capacity or existential thinking and questioning (e.g., Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, thinking and questioning (e.g., Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000) as a 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000) as a core aspect o spiritual intelligence. Zohar and Marshall core aspect o spiritual intelligence. Zohar and Marshall (2000) urther contended that spiritual intelligence (2000) urther contended that spiritual intelligence represents the brain’s unitive processes which serve to represents the brain’s unitive processes which serve to reconceptualize experience and produce meaning. Nasel reconceptualize experience and produce meaning. Nasel (2004) described the construct as “the application o (2004) described the construct as “the application o spiritual abilities and resources to practical contexts” spiritual abilities and resources to practical contexts” (p. 4), identiying two main components o existential (p. 4), identiying two main components o existential questioning and the
questioning and the awareness o divine awareness o divine presence. His 17presence. His 17- -item Spiritual Intelligence Scale incorporates traditional item Spiritual Intelligence Scale incorporates traditional Christian values and New Age spirituality, yet ails to Christian values and New Age spirituality, yet ails to oer a universal measure o spiritual abilities as opposed oer a universal measure o spiritual abilities as opposed to experiences and behaviors.
to experiences and behaviors.
More recently, Amram (2007) identied More recently, Amram (2007) identied seven major themes o spiritual intelligence, including seven major themes o spiritual intelligence, including meaning, consciousness, grace, transcendence, truth, meaning, consciousness, grace, transcendence, truth, peaceul surrender to Sel, and inner-directed reedom. peaceul surrender to Sel, and inner-directed reedom. His Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale consists o His Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale consists o 22 subscales organized into ve theoretical domains o 22 subscales organized into ve theoretical domains o consciousness, grace, meaning, transcendence, and truth consciousness, grace, meaning, transcendence, and truth (Amram & Dryer, 2007). Like Nasel (2004), however, (Amram & Dryer, 2007). Like Nasel (2004), however, Amram
Amram (2007) (2007) ailed ailed to to distinguish distinguish careulcareully ly among among spiritual ability, behavior, and experience, resulting in spiritual ability, behavior, and experience, resulting in a model which is best described as a lived spirituality. a model which is best described as a lived spirituality. Previous models have made similar errors. For example, Previous models have made similar errors. For example, Wo
Wolman lman (200(20011) ) contendcontended ed that that phenophenomenolomenologicalgical experience is a
experience is a critical component o spiritual intelligence,critical component o spiritual intelligence, while
while others others have have involved involved theological theological interpretatiointerpretationsns (e.g.
(e.g., Emmons, 2000a; , Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004), resulting in limitedNasel, 2004), resulting in limited theories which cannot be universal
theories which cannot be universally applied.ly applied.
Gardner (1993, 2000) has remained hesitant Gardner (1993, 2000) has remained hesitant to accept a spiritual intelligence in his own model o to accept a spiritual intelligence in his own model o multiple intelligences, arguing that the concept is too multiple intelligences, arguing that the concept is too conounded with phenomenological experience and conounded with phenomenological experience and religious belie. He has,
religious belie. He has, howeverhowever, expressed , expressed preerenpreerence orce or an existential intelligence, which Halama and Strizenec an existential intelligence, which Halama and Strizenec (2004) described as a related and overlapping construct (2004) described as a related and overlapping construct to spiritual intelligence. Te current paper will oer to spiritual intelligence. Te current paper will oer
evidence to support the notion that spiritual intelligence evidence to support the notion that spiritual intelligence not only involv
not only involves exies existential capacities, but that it exists stential capacities, but that it exists asas a set o mental abilities that are distinct rom behavioral a set o mental abilities that are distinct rom behavioral traits and experiences, satisying established intelligence traits and experiences, satisying established intelligence criteria (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, criteria (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997).
1997).
Te subsequent model also assumes a Te subsequent model also assumes a contemporary interpretation o spirituality that contemporary interpretation o spirituality that distinguishes it rom the construct o religiosity (King, distinguishes it rom the construct o religiosity (King, Speck, & Tomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, Speck, & Tomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2000; Love, 20
2000; Love, 2002; Sinnott, 2002; Wink & Dillon, 2002;02; Sinnott, 2002; Wink & Dillon, 2002; Wul, 1
Wul, 1991991). Religion is viewed as “an organized system). Religion is viewed as “an organized system o belies, practices, rituals, and symbols” (Koenig et al., o belies, practices, rituals, and symbols” (Koenig et al., 2000, p. 18)
2000, p. 18), while spirituality , while spirituality is regarded ais regarded as “the personals “the personal quest or understanding answers to ultimate questions quest or understanding answers to ultimate questions about lie, about meaning, and about relationship to the about lie, about meaning, and about relationship to the sacred or transcendent” (p. 18). As many authors (e.g., sacred or transcendent” (p. 18). As many authors (e.g., Helminiak, 2001; Worthington & Sandage, 2001) have Helminiak, 2001; Worthington & Sandage, 2001) have noted, however
noted, however, religion a, religion and spirituality nd spirituality remain intimately remain intimately connected, with religion being “the social vehicle that, at connected, with religion being “the social vehicle that, at its best, proclaims and supports spirituality” (Helminiak, its best, proclaims and supports spirituality” (Helminiak, 2001, p. 165). While religion and spiritual intelligence 2001, p. 165). While religion and spiritual intelligence are also likely related, this is a topic o discussion which are also likely related, this is a topic o discussion which cannot be adequately addressed within the connes o cannot be adequately addressed within the connes o the current paper. Nevertheless, it is maintained that the current paper. Nevertheless, it is maintained that spiritual intelligence and religiosity are distinct but spiritual intelligence and religiosity are distinct but related psychological constructs. As such, the current related psychological constructs. As such, the current model may or may not be consistent with established model may or may not be consistent with established religious approaches or systems o belie. Tis is not a religious approaches or systems o belie. Tis is not a setback o the current model; rather, it is the result o setback o the current model; rather, it is the result o a commitment to the identication o cognitive abilities a commitment to the identication o cognitive abilities as opposed to belies and attitudes, which is necessary as opposed to belies and attitudes, which is necessary in the establishment o a universal human intelligence in the establishment o a universal human intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997).
