A Functional Land Management conceptual framework under soil drainage and land use scenarios

Review

A

Functional

Land

Management

conceptual

framework

under

soil

drainage

and

land

use

scenarios

Cait

Coyle

*

,

Rachel

E.

Creamer

,

Rogier

P.O.

Schulte

,

Lilian

O’Sullivan

,

Phil

Jordan

a_{SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UlsterUniversity,CromoreRoad,ColeraineBT521SA,NorthernIreland,UnitedKingdom} b_{DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,InstituteofTechnologySligo,AshLane,Sligo,Co.Sligo,Ireland}

c

Teagasc,Crops,EnvironmentalandLandUseProgramme,JohnstownCastle,Wexford,Co.Wexford,Ireland

1. Introduction

Sustainableintensificationisnecessarytorespondtotheneed forglobalfoodsecuritysothatincreasedfoodproductioncanbe achievedin an environmentallysustainable manner(Lal, 2009; Bentonetal.,2011;Schulteetal.,2014).TheFoodandAgriculture Organisation(FAO)oftheUnitedNationssuggeststhatprimary foodproductionwillneedtoincreasebyasmuchas60%by2050to meet the needs of a rapidly increasing global population (Alexandratosand Bruinsma,2012;McBratneyetal.,2014).The soilresourceoccupiesacentralroleinprimaryproduction,which is relianton effective,tailored planningand land management policies.

In tandem with achieving primary production goals (which includesfibreandfuelprovisionaswellasfoodproduction),dual

purpose agri-environmental policiesmust ensurethat soils are managedtoachieveenvironmentaltargetsinasociallyacceptable andeconomicallyviablemanner.WithintheEuropeanUnion(EU), forexample,environmentaltargetsaresetundercurrentEuropean legislationonwaterquality(Schulteetal.,2010),greenhousegas emissions(Schulteand Lanigan,2011)andecologicalprotection (Schulte et al., 2014). By definition, sustainable intensification requires that any emphasis placed on increasing primary productivityismatchedwithanequalemphasisonsustainability to enablethe delivery offood and ecosystemservices intothe future (Garnett and Godfray, 2012). Policies by the European Commission such as the Green Infrastructure Strategy and ‘‘greeningmeasures’’inthereformedCommonAgriculturePolicy (CAP;EuropeanCommission2014)demonstratethat strengthen-ing of ecosystem services is integral to achieving sustainable intensification.ItisanticipatedthattheFunctionalLand Manage-ment (FLM) framework will support the more effective use of landscape specific agri-environmental policies, such as those considered within thedocument ‘‘Transforming ourworld: the

ARTICLE INFO

Articlehistory: Received6July2015

Receivedinrevisedform17October2015 Accepted17October2015

Availableonline15November2015 Keywords: Soilfunctions Agriculture Sustainableintensification Ecosystemservice ABSTRACT

Agriculturalsoilsoffermultiplesoilfunctions,whichcontributetoarangeofecosystemservices,andthe

demandfortheprimaryproductionfunctionisexpectedtoincreasewithagrowingworldpopulation.

Otherkeyfunctionsonagriculturallandhavebeenidentifiedaswaterpurification,carbonsequestration,

habitatbiodiversityandnutrientcycling,whichallneedtobeconsideredforsustainableintensification.

Allsoilsperformallfunctionssimultaneously,butthevariationinthecapacityofsoilstosupplythese

functionsisreviewedintermsofdefinedlandusetypes(arable,bio-energy,broadleafforest,coniferous

forest,managedgrassland,othergrasslandandNatura2000)andextendedtoincludetheinfluenceof

soildrainagecharacteristics(well,moderately/imperfect,poorandpeat).Thislatterconsiderationis

particularlyimportantintheEuropeanAtlanticpedo-climaticzone;thespatialscaleofthisreview.This

reviewdevelopsaconceptualframeworkonthemulti-functionalcapacityofsoils,termedFunctional

LandManagement,tofacilitatetheeffectivedesignandassessmentofagri-environmentalpolicies.A

finalfunctionalsoilmatrixis presentedasanapproachtoshowtheconsequentialchangestothe

capacityofthefivesoilfunctionsassociatedwithlandusechangeonsoilswithcontrastingdrainage

characteristics.Wherepolicyprioritisestheenhancementofparticularfunctions,thematrixindicates

thepotentialtrade-offsforindividualfunctionsortheoverallimpactonthemulti-functionalcapacityof

soil.Theconceptualframeworkisalsoappliedbylanduseareainacasestudy,usingtheRepublicof

Irelandasanexample,toshowhowtheprincipleofmulti-functionallanduseplanningcanbereadily

implemented.

ß2015TheAuthors.PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-ND

license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

* Correspondingauthorat:SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UlsterUniversity, CromoreRoad,ColeraineBT521SA,NorthernIreland,UnitedKingdom.

E-mailaddress:[email protected](C.Coyle).

ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Environmental

Science

&

Policy

j our na l h ome p a ge : w ww . e l se v i e r. co m/ l oc a te / e nv sci

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.10.012

1462-9011/ß2015TheAuthors.PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ 4.0/).

2030agendaforsustainabledevelopment’’bytheUnitedNations (2015),ratherthantheapplicationofuniformmeasures(suchas those in the Nitrates Directive) across diverse farming regions (Boumaetal.,2012;Pacinietal.,2015).Theimportanceoftailored landmanagementpolicieswillbecomeevenmoreprominentin theEU due to thecrop diversificationmeasure under the CAP (Mahyetal.,2015).

A spectrum of soil based ecosystems services, which are referredtoassoilfunctions,havebeenidentifiedinanumberof studiesandcompriseof;supporting,provisioning,regulatingand culturalservices(Blumetal.,2004;BoumaandDroogers,2007; HaygarthandRitz,2009;Breureetal.,2012;Pullemanetal.,2012; Dominatietal.,2014;Horrocksetal.,2014).Schulteetal.(2014)

identifiedthefollowingfivesoilfunctionsaskey,specifically,for agriculturallanduse;

1)Productionoffood,fibreand(bio)fuel,whichisaprovisioning service.Thisistheprimaryfunctionintheagriculturalsector. 2)Waterpurification,whichisaregulatingservice.Thiscomprises

thesoil’scapacityforstorage,filtrationandtransformation. 3)Carbonsequestration.

4)Soilasahabitatforbiodiversityandagenepool.

5)Recycling of (external) nutrients/agro-chemicals, which is a supportingservice.

Thekeytoachievingallofthesemultipledemandsonthesoil throughagri-environmentalpolicyistounderstandtheintrinsic natureof the soil in order to get the most out of the system sustainably.However,soilsvaryintheirrelativecapacitytodeliver multiplesoilfunctions,owingtotheheterogeneousnatureofsoil, thetypeoflanduseandmanagementpractices(HaygarthandRitz, 2009;McBratneyetal.,2014;Schulteetal.,2014).Understanding howindividualsoilpropertiesrelatetothefunctionalcapacityofa soilhasbeenthebasisofmuchresearch(Saueretal.,2011;Breure etal.,2012;Pullemanetal.,2012;Dominatietal.,2014)butlessso onacomprehensive viewoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensoil propertiesand thefull suite of soil functions.To optimise the deliveryofindividualsoilfunctions,ortomaximisethesuiteofsoil functions,requiresanunderstandingoftheexpecteddeliveryof soilfunctionsasinfluencedbykeysoilpropertiesunderdifferent landmanagementregimes,aswellastheeffectthatincentivising one function has on the delivery of the other soil functions. Therefore,anintegratedframeworkisrequiredtoconsolidatethe intricacies of such complex multi-faceted information in a simplified, transparent and coherent manner to support the designofatailoredlandusepolicy.