A Viable Model o
A Viable Model o Spiritual Intell Spiritual Intelligenceigence
I
I
n the current model, spiritual intelligence is denedn the current model, spiritual intelligence is dened as a set o mental capacities which contribute to the as a set o mental capacities which contribute to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application o the awareness, integration, and adaptive application o the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects o one’s existence, nonmaterial and transcendent aspects o one’s existence, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reection, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reection, enhancement o meaning, recognition o a transcendent enhancement o meaning, recognition o a transcendent sel, and mastery o spiritual states (King, 2008). An sel, and mastery o spiritual states (King, 2008). An extensive review o the literature supports our core extensive review o the literature supports our core componencomponents: (1ts: (1) critical ) critical existential thiexistential thinking, nking, (2) personal(2) personal meaning production, (3) transcendental awareness, and meaning production, (3) transcendental awareness, and (4) conscious state expansion. Following a discussion o (4) conscious state expansion. Following a discussion o each o these capacities, additional support or adaptive each o these capacities, additional support or adaptive applications and development over the liespan will be applications and development over the liespan will be reviewed.
Critical Existential Tinking (CE) Critical Existential Tinking (CE)
Te rst component o spiritual intelligence Te rst component o spiritual intelligence involves the capacity to critically contemplate meaning, involves the capacity to critically contemplate meaning, purpose, and other existential or metaphysical issues purpose, and other existential or metaphysical issues (e.g., reality, the universe, space, time, death). In (e.g., reality, the universe, space, time, death). In addition to the mounting support or Gardner’s (1993) addition to the mounting support or Gardner’s (1993) suggestion o an existential intelligence (e.g., Halama suggestion o an existential intelligence (e.g., Halama & Strizenec, 2004; Shearer, 2006; Simmons, 2006), & Strizenec, 2004; Shearer, 2006; Simmons, 2006), existential thinking is commonplace in denitions o existential thinking is commonplace in denitions o both spirituality (e.g., Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, both spirituality (e.g., Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2000; Matheis, ulsky, & Matheis, 2006; Wink & 2000; Matheis, ulsky, & Matheis, 2006; Wink & Dillon, 2002) and spiritual intelligence (Nasel, 2004; Dillon, 2002) and spiritual intelligence (Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000). It is currently argued that critical existential 2000). It is currently argued that critical existential thinking can be applied to any lie issue, as any object thinking can be applied to any lie issue, as any object or event can be viewed in relation to one’s existence. or event can be viewed in relation to one’s existence. While some disc
While some discuss a “quuss a “quest or understanding ansest or understanding answers”wers” (Koenig et al., 2000, p. 18) to these seemingly ultimate (Koenig et al., 2000, p. 18) to these seemingly ultimate questions (e.g., Noble, 2000), this can more practically questions (e.g., Noble, 2000), this can more practically be considered as a related pattern o behavior.
be considered as a related pattern o behavior.
o a large extent, aspects o cognition are o a large extent, aspects o cognition are inherent in the discussion o existential tendencies, with inherent in the discussion o existential tendencies, with requent reerences to existential thinking (e.g., Garo, requent reerences to existential thinking (e.g., Garo, 2006), exi
2006), existential contemplation (e.g., Lavoie & de Vries,stential contemplation (e.g., Lavoie & de Vries, 2004), and existential rea
2004), and existential reasoning (e.g., Evans & Wsoning (e.g., Evans & Wellman,ellman, 2006), leading to the more plausible inerence o mental 2006), leading to the more plausible inerence o mental capacity. Furthermore, sel-estimates o intelligence capacity. Furthermore, sel-estimates o intelligence have revealed that perceived existential intelligence is have revealed that perceived existential intelligence is a signicant predictor o perceived overall intelligence a signicant predictor o perceived overall intelligence (Furnham, Wytykowska, & Petrides, 2002).
(Furnham, Wytykowska, & Petrides, 2002).
It is urther contended that simply questioning It is urther contended that simply questioning existence does not demonstrate complete mastery o this existence does not demonstrate complete mastery o this ability. One must be able to contemplate such exis
ability. One must be able to contemplate such existentialtential issues using critical thinking, and in some cases come to issues using critical thinking, and in some cases come to original conclusions or personal philosophies regarding original conclusions or personal philosophies regarding existence, integrating scientic knowledge and personal existence, integrating scientic knowledge and personal experience. Critical thinking, dened as “actively experience. Critical thinking, dened as “actively and skilully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, and skilully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating inormation gathered synthesizing, and/or evaluating inormation gathered rom, or generated by, observation, experience, reect rom, or generated by, observation, experience, reection,ion, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul, 1992), reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul, 1992), more accurately reects intelligence.
more accurately reects intelligence. Personal Meaning Production (PMP) Personal Meaning Production (PMP)
Te second core component is dened as the Te second core component is dened as the ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a lie purpose. Like existential to create and master a lie purpose. Like existential thinking, personal meaning is requently described as a thinking, personal meaning is requently described as a component o spirituality (e.g., King, Speck, & Tomas, component o spirituality (e.g., King, Speck, & Tomas,
2001
2001; Koenig et a; Koenig et al., 2000; Sinnott, 2002; Wink l., 2000; Sinnott, 2002; Wink & Dillon,& Dillon, 2002; Worthington & Sandage, 2001), requiring its 2002; Worthington & Sandage, 2001), requiring its consideration in a model o spiritual intelligence. Nasel consideration in a model o spiritual intelligence. Nasel (2004) concurred, suggesting that spiritual intelligence (2004) concurred, suggesting that spiritual intelligence “involves contemplation o the symbolic meaning o “involves contemplation o the symbolic meaning o personal events and circumstances, in order to nd personal events and circumstances, in order to nd purpose and meaning in all lie experiences” (p. 52). In purpose and meaning in all lie experiences” (p. 52). In essence, Emmons’ (2000a) capacity or sanctication is essence, Emmons’ (2000a) capacity or sanctication is one particular method o personal meaning production. one particular method o personal meaning production. Personal meaning has been dened as “having Personal meaning has been dened as “having a purpose in lie, having a sense o direction, a sense o a purpose in lie, having a sense o direction, a sense o order and a reason or existence” (Reker, 1997, p. 710). order and a reason or existence” (Reker, 1997, p. 710). Meddin (1998) identied a cognitive component o Meddin (1998) identied a cognitive component o personal meaning, dened as “an integrative organizing personal meaning, dened as “an integrative organizing principle (or set o principles) which enables one to principle (or set o principles) which enables one to make sense (cognition) o one’s inner lie and outer make sense (cognition) o one’s inner lie and outer environment” (p. 164), which closely resembles Zohar environment” (p. 164), which closely resembles Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) description o the brain’s tertiary and Marshall’s (2000) description o the brain’s tertiary processes. A cognitive component was also suggested processes. A cognitive component was also suggested by Wong (1989), who dened personal meaning as “an by Wong (1989), who dened personal meaning as “an individually constructed cognitive system, that is… individually constructed cognitive system, that is… capable o endowing lie with personal signicance and capable o endowing lie with personal signicance and satisaction” (p. 517).
satisaction” (p. 517).
Reker’s (1997) denition highlights the Reker’s (1997) denition highlights the undamental relationship between meaning and undamental relationship between meaning and purpose. In addition to deriving purpose rom daily purpose. In addition to deriving purpose rom daily events and experiences (i.e., situational meaning), one events and experiences (i.e., situational meaning), one is also capable o dening a purpose or his/her lie (i.e., is also capable o dening a purpose or his/her lie (i.e., global meaning), utilizing more coherent and creative global meaning), utilizing more coherent and creative orms o meaning production. Te mastery o a lie orms o meaning production. Te mastery o a lie purpose reers to one’s ability to iner his/her purpose in purpose reers to one’s ability to iner his/her purpose in all events and experiences. A seemingly innite number all events and experiences. A seemingly innite number o sources o meaning and purpose have been described o sources o meaning and purpose have been described in the literature, including leisure activities (Reker & in the literature, including leisure activities (Reker & Wo
Wong, ng, 11988)988), , work work (Tompson, (Tompson, 11992)992), , reminiscencereminiscence (Wong, 1989), and dreams (aylor, 2001), to name a (Wong, 1989), and dreams (aylor, 2001), to name a ew. Te ability to create meaning and purpose in all ew. Te ability to create meaning and purpose in all mental and physical experiences occupies the highest mental and physical experiences occupies the highest level o this particular ability.
level o this particular ability. ranscendental Awareness (A) ranscendental Awareness (A)
Te third component involves the capacity Te third component involves the capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions o the sel (e.g., a to perceive transcendent dimensions o the sel (e.g., a transcendent sel), o others, and o the physical world transcendent sel), o others, and o the physical world (e.g., nonmaterialism, interconnectedness) during the (e.g., nonmaterialism, interconnectedness) during the normal, waking state o consciousness. Te transc
normal, waking state o consciousness. Te transcendentendent is commonplace in denitions o spirituality (e.g., King et is commonplace in denitions o spirituality (e.g., King et al., 2001; Koenig et al., 200
al., 2001; Koenig et al., 2000; Mart0; Martsol & Micksol & Mickley, 1ley, 1998;998; Sinnott, 2002), with one aspect o particular interest Sinnott, 2002), with one aspect o particular interest to the current model: awareness (Martsol & Mickley, to the current model: awareness (Martsol & Mickley,
1988). Pascual (1990) proposed that transcendental 1988). Pascual (1990) proposed that transcendental awareness, particularly the awareness o a
awareness, particularly the awareness o a transcendentranscendentaltal sel, is a key actor o spiritual intelligence. Wolman sel, is a key actor o spiritual intelligence. Wolman (2001) explained this more broadly as the ability to (2001) explained this more broadly as the ability to sense a spiritual dimension o lie, reecting what sense a spiritual dimension o lie, reecting what James
James (1(1902/2002) had 902/2002) had previously previously described described as as “a sense“a sense o present reality more diused and general than that o present reality more diused and general than that which
which our our speciaspecial l senses senses yield” yield” (p. (p. 72)72). . Other Other authorsauthors have concurred (e.g., Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004; have concurred (e.g., Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004; Noble; 2001).
Noble; 2001).
Building on the work o Abraham Maslow, Building on the work o Abraham Maslow, Hamel, Leclerc
Hamel, Leclerc, and Lerançois (2003) have , and Lerançois (2003) have described andescribed an addition
additional al process o process o transcendentranscendent-actualizatiot-actualization, whichn, which they dene as “a sel-realizat
they dene as “a sel-realization ounded on ion ounded on an awarenessan awareness and experience o a Spiritual Center, also calle
and experience o a Spiritual Center, also called the Innerd the Inner Being or the Sel” (p. 4). Csikszentmihalyi (1993) also Being or the Sel” (p. 4). Csikszentmihalyi (1993) also reerred to the transcendent sel, describing successul reerred to the transcendent sel, describing successul individuals as transcenders who “move beyond the individuals as transcenders who “move beyond the boundaries o their personal limitations by integrating boundaries o their personal limitations by integrating individual goals with larger ones, such as the welare individual goals with larger ones, such as the welare o the amily, the community, humanity, the planet, or o the amily, the community, humanity, the planet, or the co
the cosmos” (p. 21smos” (p. 219)9). Simil. Similarly, Le and Larly, Le and Levenson (2005)evenson (2005) described sel-transcendence as “the ability to move described sel-transcendence as “the ability to move beyond sel-centered consciousness, and to see things… beyond sel-centered consciousness, and to see things… with a
with a considerable meaconsiderable measure o sure o reedom reedom rom biologicarom biologicall and social conditioning” (p. 444). Te recognition and social conditioning” (p. 444). Te recognition and ongoing awareness o a transcendent sel is a key and ongoing awareness o a transcendent sel is a key component o this capacity.
component o this capacity.