1.1. Objectives

Inapreviousstudy,Schulteetal.(2014)relatedsoils’functions tolandusebutemphasisedtheneedtoextendthistoincludesoil type.Therefore,inthispaper,theaimwastoextendtheframework ofFLMtheorytoconsiderdominantsoiltypeconstraints,withtwo objectives.Thefirstobjectivewastoreviewtheliteraturetoderive conciseconceptualmodelsfortheinterrelationshipsbetweenland use, soil type and the five aforementioned soil functions of agriculturallandscapes.Thesecondobjectivewastoapplythese modelstobuildontheinitialFLMmatrix,whichwasintroducedby

Schulteetal.(2014),inordertocompletetheconceptualmatrixof thesuitesof soilfunctions.Thiscouldsubsequentlybeused to showchangesin soilfunctionalcapacity inresponsetopolicies involvingthealterationoflanduse.

Atlargespatialscales,theseinterrelationshipsarelikelytobe dependenton,andthusvarybetween,agro-ecologicalzones.The scopeofthispaperis,therefore,limited totheAtlanticclimatic zoneofEurope,withpotentialsimilaritiesandhencerelevanceto

othertemperatemaritime climates.Under this climaticregime, excess soil moisture is considered the dominant biophysical constrainttoachievingsustainableintensificationbecauseof:(a) reductionsin herbageyieldsand growing season, (b) restricted pastureutilisationandtrafficabilityowingtothepotentialthreat ofsoilcompaction,(c)reducednutrientuptakebyplantsand(d) nutrientlosstowaterbodies(Shallooetal.,2004;Schulteetal., 2005,2006,2012;Creameretal.,2010;Humphreysetal.,2011; O’Sullivanetal.,2015).Basedonthis,drainageclassisusedhereto encompass key soil properties that represent the soil natural capital,whichperformssoilfunctionsthatcontributetoecosystem services(Calzolarietal.,2016).Withrespecttoclimaticchange, future strategic planning will need to consider temporal and spatialchangesinthesoilwaterbalance,whichdeterminesland useoptionsandmanagementpractices(Rivingtonetal.,2013). 2. Soilfunctionsandsoilmanagement

2.1. Primaryproductivity

As conceptualised in Fig. 1, primary production is possible underarangeofsoilmoistureconditionsanddeficitsbutitvaries considerablywiththetypeoflanduse.Herbagegrowthingrass pasture is greatest at soil moisture conditions around field capacity, which occur more frequently on moderately drained soilsthanonpoorlydrainedheavyclays(whichmaycarrywater surplusesinexcessoffieldcapacityforprolongedperiods)(Shalloo etal.,2004;Fitzgeraldetal.,2008)orwelldrainedsoilsthatmaybe proneto(moderate)droughtconditions(Laidlaw,2009;Kroesand Supit,2011). However, trafficabilityand herbage utilisation are higheronwelldrainedsoils(O’Loughlinetal.,2012;Schulteetal., 2012;GregoryandNortcliff,2013).

Mostarablecropsgrowbestonwelldrainedsoilsthathavea moisturestatusbeyondfieldcapacityforlongerperiods through-outtheyear.However,droughtconditionsimpairplantphysiology andlimitthetransportationofnutrientstotheplantroots(Batey, 1988;BriggsandCourtney,1989;Gardneretal.,1999).

At the other extreme, challenges posed for sensitive plant species on waterlogged soils include poor root development, impairednutrientuptake(Rechcigl,1982;Laidlaw,2009),reduced ratesof photosynthesis(Schulteet al.,2012),theproduction of toxic substances, such as ethylene and methane (Batey, 1988; Briggs and Courtney,1989; Gardneret al.,1999; Schulte et al., 2012), nitrogen loss by denitrification (Rechcigl, 1982) and increased susceptibility to disease (Rechcigl, 1982; Briggs and Courtney, 1989). Compacted soils are more prone to impeded drainageandsaturation,whichinturnincreasestheirvulnerability to degradation of the soil structure by livestock and farm machinery (Batey, 1988; Ellis and Mellar, 1995; Schulte et al., 2012; Kuncoro et al., 2014). Alternatively, tolerant species of deciduous and coniferoustrees maybe selected,in additionto bioenergycropssuchaswillow(Stolarskietal.,2011),inorderto increaseprimaryproductiononsoilspronetosaturation.

Insummary,moderatelydrainedsoilsofferthehighestcapacity forprimaryproduction(EllisandMellar,1995).Primary produc-tivityonexcessivelydrainedandpoorlydrainedsoilstendstobe reducedwiththeexceptionofsometolerantspeciesofdeciduous/ coniferoustreesandbioenergycrops.

2.2. Waterpurification

The enrichment of water bodies by residualinorganic plant nutrients,suchasnitrogen(N)andphosphorus(P)(Mason,1998), is a global water quality issue. In general nitrate (NO3 ) is

consideredtoposeagreaterrisktogroundwaterandtransitional water bodies and P to freshwater (Schulte et al., 2006).

DenitrificationtoN2gasandsoilPsorptionare,respectively,two

proxyindicatorsofwaterpurificationpotentialandareconsidered here.

2.2.1. Denitrification,soildrainageandlanduse

Denitrificationconstitutestheconversionofoxidisedformsof nitrogen,primarilyNO3 ,togaseousformsunderpoorly

oxygen-ated conditions by facultative anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria (Smith and Tiedje, 1979). Fig. 2a presents the denitrification processinsoilsinresponsetothemainlandscape(distal)andsoil property (proximal) regulators that control this process. Soil moisturestatusisthemajordistalregulatoroftheprocessinsoils, butdenitrificationisalsoinfluencedbyproximalindicatorssuchas theconcentrationofNO3 andsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)(Loehr, 1977;Delwiche,1981;Luoetal.,1997;Gallowayetal.,2003;Ullah and Faulkner, 2006; Oehler et al., 2007; Saggar et al., 2013). Saturatedsoilswithpooraerationhavethehighestdenitrification potential(DP)(Delwiche,1981;Luoetal.,1997).Underoptimal soilmoistureconditions,denitrificationiscontrolledlargelybythe supplyofSOC(Luoetal.,1997;Ruseretal.,2006),whichprovidesa substrateforthegrowthofdenitrifyingbacteria(Delwiche,1981). In step one of the denitrification process (Fig. 2a), NO3 is

reducedtoformnitrite(NO2 ),nitricoxide(NO)andnitrousoxide

(N2O) by a series of individual reductase enzymes, which are

inhibited by oxygen and dependent on adequate substrate (carbon)availability(Paul,2015).Duringcompletedenitrification (step two), these undesirable intermediate products undergo chemicalreductiontoformdinitrogengas(N2),whichisinertand

isreleasedtotheatmosphere. Saturatedconditions insoilsare requiredforcompletedenitrification(highN2 toN2Oratio)and

providethe greatest capacity for water purification(Maag and Vinther,1996).AsshowninFig.2b,incompletedenitrificationin moderately drained soils can result in the release of the greenhousegasN2O.Thiscanleadtopollutionswappingwhereby

water quality is protected from residual N at the expense of

contributingtoclimatechange(HaygarthandJarvis,2002).Itis acknowledgedthat denitrificationleads totheloss ofnitrogen, which is an important macronutrient for plant growth, from agriculturalsystems(GregoryandNortcliff,2013).The denitrifi-cationpotential(DP)islowindrierwellaeratedsoils,whichfavour nitrificationoverdenitrification.