Hamel et al. (2003) recently identied two Hamel et al. (2003) recently identied two components o Maslow’s (1971) metacognition (i.e., an components o Maslow’s (1971) metacognition (i.e., an expanded unitive consciousness). Te rst component is expanded unitive consciousness). Te rst component is in-depth perception, described as the “ability to discern in-depth perception, described as the “ability to discern and explore the dierent aspects o one’s lie and lie and explore the dierent aspects o one’s lie and lie in general, going beyond appearances” (Hamel et al., in general, going beyond appearances” (Hamel et al., 2003, p. 11) and developing “a perception o realities 2003, p. 11) and developing “a perception o realities that ordinary consciousness cannot perceive but that that ordinary consciousness cannot perceive but that are common in contemplation” (p. 12). Te second are common in contemplation” (p. 12). Te second component is holistic perception, dened as the “ability component is holistic perception, dened as the “ability to perceive one’s lie and lie in general rom a viewpoint to perceive one’s lie and lie in general rom a viewpoint independent o numerous attachments” (p. 11). It is independent o numerous attachments” (p. 11). It is urt
urther described as “an apprehension o her described as “an apprehension o realitreality with all itsy with all its contradictions and incompatibilities, a global integrative contradictions and incompatibilities, a global integrative vision o the essential core o beings and events” (p. vision o the essential core o beings and events” (p. 12). Tese components describe cognitive abilities o 12). Tese components describe cognitive abilities o perception and awareness, the targets o which are oten perception and awareness, the targets o which are oten said to exist outside o ordinary consciousness (to the said to exist outside o ordinary consciousness (to the extent that they a
extent that they are not perceived by the physical senses),re not perceived by the physical senses), including nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness, including nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness, and transcendent aspects o the sel and others. and transcendent aspects o the sel and others.
Collectively, these various abstractions represent what is Collectively, these various abstractions represent what is currently described as transcendent.
currently described as transcendent. Conscious state expa
Conscious state expansion (CSE)nsion (CSE)
Te nal component o the current model is Te nal component o the current model is the ability to enter spiritual states o consciousness (e.g., the ability to enter spiritual states o consciousness (e.g., pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at one’s own discretion. From a psychological perspective, one’s own discretion. From a psychological perspective, the distinction between transcendental awareness and the distinction between transcendental awareness and conscious st
conscious state expansion iate expansion is well supported s well supported (art, 1(art, 1975)975).. Te ormer must occur during the normal waking state, Te ormer must occur during the normal waking state, while
while the the latter latter involves involves the the ability ability to to transctranscend end thisthis state and enter higher or spiritual states. A growing body state and enter higher or spiritual states. A growing body o research has demonstrated signicant dierences o research has demonstrated signicant dierences in brain unctioning between all levels and states o in brain unctioning between all levels and states o consciousn
consciousness, including those ess, including those associated with spiritualassociated with spiritual experiences and meditation (or a review, see Cahn & experiences and meditation (or a review, see Cahn & Polich, 2006; Vaitl et al., 2005). States commonly reerred Polich, 2006; Vaitl et al., 2005). States commonly reerred to as spiritual include cosmic consciousness (Bucke, as to as spiritual include cosmic consciousness (Bucke, as cited in James, 1902/2002), pure consciousness (e.g., cited in James, 1902/2002), pure consciousness (e.g., Gackenbach, 1992)
Gackenbach, 1992), and unitive c, and unitive consciousness (Monsciousness (Maslow,aslow, 1964).
1964).
Expanded or a
Expanded or altereltered states d states o consciousno consciousness areess are deeply root
deeply rooted aspects ed aspects o religion and spirituality (James,o religion and spirituality (James, 1902/2002; Maslow, 1964). As such, it is necessary to 1902/2002; Maslow, 1964). As such, it is necessary to consider a potential mental ability that might underlie consider a potential mental ability that might underlie the experience o these states, as Emmons (2000a) the experience o these states, as Emmons (2000a) correctly did in his own model o spiritual intelligence. correctly did in his own model o spiritual intelligence. Due to their phenomenological quality and potential Due to their phenomenological quality and potential spontaneous occurrence (James, 1902/2002; Maslow, spontaneous occurrence (James, 1902/2002; Maslow, 1964; Vaitl et al., 2005), however, the mere experience 1964; Vaitl et al., 2005), however, the mere experience o such states does not constitute mental ability.
o such states does not constitute mental ability. What
What is is ar ar less less debatable debatable is is the the capacitcapacity y oror entering these states at one’s own discretion. Vaitl et al. entering these states at one’s own discretion. Vaitl et al. (2005) identied a set o altered states o consciousness (2005) identied a set o altered states o consciousness which
which are are triggeretriggered d by by one’one’s s own own mental mental exercises, exercises, asas in meditation and relaxation. Over a century earlier, in meditation and relaxation. Over a century earlier, James
James (1(1902/2002) 902/2002) made made a a similasimilar r observatobservation,ion, noting that “the oncoming o mystical states may be noting that “the oncoming o mystical states may be acilitated by preliminary voluntary operations” (p. acilitated by preliminary voluntary operations” (p. 415). He also described a “methodical cultivation” (p. 415). He also described a “methodical cultivation” (p. 436) o such altered states in various religions, some o 436) o such altered states in various religions, some o which
which involve ainvolve an n “intellec“intellectual tual concentration” concentration” (p. 436(p. 436).). Maslow (1964) agreed, stating that peak experiences are Maslow (1964) agreed, stating that peak experiences are “to some extent under our own control” (p. 32). More “to some extent under our own control” (p. 32). More recent psychological literature has reported individuals recent psychological literature has reported individuals who
who are are highly highly skilskilled led at at entering entering spiritual spiritual or or mysticamysticall states o consciousness (e.g., Holmes, Solomon, Cappo, states o consciousness (e.g., Holmes, Solomon, Cappo, & Greenberg, 1983; Lehmann et al., 2001). Although & Greenberg, 1983; Lehmann et al., 2001). Although Gardner (2000) contended that the ability to enter such Gardner (2000) contended that the ability to enter such
states is reective o h
states is reective o his bodily-kinesthetic intis bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, a elligence, a cognitive component is no less evident and undamental cognitive component is no less evident and undamental to this capacity (James, 1902/2002; Vaitl et al., 2005). to this capacity (James, 1902/2002; Vaitl et al., 2005). Adapti
Adaptive applicatve applicationsions
Myriad studies have demonstrated an adaptive Myriad studies have demonstrated an adaptive role o spirituality in individuals suering rom a variety role o spirituality in individuals suering rom a variety o health conditions, including cancer (e.g., Holland o health conditions, including cancer (e.g., Holland et al., 1999), spinal cord injuries (e.g., Matheis et al., et al., 1999), spinal cord injuries (e.g., Matheis et al., 2006), and substance abuse disorders (e.g., Piedmont, 2006), and substance abuse disorders (e.g., Piedmont, 2004), among others. Positive relationships have also 2004), among others. Positive relationships have also been observed between spirituality and adaptability been observed between spirituality and adaptability to parental loss (Gree & Human, 2004) and career to parental loss (Gree & Human, 2004) and career transitions (Duy & Blustein, 2005). It is rom these transitions (Duy & Blustein, 2005). It is rom these studies that the adaptive role o spiritual intelligence can studies that the adaptive role o spiritual intelligence can be generally inerred.
be generally inerred.
Tere are particular
Tere are particular situatiosituations in which spiritualns in which spiritual intelligence would prove highly adaptive: the existential intelligence would prove highly adaptive: the existential neurosis and the existential crisis. An existential neurosis and the existential crisis. An existential neurosis is “characterized by the belie that one’s lie neurosis is “characterized by the belie that one’s lie is meaningless” (Maddi, 1967, p. 313). Similarly, an is meaningless” (Maddi, 1967, p. 313). Similarly, an existential vacuum can result rom a loss o meaning existential vacuum can result rom a loss o meaning in liein lie or “the rustration o the wi
or “the rustration o the will to meanill to meaning” (Frankl, 1969ng” (Frankl, 1969,, p. 45). Such existential crises can result rom isolation, p. 45). Such existential crises can result rom isolation, the inevitability o death (Yalom, 1980), trauma (e.g., the inevitability o death (Yalom, 1980), trauma (e.g., Goddard, 2004), rapid cultural change (e.g., Madison, Goddard, 2004), rapid cultural change (e.g., Madison, 2006), and job loss (Hilpert, 1987). Highly developed 2006), and job loss (Hilpert, 1987). Highly developed levels o critical existential thinking and personal levels o critical existential thinking and personal meaning production would prove particularly valuable, meaning production would prove particularly valuable, acilitating both contemplation o the crisis and creation acilitating both contemplation o the crisis and creation o meaning within its ramework, potentially preventing o meaning within its ramework, potentially preventing many crises rom ever ully developing. Maddi (1967) many crises rom ever ully developing. Maddi (1967) suggested that one possible source o an existential suggested that one possible source o an existential neurosis is a premorbid identity, in which “the person neurosis is a premorbid identity, in which “the person [considers] himsel to be nothing more than…an [considers] himsel to be nothing more than…an embodiment o biological needs” (p. 315), a conviction embodiment o biological needs” (p. 315), a conviction which wou
which would be ld be inhibited (i inhibited (i not entirely not entirely prevented) by prevented) by the perception o a transcendent sel.
the perception o a transcendent sel. Additional
Additional researesearch rch has has suggesuggested sted that that thethe ability to construct meaning is adaptive in a variety o ability to construct meaning is adaptive in a variety o circumstances, including depression, neuroticism, and circumstances, including depression, neuroticism, and suicidal ideation (e.g., Mascaro & Rosen, 2005). When suicidal ideation (e.g., Mascaro & Rosen, 2005). When aced with a stressor, personal meaning production aced with a stressor, personal meaning production acts as a coping method by allowing an individual to acts as a coping method by allowing an individual to construct meaning and purpose within the stressul construct meaning and purpose within the stressul situation, thereby transorming it and reducing its situation, thereby transorming it and reducing its negative impact. It has also been demonstrated that negative impact. It has also been demonstrated that perceptions o interconnectedness and a transcendent perceptions o interconnectedness and a transcendent sel are highly adaptive in substance abuse recovery sel are highly adaptive in substance abuse recovery (Piedmont, 2004), depression (Ellermann & Reed, (Piedmont, 2004), depression (Ellermann & Reed,
2001), and coping with HIV/AIDS (e.g., Mellors, 2001), and coping with HIV/AIDS (e.g., Mellors, 1999). Although research is limited, transcendental 1999). Although research is limited, transcendental awareness likely invokes a sense o security, acting as awareness likely invokes a sense o security, acting as a source o coping when material resources are lacking a source o coping when material resources are lacking or insufcient. In regards to conscious state expansion, or insufcient. In regards to conscious state expansion, a variety o adaptive applications can be inerred rom a variety o adaptive applications can be inerred rom research on meditation, which has revealed correlations research on meditation, which has revealed correlations with
with reduced reduced physiological physiological indicators indicators o o stress stress (e.g.,(e.g., Alex
Alexander eander et at al., 1989l., 1989). One c). One can an urther urther postulpostulate thate thatat this capacity would serve as a valuable coping method this capacity would serve as a valuable coping method when aced with a crisis (existentia
when aced with a crisis (existential or otherwise) due tol or otherwise) due to its anxiety-inhibiting eects (Vaitl et al., 2005).
its anxiety-inhibiting eects (Vaitl et al., 2005). Liespan
Liespan developmdevelopment ent
Accumulating evidence suggests that spiritual Accumulating evidence suggests that spiritual capacities can emerge in childhood. Piechowski capacities can emerge in childhood. Piechowski (2001) noted many common themes in the spiritual (2001) noted many common themes in the spiritual experiences o children, including states o oneness experiences o children, including states o oneness and a sense o sel beyond physical reality. Hay and and a sense o sel beyond physical reality. Hay and Nye (1998) identied children aged six to ten years Nye (1998) identied children aged six to ten years who
who could could describe describe their their own own techniques techniques or or entering entering higher states o consciousness, including silent gazing, higher states o consciousness, including silent gazing, prayer, and contemplating one’s origins and the origins prayer, and contemplating one’s origins and the origins o the world. Gackenbach (1992) maintained that o the world. Gackenbach (1992) maintained that the whole range o higher states o consciousness can the whole range o higher states o consciousness can be experienced by children, in some cases at an adult be experienced by children, in some cases at an adult level, indicating the existence o
level, indicating the existence o consciousnconsciousness savants.ess savants. Evans and Wellman (2006) also discussed a childhood Evans and Wellman (2006) also discussed a childhood potential or existential reasoning which is contingent potential or existential reasoning which is contingent on the development o theory o mind.