In addition to soil drainage, DP depends on the N surplus. Despiteaseasonalleachingriskfromlowsoilcoveronarableland (Beaudoin et al., 2005), the N surplus tends to be higher in grasslands, in particular intensive systems, compared toarable land and forestry plantations, as a result of livestock excreta (Wrage et al., 2004; Menneer et al., 2005). Higher rates of denitrification will occur from organic manures rather than mineralfertilisers due tothehigher microbial biomasscontent associatedwithorganicsources,whichprovideaneasily miner-alisableorganiccarboncontent(Moggeetal.,1999).

Therefore,poorlydrainedgrasslandsoilsprovideagreaterDP overall.Alternatively,theinstallationofdeciduousriparianbuffers, whichprosperinthewetternear-streamsoilconditions(Heilman andNorby,1998;UllahandFaulkner,2006;Hayakawaetal.,2012; Bonnettetal.,2013;Bozetal.,2013),providesamechanismto enhance denitrificationdue tohigh biomassand SOC fromthe ripariantrees.

2.2.2. P-sorption,soildrainageandlanduse

Soil P exists largely as inorganic forms that complex with calcium(Ca),iron(Fe)oraluminium(Al)(Yangetal.,2012)andas organic forms, as shown in Fig. 3. Organic P is formedby the incorporationofwater-solublePfromthesoilsolutionintoliving biomass(Masseyetal.,2013).Owingtotheirhighcationexchange capacity (CEC) and specific surface area, soils with high clay content have the greatest P-sorption capacity (McGechan and Lewis,2002;HerediaandCirelli,2007;Qiongetal.,2008;Brady andWeil,2010).ThebioavailabilityofPisfurtherreducedinacidic clay soils owing to the formation of Fe/Al/Mn hydrous oxide

complexes, while alkaline conditions immobilise P by the precipitationofcalciumphosphates(Sharpley,1995;Dalyetal., 2001;McGechanandLewis,2002;Jordanetal.,2005;Ellisonand Brett,2006;BradyandWeil,2010;Yangetal.,2012).

AlthoughP-sorptionincreaseswiththeclaycontent,Plossby surface runoff is exacerbated on soils with low permeability (Schulteetal.,2006;Mellandetal.,2012),whicharecommonly utilisedin grassland production systems (Peukert et al., 2014). Waterloggedconditions also encourage thedissolution and re-mobilisationoftheadsorbedPintosoilwaterbybringingthepH towardsneutralconditionsandloweringthesoilredoxpotential conditions (Sharpley, 1995; Scalenghe et al., 2012; Schoumans etal.,2014).Organicsoils, suchaspeat,havea lowcapacity to stronglyfixandretainPduetotheirlowabsorptiveproperties(low clay,Fe/AlandCacontent)andpoordrainagestatus(Dalyetal., 2001;HerediaandCirelli,2007;BradyandWeil,2010).

Forestedland,includingriparianareas,hasthehighestcapacity forPadsorptionin soil,asthemoreacidic natureofconiferous

forests or anoxic conditions within deciduous riparian buffers favourthecomplexationofPinmorerecalcitrantforms(Ellison andBrett,2006;McDowellandStewart,2006;Qiongetal.,2008; Yangetal.,2012).Incontrast,intensivegrasslanddairysystems receiveahighPinputfromexcretafromlivestockandfertilisers (McDowelland Stewart,2006),whilearablesitesreceivehighP fertiliserinputs.Inthesesituations,soildrainagehasapivotalrole indeterminingthepathwayofP.

2.3. Carbonsequestration

Fig.4 presentstheconceptualmodel for thesoilcarbon (C) sequestrationfunction.Thisreferstotherateofa ‘‘permanent’’ increase in SOC and comprises the transfer and retention of atmosphericcarbondioxide(CO2)intotheSOCpool(Lal,2006).

TherateofsoilCsequestrationishighlyvariableandisinfluenced by a rangeof factorsincludingclimate, soil type, landuseand managementpractices(Ostleetal.,2009).

Fig.2.(a)Keyparametersaffectingthedenitrificationprocessinsoils.Boxesexplaintheprocesssteps;valvesrepresenttherateofastep;bluecirclesrepresentdistal (landscapecontrolling)indicatorsandgreencirclesrepresentproximal(soilproperty)indicators.(b)Conceptualdiagramofdriversoffunction:waterpurification (representedbyproxyindicator:denitrification)inrelationtodrainagestatus(lefthandside)andinrelationtoacombinationofdrainagestatusandNsurplus(righthand side).

Undisturbedpeatsoilsandthemaintenanceandestablishment of forestry ecosystems (natural or plantation), in particular hardwoodspecies,providethelargestCsequestrationpotential inthelong term(Wigleyand Schimel,2000; Kirk,2004;Xiong etal.,2014).Conversely,degradationofpeatsoilsbydrainageor cultivationcanresultinarapiddepletionofsoilCpools(Freibauer etal.,2004).

The initial rate of C sequestration in grassland and arable systemscanbesimilarandisdependentuponplantbiomasscover and clay content/aggregates present in the soil. Potential sequestration requires the allocation of SOC from short term

pools,suchasthose foundinlarge macro-aggregates,to micro-aggregatesinsiltandclayfractions,whichhavelongerturnover times (Briggs and Courtney, 1989; Wigleyand Schimel, 2000; Freibaueretal.,2004;Marlandetal.,2004;BradyandWeil,2010; HeywoodandTurpin,2013).SOCinconventionaltillagesystems declinesasaresultofregulardisruptionofsoilaggregates,through inversion practices,resultingin increasedmicrobial decomposi-tionoforganicmatter(BriggsandCourtney,1989;Lal,2004).

TheretentionofSOCinwettersoilswithahigherclaycontent (HeywoodandTurpin,2013;Kongetal.,2009)increasesdueto stablesoilaggregatesandclay-humuscomplexeswhichprovide anincreasedsurfaceareaforC-sorption(Krulletal.,2001).

WhileitisacknowledgedthatCretentionwillenhanceother functions such as primary production and water purification, naturalecosystems(onpeatsoils)orforestryplantationsonpoorly drained, fine textured soils are expected to offer the best opportunityforhigherCsequestrationwithgrassland providing amoderatecapacity.