on the development o theory o mind. Adolescence
Adolescence and and young young adulthood adulthood appear appear toto be marked by an expansion o all spiritual capacities, be marked by an expansion o all spiritual capacities, resulting in part rom identity ormation and the resulting in part rom identity ormation and the emergence o abstract reasoning (Ellsworth, 1999; emergence o abstract reasoning (Ellsworth, 1999; Fitzgerald, 2005; Helminiak, 1987). According to Fitzgerald, 2005; Helminiak, 1987). According to Parks (1986, 2000), individuals between the ages o Parks (1986, 2000), individuals between the ages o 17 and 30 develop in their meaning-making abilities 17 and 30 develop in their meaning-making abilities and become more aware o their conception o reality. and become more aware o their conception o reality. Cook and Oltjenbruns (1982) also observed evidence Cook and Oltjenbruns (1982) also observed evidence o signicant development in existential skills during o signicant development in existential skills during high school. Tis development continues throughout high school. Tis development continues throughout adulthood, as abilities deepen and contribute to the adulthood, as abilities deepen and contribute to the awareness o a transcendent sel (Hamel et al., 2003; awareness o a transcendent sel (Hamel et al., 2003; Helminiak, 1987). In later adulthood, abilities peak in Helminiak, 1987). In later adulthood, abilities peak in many individuals as death approaches. According to many individuals as death approaches. According to ornstam (2005), later stages o lie are characterized ornstam (2005), later stages o lie are characterized by a redenition o the perception o time, space, lie, by a redenition o the perception o time, space, lie, and death; the transcendence o the ego, o the physical and death; the transcendence o the ego, o the physical body, and o material interests; and an increase in time body, and o material interests; and an increase in time spent meditating on lie.
Tis is not to say, however, that abilities cannot Tis is not to say, however, that abilities cannot peak in earlier stages o development. As suggested by peak in earlier stages o development. As suggested by Noble (2000) and Vaughan (2002)
Noble (2000) and Vaughan (2002), spiritual , spiritual experiencesexperiences contribute to the individual development o spiritual contribute to the individual development o spiritual intelligence. Evidence, although limited, also supports intelligence. Evidence, although limited, also supports the existence o individuals who are highly skilled and/ the existence o individuals who are highly skilled and/ or gited in their spiritua
or gited in their spiritual abilities (e.g., Emmons, 2000a;l abilities (e.g., Emmons, 2000a; Gackenbach, 1992; Holmes et al., 1993; Lehmann et Gackenbach, 1992; Holmes et al., 1993; Lehmann et al., 2001; Lovecky, 1998; Piechowski, 1998), suggesting al., 2001; Lovecky, 1998; Piechowski, 1998), suggesting that spiritual intelligence increases with both age and that spiritual intelligence increases with both age and experience.
experience.
Tus ar, spiritual intelligence has satised the Tus ar, spiritual intelligence has satised the three primar
three primary criteria oy criteria or intelligence: a set o r intelligence: a set o characcharacteristicteristic mental abilities that are distinc
mental abilities that are distinct rom preerred behaviors,t rom preerred behaviors, the acilitation o adaptation and problem-solving, and the acilitation o adaptation and problem-solving, and development over the liespan (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et development over the liespan (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Empirical evidence urther al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Empirical evidence urther suggests that spiritual experiences and their related suggests that spiritual experiences and their related sensations display physiological correlates in the brain, sensations display physiological correlates in the brain, primarily in (but not limited to) the temporal lobes and primarily in (but not limited to) the temporal lobes and limbic system (or reviews and more detailed summaries limbic system (or reviews and more detailed summaries o related ndings, see d’Aquili & Newberg, 1999; o related ndings, see d’Aquili & Newberg, 1999; Persinger, 1
Persinger, 1983, 2001983, 2001; R; Ramachandamachandran, 1998)ran, 1998). It ha. It has als alsoso been discovered that altered brain activity occurs during been discovered that altered brain activity occurs during heightened states o consciousness (e.g., Cahn & Polich, heightened states o consciousness (e.g., Cahn & Polich, 2006; Persinger, 1983; art, 1975; or a review, see Vaitl 2006; Persinger, 1983; art, 1975; or a review, see Vaitl et al., 2005). Although urther research is required et al., 2005). Although urther research is required on spiritual capacities in particular, these ndings on spiritual capacities in particular, these ndings provide preliminary support or potential biological provide preliminary support or potential biological oundations o spiritual intelligence. As Emmons oundations o spiritual intelligence. As Emmons (2000a) noted, there is also a air amount o evidence (2000a) noted, there is also a air amount o evidence or the evolutionary plausibility o spiritual intelligence, or the evolutionary plausibility o spiritual intelligence, with
with religious religious doctrine doctrine and and dogma dogma developing developing out out o o a a need to conceptualize, articulate, and interpret related need to conceptualize, articulate, and interpret related spiritual experiences (Love, 2002).
spiritual experiences (Love, 2002). Te current model is
Te current model is not simply a reormulationnot simply a reormulation or redenition o spirituality. Rather, its primary or redenition o spirituality. Rather, its primary purpose is the identication o those mental capacities purpose is the identication o those mental capacities and abilities related to human spirituality. o date, and abilities related to human spirituality. o date, two sel-report measures o spiritual intelligence have two sel-report measures o spiritual intelligence have been proposed (Amram & Dryer, 2007; Nasel, 2004), been proposed (Amram & Dryer, 2007; Nasel, 2004), yet neither has ully complied with leading criteria yet neither has ully complied with leading criteria or intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; or intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). While it has been suggested that Sternberg, 1997). While it has been suggested that measures o spirituality also tap aspects o spiritual measures o spirituality also tap aspects o spiritual intelligence (Halama & Strizenec, 2004), Gardner’s intelligence (Halama & Strizenec, 2004), Gardner’s (1983) criterion o psychometric evidence appears to be (1983) criterion o psychometric evidence appears to be lackin
lacking. Te subsequent studies were carried out in orderg. Te subsequent studies were carried out in order to address these issues.
to address these issues.