2.4. Habitatforbiodiversity

Soilbiologicalcommunitiesaredynamicandvaryaccordingto the local conditions and, when determining the status of soil biodiversity, proxy indicators are often employed (Bispo et al., 2009). In this review, earthworms have been used as a proxy indicatorofthestatusofsoilbiodiversitywithinthesoilbecause they are considered the keystone engineers of soil biological communities.Theyserveasgoodbio-indicatorsforsoilqualityand habitat functioning(Breure,2004; Ja¨nschet al., 2013). Theuse earthwormsasindicatorsofbiodiversityaresupportedbystudies byBispoetal.(2009)andCrottyetal.(2015).

Landusetypehasalargeinfluenceonsoilbiodiversity,whichis represented bytheabundance, biomassand speciesrichness of earthworms. As shown on the simplified conceptual diagram (Fig. 5), earthworm biodiversity is greater under improved grasslandthanarableland,forestryandsemi-improvedgrassland systems (Van Eekeren et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2011). Earthworm biodiversity is lower in arable production systems than improved grassland due to injury/death as a result of

Fig.3.KeyparametersaffectingtheP-sorptionprocessinsoils.Boxesexplainthe processsteps;valvessymbolscontrolthereleaseandmovementofphosphorus from/betweenthedifferentformsinwhichitispresentinthesoil;greencircles representproximalindicatorsandbluecirclesrepresentdistalindicators.

cultivation, soil erosion, compaction, pesticide use, increased predationandloweravailabilityoffood(organicmatter)(Bardgett, 2005;Brussaardetal.,2007;VanEekerenetal.,2008;Turbe´ etal., 2010).Furthermore,forestryandsemi-improvedgrasslandsystems aretheleastfavourablelandusetypeswithrespecttoearthworm biodiversityduetoahigherorganicmattercontent(includingpeat) andassociatedlowerpHinsoils(Schmidtetal.,2011).

In order to enhance and sustain earthworm biodiversity, improvedgrasslandonmoderatelydrainedsoilprovidesthemost favourableoption.Although,differentspeciesofearthwormsare suitedtovaryinglevelsofsoilmoisture(Rombkeetal.,2005),they loseweightin excessivelydry soilsand entera diapausephase whereaspoorly drained soilstend tobe toocold (Turbe´ et al., 2010).

2.5. Nutrientcycling

Soilhastheabilitytoabsorbanddetoxifyorganicwastes(Tan, 2009) by biogeochemical and physical processes, which are influenced byits drainage characteristics(Gardiner, 1986). The applicationof externalsources of pigslurryis usedas a proxy indicatorinthisstudyinordertodeterminethenutrientcycling capacity of soil underdifferent typesof land use, as shown in

Fig.6.Similar tootherEU countries, theIrishpig industry,for example,hasintensifiedbymorethanfivefoldsincethemid-1970s (Fealyand Schroder,2008),which hasincreasedthevolume of animalwastegenerated.Limitedlandavailabilityatintensivepig rearingunitsmeansthatmostoftheslurryproducedisexported equatingto5674tPperyearrequiringsoilrecycling(Schulteetal., 2014).

Shortrotationalforests(SRF)providethebestopportunityto maximisenutrientcycling,especiallynitrogen,duetotheneedfor the regularreplenishment of soil fertility following whole tree harvestingwithinshortcyclesandtooptimiseproduction( Heil-manand Norby,1998). However, site accesstoSRFs in remote areasmaybedifficultandexpensive(seeFig.6).Inconventional forest systems, certain deciduous species, such as poplar, can toleratesubstantialamounts(upto100tonnesha 1)ofpigslurry whereas coniferous forests are not considered suitable for the long-term disposal of livestock waste (Gasser et al., 1980). Intensive arable systems have a higher capacity for nutrient cycling than intensive grassland systems, especially grasslands withhighP-Indexsoils.Thisisduetothelargeinputofnutrients required to replacethose rapidlyaccumulated by arable crops (Sullivanet al., 1999)and those lost due to biomassexport at harvesttime(BriggsandCourtney,1989).However,areaswiththe greatestnumberofpigfarmsgenerallyhaveamongstthelowest amountoftillageandtransportofslurryfromsuchareasbeyond 50–75kmcanbecomeprohibitivelyexpensive(Fealyand Schro-der,2008).

Soilson intensivelymanagedgrasslands tendto havea low capacity to sustainably accept imported nutrients because of contributionsofexcretafromgrazinglivestockandapplicationsof on-farm slurry arising from animal housing during the winter months.As shown on Fig.6,nutrient management planningis complicatedonintensivegrasslandbythemandatoryrequirement forpaperworkfortheimportofexternallyproducedslurry.

Moderately drained soils enhance the nutrient cycling capacity (Gardiner, 1986) because the rate of decomposition and mineralisation is greater than in waterlogged or drought prone soils (Gasser et al., 1980). Owing to their moderate permeability, these soils also minimise the migration of nutrients by overland flow to surface water bodies and by leaching to groundwater in comparison to lower and higher

Fig.5.Conceptualdiagramofdriversoffunction:habitatforbiodiversity,inrelation tolandmanagementanddrainagestatus.

Fig.6.Conceptualdiagramofdriversoffunction:externalnutrientcycling,inrelationtolandmanagement.Thetextintheredovalshapesconcernanumberofkey contexturalconsiderations.

permeabilitysoils,respectively(Loehr,1977;Gasseretal.,1980; Gardiner, 1986). Peatsoils are not consideredsuitable for the applicationof slurry dueto their lowwinter rain acceptance potential (Gardiner, 1986) and the potential for nutrient migrationby overlandflowtosurfacewater.

Insummary,notwithstandingcontextualconsiderationssuch as logistics (transportation and waste permits), the nutrient cyclingcapacity ofsoil ishighest in SRF systemsand intensive arablefarmingonmoderatelydrainedsoil.

3. Discussion

3.1. Soilfunctionallinks

This review has extended the original Functional Land Management(FLM)conceptualframeworktoincludesoildrainage class.Moreover,thereview,inconjunctionwiththeconceptual schema, has presented how soil drainage characteristics in combinationwithlandusearethedominantdriversthatgovern themagnitudeofsoilfunctionsinAtlanticpedo-climatic condi-tions.Thisshareddependenceondrainageandlandusemeansthat soilfunctionsareinterlinkedandthisneedstobeincorporatedinto tailored soil management planning. The use of different soil characteristicswillapplyincontrastingpedo-climaticzonesasthe dominantdriversofsoilfunctionalcapacity(Dominatietal.,2014; Calzolarietal.,2016),suchasinthedelineationofintermediate

LessFavouredAreasbytheEuropeanCommission(Eliassonetal., 2010).ThisisalsothesubjectoffurtherresearchintheEUHorizon 2020 project LANDMARK: Land Management: Assessment, Re-search,Knowledgebase.

The individual soil function narratives are integrated and visualisedinthematrixshowninFig.7.Here,thefivesoilfunctions arecolourcodedinlinewiththeoriginaldiagramsbySchulteetal. (2014).Thesizeofeachoftheboxesthatrepresentthevarioussoil functions, illustrates (conceptually) their relative proportions withineachcombinationoflanduseanddrainagecategory.These ‘suites’ofsoilfunctions,andtheirresponsetodrainageandland use,areproducedbycombiningtherelationshipsshowninFigs.1, 2a,2b,3–6.

Thismatrixillustratestwoimportantprinciples:(1)(almost)all soilandlandusecombinationsperformallfunctionsand(2)atthe sametime,thecapacitytosupplyeachindividualfunctionmay differ significantly between soil and land usecombination. For example,thecapacitytosupplybiodiversity(residingwithinthe soil) is greatest on moderately drained soils under improved grassland;thecapacitytosupplyprimaryproductivityishighest onwelldrainedarablesoils;whilethecapacitytosequestercarbon is utmost in poorly drained coniferous forestry. Similarly, the capacitytosupplywaterpurification(bydenitrification)isgreatest under poorly drained broadleaf forests, while the potential for recyclingofexternalnutrientsishighestundermoderatelydrained SRFsystems.

Fig.7.Multi-functionalsoilmanagementmatrixshowingthesuiteofsoilfunctionsunderthedifferentcombinationsoflandusetype(xaxis)andsoildrainage(yaxis).Forthe waterpurificationcategory,darkbluereferstoPandlightbluereferstoN.DarkandlightbluediagonalstripesdenotewherethepredominanceofPandNpurificationisless clear.TheproportionaldifferencesbetweenboxescanbereferredtoastheDelta(area),asdefinedbytheconceptualmodelsforeachofthefunctions.

3.2. Acase-study:nationalsupplyofsoilfunctionsinIreland InFig.8,thesuitesofsoilfunctionsasdisplayedinthematrix (Fig.7)arecombinedwiththespatialextentofeachlanduseby soildrainagecombinationforIreland.Thisspatiallyexplicitmatrix, whichiscountry-specific,isapowerfulvisualtooltoassessboth thesupplyofsoilfunctionsinonecountryand,whencoupledwith thereviewfindings here,enables theidentificationof potential pathways towards optimising this supply through FLM. The conceptofFLMcanbeappliedatdifferentspatialscales,ranging fromlocaltocontinentallevel(Schulteetal.,2015)

3.3. Potentialapplications

Figs. 7 and 8 synthesise complex physical, biological and chemicalreactionsintoa formatthat isusefulatapolicylevel. These frameworks lend themselves to more effective policy makingastheycanincorporatethecomplexinteractionbetween landuse and biophysicalconstraints/utilities, therein providing thescopetosupportthesustainableintensificationofagriculture. ArecentexampleofthiswasprovidedbyO’Sullivanetal.(2015), whoassessedtheimpactoftheinstallationofdrainagesystemson two soil functions, namely primary productivity and carbon sequestrationattheregionalscale.Drainageinstallationaimsto upgrade a poorly drained soil into the moderately/imperfectly drainedcategory.Fig.1showsthatthiscanbeexpectedtoincrease thepotentialforprimaryproductivity,whileFig.4suggeststhat thismaybeattheexpenseofthecarbon-sequestrationpotential. Inaddition,achangeindrainageclassmaybeassociatedwithan

increase in P-sorption capacity, a decrease in denitrification capacity(Fig.2b)andapotentialincreaseinearthwormabundance asanindicatorofsoilbiodiversity(Fig.5).Importantly,FLMisable toprovideasimplifiedframeworktosupportlandusepoliciesthat arebasedonunderstandingtheroleofinherentsoilpropertiesin definingmany ofthesesoil functions(Schulte etal., 2014)and managing the expectations and consequences of land use decisions. As a development of this qualitative framework, an empiricalunderstanding ofthesepotentialchangeswillhelpto guideassessmentsfurther asdata becomeavailable (e.g.www. teagasc.ie/soil/SQUARE) and which have a catchment or sub-catchmentsoils’scaletoaugmenttheregionalexampleprovided byO’Sullivanetal.(2015).

4. Limitations

Thesoilfunctionindicatorsselectedinthispaperwerebasedon acomprehensiveliteraturereviewandarerepresentativeofthe dominantdriversofsoilbehaviourinAtlanticpedo-climaticzone conditions. However, these may not be relevant to all pedo-climaticzonesandmustbeadjustedforthespecificpedo-climatic scenariounderconsideration.

5. Conclusions

Thefunctionalcapacityofasoilreferstoitsabilitytoprovidea rangeoffunctionsthatunderpinbothagriculturalproductionand environmentalprotection,whichareintegralin agri-environmen-talpolicies.Thisabilitydependsprimarilyon landuseand soil

characteristics.IntheAtlanticpedo-climaticzoneofEurope,soil drainagecharacteristicsrepresentthedominantclassifier.

Thekeytosustainableintensificationisthatthedemandforsoil functions,asdefinedbyagri-environmentalpolicies,ismatchedby thesupplyatamultitudeofspatialscales.Thiscanbeachieved eitherthroughoptimisationofsoilmanagementatthelocallevel, oroptimisationoflanduseandlandmanagementatlargerspatial scales.Itisreasonabletoassumethatfarmersandforesterswho are generally responsible for the supply of soil functions will managelandonthebasisofthesoilresource.Whilst acknowledg-ing this, FLM can provide a framework for more targeted management. Equally, for policy makers, the provision of a landscapeoverview,canallowformorenuancedpolicymaking thatfacilitatesbetterobjectivesettingorassessmentofpolicies. Bothapproachesrequirequantification,oratleastaranking,ofthe capacityofcontrastingsoilsandregionstoperformeachofthefive soilfunctions. In both cases,there is greater cognisanceof the trade-offsandimpactsonothersoilfunctions.Theconceptcanbe adaptedandappliedtootherpedo-climaticconditions,withaxes ofthematrixrelevanttothezoneofinterest.

Acknowledgements

Special thanksto Instituteof Technology, Sligofor financial supportforthisproject.

References

Alexandratos,N.,Bruinsma,J.,2012.WorldAgricultureTowards2030/2050,The 2012Revision.ESAWorkingPaperNo.12-03.FoodandAgriculture OrganizationoftheUnitedNations.

Bardgett,R.,2005.TheBiologyofSoil.ACommunityandEcosystemApproach. OxfordUniversityPress.

Batey,T.,1988.SoilHusbandry.SoilandLandUseConsultantsLimited.

Beaudoin,N.,Saad,J.K.,VanLaethem,C.,Machet,J.M.,Maucorps,J.,Mary,B., 2005.NitrateleachinginintensiveagricultureinNorthernFrance:effectof farmingpractices,soilsandcroprotations.Agric.Ecosyst.Environ.111, 292–310.

Benton,T.,Hartel,T.,Settele,J.,2011.Foodsecurity:aroleforEurope.Nature 480,39.

Bispo,A.,Cluzeau,D.,Creamer,R.,Dombos,M.,Graefe,U.,Krogh,P.H.,Sousa,J.P., Peres,G.,Rutgers,M.,Winding,A.,Ro¨mbke,J.,2009.Indicatorsfor

monitoringsoilbiodiversity.Integr.Environ.Assess.Manage.5,717–719.