Study 1: Scale Development Study 1: Scale Development
A
A
s suggested by Clark and Watson (1995), thes suggested by Clark and Watson (1995), the development o a sound theoretical model on development o a sound theoretical model on which tewhich test st items are items are based based is a is a crucial crucial rst rst step step in scin scaleale development. Te vast majority o researchers rely on a development. Te vast majority o researchers rely on a thorough literature review o the subject in order to iner thorough literature review o the subject in order to iner rom previous research a model o the construct. Tis rom previous research a model o the construct. Tis has been the current approach. Te purpose o Study 1 has been the current approach. Te purpose o Study 1 was to develop
was to develop and test a and test a preliminarpreliminary sel-ry sel-report measureeport measure o spiritual intelligence.
o spiritual intelligence. Method
Method
Item generation.
Item generation.An originaAn original pool o 84 items wasl pool o 84 items was developed based on the current theoretical c
developed based on the current theoretical conception o onception o spiritual intelligence. Ma
spiritual intelligence. Many items wny items were modelled based onere modelled based on previously established measures o spirituality, meaning, previously established measures o spirituality, meaning, and transcendence, while others were generated in order and transcendence, while others were generated in order to complete the ull ranges o the our capacities. Te to complete the ull ranges o the our capacities. Te initial item pool was over-inclusive so as to avoid the initial item pool was over-inclusive so as to avoid the exclusion o potential indicators o the construct (Clark exclusion o potential indicators o the construct (Clark & Watson, 1995). A multiple-choice, Likert-type scale & Watson, 1995). A multiple-choice, Likert-type scale was
was utilized, utilized, with with responses responses ranging ranging on on a a scale scale o o 0 0 toto 4, representing the extent to which each statement was 4, representing the extent to which each statement was true or the respondent. In total, 12 reverse-coded items true or the respondent. In total, 12 reverse-coded items were
were included included as as indicators indicators o o internal internal reliability. reliability. TeTe initial item pool was reviewed by 34 adults (including initial item pool was reviewed by 34 adults (including proessors o psychology, students, and members o the proessors o psychology, students, and members o the community) or logic and readability. Items were edited community) or logic and readability. Items were edited based on eedback, resulting in a preliminary dra
based on eedback, resulting in a preliminary drat o thet o the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI). Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI).
Participants.
Participants. Respondents were 488 emalesRespondents were 488 emales and 131 males (N = 619) enrolled in undergraduate and 131 males (N = 619) enrolled in undergraduate psychology c
psychology courses ourses at rat rent University in Peterborough,ent University in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 22.51 years (SD = Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 22.51 years (SD = 5.51; range = 17 to 59).
5.51; range = 17 to 59). Measures
Measures. Participants were asked to provide. Participants were asked to provide demographic inormation (including sex and age) beore demographic inormation (including sex and age) beore completing the preliminary 84-item Spiritual Intelligence completing the preliminary 84-item Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (with 21 items measuring each o Sel-Report Inventory (with 21 items measuring each o the our components o spiritual i
the our components o spiritual intelligence).ntelligence). Procedure.
Procedure.Participation took place in classroomParticipation took place in classroom settings and lasted approximately 25 minutes. Each settings and lasted approximately 25 minutes. Each participant was asked to read and sign a consent orm participant was asked to read and sign a consent orm prior to participation ensuring condentiality and the prior to participation ensuring condentiality and the right to withdraw at
right to withdraw at any time without penaltany time without penaltyy.. Results
Results
Properties of the original 84-item SISRI. Properties of the original 84-item SISRI. Descriptive statistics and response distributions were Descriptive statistics and response distributions were rst examined or all 84 items. Although none reached rst examined or all 84 items. Although none reached signicance, slight skewness was observed or 15 o signicance, slight skewness was observed or 15 o
the items, which were deemed good candidates or the items, which were deemed good candidates or removal. Cronbach’s alpha was .97, suggesting very high removal. Cronbach’s alpha was .97, suggesting very high internal consistency and reliability (a minimum o .80 internal consistency and reliability (a minimum o .80 is recommended; Clark & Watson, 1995; Worthington is recommended; Clark & Watson, 1995; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Te average inter-item correlation & Whittaker, 2006). Te average inter-item correlation was .30,
was .30, which awhich alls ills in the n the suggested suggested range range o .1o .15 to 5 to .50.50 (Clark & Watson, 1995).
(Clark & Watson, 1995).
Exploratory factor analysis.
Exploratory factor analysis. All All responsesresponses or the 84-item pool were subjected to a principal or the 84-item pool were subjected to a principal components analysis (EFA) with Varimax normalized components analysis (EFA) with Varimax normalized rotation. Six actors were initially extracted and actor rotation. Six actors were initially extracted and actor loadings o .35 or higher were deemed signicant (Clark loadings o .35 or higher were deemed signicant (Clark & Watson, 1995). All eigenvalues met the suggested & Watson, 1995). All eigenvalues met the suggested minimum value o 1.0 in order or their corresponding minimum value o 1.0 in order or their corresponding actors to be considered or retention (Clark & Watson, actors to be considered or retention (Clark & Watson, 1995; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Te third 1995; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Te third actor extracted was composed o all 12 reverse-coded actor extracted was composed o all 12 reverse-coded items, suggesting that these items were unstable. One items, suggesting that these items were unstable. One o these items displayed a cross-loading on Factor 4 and o these items displayed a cross-loading on Factor 4 and was considered or retention. Te three items loading on was considered or retention. Te three items loading on the sixth actor had no theoretical connection, leading the sixth actor had no theoretical connection, leading to this actor’s removal. Items loading on actors 1, 2, to this actor’s removal. Items loading on actors 1, 2, 4, and 5 corresponded primarily to critical existential 4, and 5 corresponded primarily to critical existential thinking, conscious state expansion, personal meaning thinking, conscious state expansion, personal meaning production, and transcendental awareness, respectively. production, and transcendental awareness, respectively.