Blum,W.E.H.,Busing,J.,Montanarella,L.,2004.Researchneedsinsupportofthe Europeanthematicstrategyforsoilprotection.TrendsAnal.Chem.23(10– 11),680–685.

Bonnett,S.A.F.,Blackwell,M.S.A.,Leah,R.,Cook,V.,O’Connor,M.,Maltby,E., 2013.Temperatureresponseofdenitrificationrateandgreenhousegas productioninagriculturalrivermarginalwetlandsoils.Geobiology11, 252–267.

Bouma,J.,Broll,G.,Crane,T.A.,Dewitte,O.,Gardi,C.,Schulte,R.P.O.,Towers,W., 2012.Soilinformationinsupportofpolicymakingandawarenessraising. Curr.Opin.Environ.Sustain.4,552–558.

Bouma,J.,Droogers,P.,2007.Translatingsoilscienceintoenvironmentalpolicy: acasestudyonimplementingtheEUsoilprotectionstrategyinThe Netherlands.Environ.Sci.Policy10,454–463.

Boz,B.,Rahman,M.,Bottegal,M.,Basaglia,M.,Squartini,A.,Gumiero,B.,Casella, S.,2013.Vegetation,soilandhydrologymanagementinfluence

denitrificationactivityandthecompositionofnirK-typedenitrifier communitiesinanewlyafforestedriparianbuffer.NewBiotechnol.30(6), 675–684.

Brady,N.C.,Weil,R.R.,2010.ElementsoftheNatureandPropertiesofSoils. Pearson.

Breure,A.M.,2004.Soilbiodiversity:measurements,indicators,threatsandsoil functions.In:InternationalConferenceonSoilandCompostEco-Biology, Leon,Spain.

Breure,A.M.,DeDeyn,G.B.,Dominati,E.,Eglin,T.,Hedlund,K.,Orshoven,J.V., Posthuma,L.,2012.Ecosystemservices:ausefulconceptforsoilpolicy making.Curr.Opin.Environ.Sustain.4,578–585.

Briggs,D.,Courtney,F.,1989.AgricultureandEnvironment,ThePhysical GeographyofTemperateAgriculturalSystems.LongmanScientificand Technical.

Brussaard,L.,deRuiter,P.C.,Brown,G.G.,2007.Soilbiodiversityforagricultural sustainability.Agric.Ecosyst.Environ.121,233–244.

Calzolari,C.,Ungaro,F.,Filippi,N.,Guermandi,M.,Malucelli,F.,Marchi,N., Staffilani,F.,Tarocco,P.,2016.Amethodologicalframeworktoassessthe multiplecontributionsofsoilstoecosystemservicesdeliveryatregional scale.Geoderma261,190–203.

Creamer,R.E.,Brennan,F.,Fenton,O.,Healy,M.G.,Lalor,S.T.J.,Lanigan,G.J., Regan,J.T.,Griffiths,B.S.,2010.Implicationsoftheproposedsoilframework directiveonagriculturalsystemsinAtlanticNorth-westEurope–areview. SoilUseManage.26,198–211.

Crotty,F.V.,Fychan,R.,Scullion,J.,Sanderson,R.,Marley,C.L.,2015.Assessing theimpactofagriculturalforagecropsonsoilbiodiversityandabundance. SoilBiol.Biochem.91,119–126.

Daly,K.,Jeffrey,D.,Tunney,H.,2001.Theeffectofsoiltypeonphosphorus sorptioncapacityanddesorptiondynamicsinIrishgrasslandsoils.SoilUse Manage.17,12–20.

Delwiche,C.C.,1981.Denitrification,NitrificationandAtmosphericNitrous Oxide.AWiley-IntersciencePublication.JohnWiley&Sons.

Dominati,E.,Mackay,A.,Green,S.,Patterson,M.,2014.Asoilchange-based methodologyforthequantificationandvaluationofecosystemservicesfrom agro-ecosystems:acasestudyofpastoralagricultureinNewZealand.Ecol. Econ.100,119–129.

Eliasson,A.,Jones,R.J.A.,Nachtergaele,F.,Rossiter,D.G.,Terres,J.-M.,Van Orshoven,J.,VanVelthuizen,H.,Bottcher,K.,Haastrup,P.,LeBas,C.,2010.

Commoncriteriafortheredefinitionofintermediatelessfavouredareasin theEuropeanUnion.Environ.Sci.Policy13,766–777.

Ellis,S.,Mellar,A.,1995.SoilsandEnvironment.Routledge.

Ellison,M.E.,Brett,M.T.,2006.Particulatephosphorusbioavailabilityasa functionofstreamflowandlandcover.WaterRes.40,1258–1268.

Fealy,R.,Schroder,J.,2008.Assessmentofmanuretransportdistancesandtheir impactoneconomicandenergycosts.In:ConferenceProceedings(642)for theInternationalFertiliserSocietyConference, Cambridge.

Fitzgerald,J.B.,Brereton,A.J.,Holden,N.M.,2008.Simulationoftheinfluenceof poorsoildrainageongrass-baseddairyproductionsystemsinIreland.Grass ForageSci.63,380–389.

Freibauer,A.,Rounsevell,M.D.A.,Smith,P.,Verhagen,J.,2004.Carbon sequestrationintheagriculturalsoilsofEurope.Geoderma122,1–23.

Galloway,J.N.,Aber,J.D.,Erisman,J.W.,Seitzinger,S.P.,Howarth,R.W.,Cowling, E.B.,Cosby,B.J.,2003.Thenitrogencascade.Bioscience53,341–356.

Gardiner,M.J.,1986.Soil,siteandclimaticfactorsinslurrydisposal.IrishJ. Agric.Res.25,273–284.

Gardner,C.M.K.,Laryea,K.B.,Unger,P.W.,1999.SoilPhysicalConstraintsto PlantGrowthandCropProduction.FoodandAgricultureOrganisationofthe UnitedNations.

Garnett,T.,Godfray,C.,2012.SustainableIntensificationinAgriculture. NavigatingaCourseThroughCompetingFoodSystemPriorities.Food ClimateResearchNetworkandtheOxfordMartinProgrammeontheFuture ofFood,UniversityofOxford,UK.

Gasser,J.K.R.,Hawkins,J.C.,O’Callaghan,J.R.,Pain,B.F.,1980.Effluentsfrom Livestock.AppliedSciencePublishersLtd.,London.

Gregory,P.J.,Nortcliff,S.,2013.SoilConditionsandPlantGrowth. Wiley-Blackwell.

Hayakawa,A.,Nakata,M.,Jiang,R.,Kuramochi,K.,Hatano,R.,2012.Spatial variationofdenitrificationpotentialofgrassland,windbreakforest,and riparianforestsoilsinanagriculturalcatchmentineasternHokkaido,Japan. Ecol.Eng.47,92–100.

Haygarth,P.M.,Ritz,K.,2009.ThefutureofsoilsandlanduseintheUK:soil systemsfortheprovisionofland-basedecosystemservices.LandUsePolicy 26S,S187–S197.

Haygarth,P.M.,Jarvis,S.C.,2002.Agriculture,HydrologyandWaterQuality.CABI Publishing.

Heilman,P.,Norby,R.J.,1998.Nutrientcyclingandfertilitymanagementin temperateshortrotationforestsystems.BiomassBioenergy14(4), 361–370.

Heredia,O.S.,Cirelli,A.F.,2007.Environmentalrisksofincreasingphosphorus additioninrelationtosoilsorptioncapacity.Geoderma137,426–431.

Heywood,P.,Turpin,S.,2013.Variationsinsoilcarbonstockswithtextureand previouslanduseinNorth-westernNSW,Australia.Sustain.Agric.Res.2(2), 124–133.

Horrocks,C.A.,Dungait,J.A.J.,Cardenas,L.M.,Heal,K.V.,2014.Does

extensificationleadtoenhancedprovisionofecosystemsservicesfromsoils inUKagriculture? LandUsePolicy38,123–128.

Humphreys,J.,Tuohy,P.,Fenton,O.,Holden,N.,2011.FarmingonSoggyGround inToday’sFarm.Availableat:http://www.teagasc.ie/heavysoils/publications/ FarmingonSoggyGround.pdf(accessed10.10.15).

Ja¨nsch,S.,Steffens,L.,Ho¨fer,H.,Horak,F.,Roß-Nickoll,M.,Russell,D.,Toschki, A.,Ro¨mbke,J.,2013.Stateofknowledgeofearthwormcommunitiesin Germansoilsasabasisforbiologicalsoilqualityassessment.SoilOrg.85 (3),215–233.

Jordan,P.,Menary,W.,Daly,K.,Kiely,G.,Morgan,G.,Byrne,P.,Moles,R., 2005.PatternsandprocessesofphosphorustransferfromIrishgrassland soilstorivers—integrationoflaboratoryandcatchmentstudies.J.Hydrol. 304,20–34.

Kirk,G.,2004.TheBiogeochemistryofSubmergedSoils.Wiley.

Kong,X.,Dao,T.H.,Qin,J.,Qin,H.,Li,C.,Zhang,F.,2009.Effectsofsoiltexture andlanduseinteractionsonorganiccarboninsoilsinNorthChinacities’ urbanfringe.Geoderma154,86–92.

Kroes,J.G.,Supit,I.,2011.Impactanalysisofdrought,waterexcessandsalinity ongrassproductioninTheNetherlandsusinghistoricalandfutureclimate data.Agric.Ecosyst.Environ.144,370–381.

Krull,E.,Baldock,J.,Skjemstad,J.,2001.Soiltextureeffectsondecomposition andsoilcarbonstorage.In:NEEWorkshopProceedings.

Kuncoro,P.H.,Koga,K.,Satta,N.,Muto,Y.,2014.Astudyontheeffectof compactionontransportpropertiesofsoilgasandwaterI:Relativegas diffusivity,airpermeability,andsaturatedhydraulicconductivity.SoilTill. Res.143,172–179.

Laidlaw,A.S.,2009.Theeffectofsoilmoisturecontentonleafextensionrate andyieldofperennialryegrass.IrishJ.Agric.FoodRes.48,1–20.

Lal,R.,2004.Soilcarbonsequestrationtomitigateclimatechange.Geoderma 123,1–22.

Lal,R.,2009.Soilsandworldfoodsecurity.Editorial.SoilTill.Res.102,1–4.

Lal,R.,2006.In:Bhatti,J.S.,Lal,R.,Apps,M.J.,Price,M.A.(Eds.),ClimateChange andManagedEcosystems.CRC,TaylorandFrancis.

Loehr,R.C.,1977.PollutionControlforAgriculture.AcademicPressInc..

Luo,J.,Tillman,R.W.,White,R.E.,Ball,P.R.,1997.Variationindenitrification activitywithsoildepthunderpasture.SoilBiol.Biochem.30(7),897–903.

Maag,M.,Vinther,F.P.,1996.Nitrousoxideemissionbynitrificationand denitrificationindifferentsoiltypesandatdifferentsoilmoisturecontents andtemperatures.Appl.SoilEcol.4,5–14.

Mahy,L.,Dupeux,B.E.T.I.,VanHuylenbroeck,G.,Buyesse,J.,2015.Simulating farmlevelresponsetocropdiversificationpolicy.LandUsePolicy45,36–42.

Marland,G.,GartenJr.,C.T.,Post,W.M.,West,T.O.,2004.Studiesonenhancing carbonsequestrationinsoils.Energy29,1643–1650.

Mason,C.F.,1998.BiologyofFreshwaterPollution, 3rded.Longman.

Massey,P.A.,Creamer,R.E.,Ritz,K.,Schulte,R.P.O.,2013.Theeffectsof earthworms,plantcommunitiesandfertilisertypeonthevertical distributionofphosphorusandplantnutrientacquisition.Biol.Fertil.Soils 49,1189–1201.

McBratney,A.,Field,D.J.,Koch,A.,2014.Thedimensionsofsoilsecurity. Geoderma213,203–213.

McDowell,R.W.,Stewart,I.,2006.Thephosphoruscompositionofcontrasting soilsinpastoral,nativeandforestmanagementinOtago,NewZealand: sequentialextractionand31PNMR.Geoderma130,176–189.

McGechan,M.B.,Lewis,D.R.,2002.Sorptionofphosphorusbysoil.Part1: Principles,equationsandmodels.Biosyst.Eng.82(1),1–24.

Melland,A.R.,Mellander,P.E.,Murphy,P.N.C.,Wall,D.P.,Mechan,S.,Shine,O., Shortle,G.,Jordan,P.,2012.Streamwaterqualityinintensivecereal croppingcatchmentswithregulatednutrientmanagement.Environ.Sci. Policy24,58–70.

Menneer,J.C.,Ledgard,S.,McLay,C.,Silvester,W.,2005.Animaltreading stimulatesdenitrificationinsoilunderpasture.SoilBiol.Biochem.37, 1625–1629.

Mogge,B.,Kaiser,E.A.,Much,J.C.,1999.Nitrousoxideemissionsand denitrificationN-lossesfromagriculturalsoilsintheBornhovedLake region:influenceoforganicfertilisersandland-use.SoilBiol.Biochem.31, 1245–1252.

Oehler,F.,Bordenave,P.,Durand,P.,2007.Variationsofdenitrificationina farmingcatchmentarea.Agric.Ecosyst.Environ.120,313–324.

O’Loughlin,J.,Maher,J.,Courtney,G.,Tuohy,P.,2012.Teagascheavysoilsdairy programmereview.In:DairyConference2012.

Ostle,N.J.,Levy,P.E.,Evans,C.D.,Smith,P.,2009.UKlanduseandsoilcarbon sequestration.LandUsePolicy26S,S274–S283.

O’Sullivan,L.,Creamer,R.E.,Fealy,R.,Lanigan,G.,Simo,I.,Fenton,O.,Carfrae,J., Schulte,R.P.O.,2015.FunctionalLandManagementformanagingsoil functions:acase-studyofthetrade-offbetweenprimaryproductivityand carbonstorageinresponsetotheinterventionofdrainagesystemsin Ireland.LandUsePolicy47,42–54.