Item Retention.
Item Retention.Te primary criterion or itemTe primary criterion or item retention was theoretical necessity (as suggested by retention was theoretical necessity (as suggested by Clark & Watson, 1995). As such, items were removed Clark & Watson, 1995). As such, items were removed only i such removal did not result in inadequate model only i such removal did not result in inadequate model representation. All items with converging cross-loadings representation. All items with converging cross-loadings (with dierences o less than .15; Clark & Watson, (with dierences o less than .15; Clark & Watson, 1995) were considered or removal, as were those which 1995) were considered or removal, as were those which loaded on theoretically unrelated actors or displayed loaded on theoretically unrelated actors or displayed no signicant loadings whatsoever. Finally, a number o no signicant loadings whatsoever. Finally, a number o items were removed in order to reduce redundancy and items were removed in order to reduce redundancy and to obtain a desirable scale length. In total, 42 items were to obtain a desirable scale length. In total, 42 items were retained, including 12 i
retained, including 12 items measuring critical existentiatems measuring critical existentiall thinking, 11 items measuring conscious state expansion, thinking, 11 items measuring conscious state expansion, 9 items measuring personal mea
9 items measuring personal meaning production, and 10ning production, and 10 items measuring transcendental awareness.
items measuring transcendental awareness.
Properties of the Reduced 42-Item SISRI. Properties of the Reduced 42-Item SISRI. Alpha
Alpha or the or the 42-item pool 42-item pool was was .96, which .96, which was was slightly slightly lower than in the original 84-item pool but considered lower than in the original 84-item pool but considered an improvement to the data (Clark & Watson, 1995). an improvement to the data (Clark & Watson, 1995). Te average inter-item correlation was .36. When Te average inter-item correlation was .36. When subjected to a second principal components EFA, all our subjected to a second principal components EFA, all our actors displayed eigenvalues above 1.0 and no residual actors displayed eigenvalues above 1.0 and no residual correlations exceeded .14, adding condence to the correlations exceeded .14, adding condence to the actors and
actors and items retained items retained (Clark & Watson, 199(Clark & Watson, 1995).5).
Study 2: Scale Validity Study 2: Scale Validity
he primary purpose o Study 2 was to investigatehe primary purpose o Study 2 was to investigate the actor structure o the Spiritual Intelligence the actor structure o the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI) in a subsequent sample. Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI) in a subsequent sample. Construct valConstruct validity was examined by including additionalidity was examined by including additional measures o theoretically related and unrelated constructs measures o theoretically related and unrelated constructs (DeVellis, 1991). As is standard in scale development, (DeVellis, 1991). As is standard in scale development, social desirabili
social desirability was ty was also exaalso examined.mined.
Hypothesis 1. Based on the theoretical Hypothesis 1. Based on the theoretical conception o spiritual intelligence and the actor conception o spiritual intelligence and the actor structure observed in Study 1, it was hypothesized that structure observed in Study 1, it was hypothesized that a our-actor model o spiritual intelligence would reveal a our-actor model o spiritual intelligence would reveal adequate t to the data. Hypothesis 2. Based on the adequate t to the data. Hypothesis 2. Based on the current denition o personal meaning production, it current denition o personal meaning production, it was hypothesi
was hypothesized tzed that a signihat a signicant positive relatcant positive relationshipionship would
would be be observed observed between between this this subscale subscale o o the the SISRISISRI and a measure o personal mea
and a measure o personal meaning. Hypothesis 3. Givenning. Hypothesis 3. Given that metapersonal sel-construal has been described that metapersonal sel-construal has been described as a more spiritual orm o sel-reerence (DeCicco & as a more spiritual orm o sel-reerence (DeCicco & Stroink, 2007), it was hypothesized that a signicant Stroink, 2007), it was hypothesized that a signicant positive relationship would be observed between the positive relationship would be observed between the SISRI and the metapersonal sel. Hypothesis 4. Based SISRI and the metapersonal sel. Hypothesis 4. Based on the current denition o conscious state expansion, it on the current denition o conscious state expansion, it was hypothesi
was hypothesized tzed that a signihat a signicant positive relatcant positive relationshipionship would
would be be observed observed between between mystical mystical experiences experiences andand this subscale o the SISRI. Hypothesis 5. Te SISRI was this subscale o the SISRI. Hypothesis 5. Te SISRI was expected to display a non-signicant to low correlation expected to display a non-signicant to low correlation with
with extrinsic extrinsic religiosity religiosity and and a a positive positive yet yet low low toto moderate correlation with intrinsic religiosity. Tese moderate correlation with intrinsic religiosity. Tese predictions were based on denitions o religiosity which predictions were based on denitions o religiosity which tend to relate the intrinsic orientation more closely to tend to relate the intrinsic orientation more closely to spirituality
spirituality (e.g., Pargament, 1997)(e.g., Pargament, 1997).. Method
Method
Participants.
Participants. Respondents were 231 emalesRespondents were 231 emales and 74 males (N = 305) enrolled in undergraduate and 74 males (N = 305) enrolled in undergraduate psychology c
psychology courses at ourses at rent University in Peterborough,rent University in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 25.56 years (SD = Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 25.56 years (SD = 10.93; range = 18 to 63).
10.93; range = 18 to 63). Demographics.
Demographics. A one-page survey o basicA one-page survey o basic demographic inormation accounted or sex, age, demographic inormation accounted or sex, age, ethnicity, relationship status, and level o education. ethnicity, relationship status, and level o education.
Measures.
Measures.A total o six measures were utilizedA total o six measures were utilized to evaluate participants.
to evaluate participants.
Te Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory Te Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI).
(SISRI). Te 42-item drat o the SISRI, aTe 42-item drat o the SISRI, as developed ins developed in Study 1, was utilized in Study 2.
Study 1, was utilized in Study 2.
Te Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Te Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006).
Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). Te MLQ Te MLQ is a 10-item sel-report measure o personal meaning is a 10-item sel-report measure o personal meaning