Pacini,G.C.,Merante,P.,Lazzerini,G.,VanPassel,S.,2015.Increasingthecost effectivenessofEUagri-environmentpolicymeasuresthroughevaluationof farmandfield-levelenvironmentalandeconomicperformance.Agric.Syst. 136,70–78.

Paul,E.A.,2015.SoilMicrobiology.AcademicPress.

Peukert,S.,Griffith,B.A.,Murray,P.J.,Macleod,C.J.A.,Brazier,R.E.,2014.

Intensivemanagementingrasslandscausesdiffusewaterpollutionatthe farmscale.J.Environ.Qual.43(6),2009–2023.

Pulleman,M.,Creamer,R.,Hamer,U.,Helder,J.,Pelosi,C.,Peres,G.,Rutgers,M., 2012.Soilbiodiversity,biologicalindicatorsandsoilecosystemservices—an overviewofEuropeanapproaches.Curr.Opin.Environ.Sustain.4,529–538.

Qiong,Z.,Zeng,D.H.,Fan,Z.P.,Lee,D.K.,2008.Effectoflandcoverchangeonsoil phosphorusfractionsinSoutheasternHorqinSandyLand,NorthernChina. Pedosphere18(6),741–748.

Rechcigl,M.,1982.HandbookofAgriculturalProductivity,vol.1.CRCPress.

Rivington,M.,Matthews,K.B.,Buchan,K.,Miller,D.G.,Bellocchi,G.,Russell,G., 2013.Climatechangeimpactsandadaptationscopeforagricultureindicated byagro-meteorologicalmetrics.Agric.Syst.114,15–31.

Rombke,J.,Jansch,S.,Didden,W.,2005.Theuseofearthwormsinecologicalsoil classificationandassessmentconcepts.Ecotox.Environ.Safe62,249–265.

Ruser,R.,Flessa,H.,Russow,R.,Schmidt,G.,Buegger,F.,Munch,J.C.,2006.

EmissionofN2O,N2andCO2fromsoilfertilizedwithnitrate:effectof

compaction,soilmoistureandrewetting.SoilBiol.Biochem.38,263–274.

Saggar,S.,Jha,N.,Deslippe,J.,Bolan,N.S.,Luo,J.,Giltrap,D.L.,Kim,D.G.,Zaman, M.,Tillman,R.W.,2013.DenitrificationandN2O:N2productionintemperate

grasslands:processes,measurements,modellingandmitigatingnegative impacts.Sci.TotalEnviron.465,173–195.

Sauer,T.J.,Norman,J.M.,Sivakumar,M.V.K.,2011.SustainingSoilProductivityin ResponsetoGlobalClimateChange.Wiley-Blackwell.

Scalenghe,R.,Edwards,A.C.,Barberis,E.,Ajmone-Marsan,F.,2012.Are agriculturalsoilsunderacontinentaltemperateclimatesusceptibleto episodicreducingconditionsandincreasedleachingofphosphorus? J. Environ.Manage.97,141–147.

Schmidt,O.,Keith,A.M.,Arroyo,J.,Bolger,T.,Boots,B.,Breen,J.,Clipson,N., Doohan,F.M.,Griffin,C.T.,Hazard,C.,Niechoj,R.,2011.TheCreBeoSoil BiodiversityProject.CreBeo–BaselineData,ResponsestoPressures, FunctionsandConservationofKeystoneMicro-andMacro-Organismsin IrishSoils.STRIVEReport.

Schoumans,O.F.,Chardon,W.J.,Bechmann,M.E.,Gascuel-Odoux,C.,Hofman,G., Kronvang,B.,Rubæk,G.H.,Ule´n,B.,Dorioz,J.M.,2014.Mitigationoptionsto reducephosphoruslossesfromtheagriculturalsectorandimprovesurface waterquality:areview.Sci.TotalEnviron.468-469,1255–1266.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Diamond,J.,Finkele,K.,Holden,N.M.,Brereton,A.J.,2005.

PredictingthesoilmoistureconditionsofIrishgrasslands.IrishJ.Agric.Food Res.44,95–110.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Richards,K.,Daly,K.,Kurz,I.,McDonald,E.J.,Holden,N.M.,2006.

Agriculture,meteorologyandwaterqualityinIreland:aregionalevaluation ofpressuresandpathwaysofnutrientlosstowater.Biol.Environ.:Proc.R. IrishAcad.106B(2),117–133.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Melland,A.R.,Fenton,O.,Herlihy,M.,Richard,K.,Jordan,P.,2010.

Modellingsoilphosphorusdecline:expectationsofWaterFramework Directivepolicies.Environ.Sci.Policy13,472–484.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Lanigan,G.,2011.IrishAgriculture,GreenhouseGasEmissions andClimateChange:Opportunities,ObstaclesandProposedSolutions. PreparedbytheTeagascWorkingGrouponGreenhouseGasEmissions, Teagasc.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Fealy,R.,Creamer,R.E.,Towers,W.,Harty,T.,Jones,R.J.A.,2012.

Areviewoftheroleofexcesssoilmoistureconditionsinconstrainingfarm practicesunderAtlanticconditions.SoilUseManage.28(4),580–589.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Creamer,R.E.,Donnellan,T.,Farrelly,N.,Fealy,R.,O’Donoghue,C., O’hUallachain,D.,2014.Functionallandmanagement:aframeworkfor managingsoil-basedecosystemservicesforthesustainableintensificationof agriculture.Environ.Sci.Policy38,45–58.

Schulte,R.P.O.,Coyle,C.,Creamer,R.C.,Jordan,P.,O’Sullivan,L.,Porter,J.R.,Jones, A.,2015.Makingthemostofourland:managingsoilfunctionsfromfarmto Europeanscale. In:ProceedingsoftheWageningenSoilConference2015, 84,Wageningen,23–27August,p.2015.

Shalloo,L.,Dillon,P.,O’Loughlin,J.,Rath,M.,Wallace,M.,2004.Comparisonof apasture-basedsystemofmilkproductiononahighrainfall,heavy-clay soilwiththatonalowerrainfall,free-drainingsoil.GrassForageSci.59, 157–168.

Sharpley,A.N.,1995.Soilphosphorusdynamics:agronomicandenvironmental impacts.Ecol.Eng.5,261–279.

Smith,M.S.,Tiedje,1979.Phasesofdenitrificationfollowingoxygendepletionin soil.SoilBiol.Biochem.11(3),261–267.

Stolarski,M.J.,Szczukowski,S.,Tworkowski,J.,Wro´blewska,H.,Krzyz˙aniak,M., 2011.Shortrotationwillowcoppicebiomassasanindustrialandenergy feedstock.Ind.CropsProd.33(1),217–223.

Sullivan,D.M.,Hart,J.M.,Christensen,N.W.,1999.NitrogenUptakeand UtilizationbyPacificNorthwestcrops.APacificNorthwestPublication. OregonStateUniversity.

Tan,K.H.,2009.EnvironmentalSoilScience.CRCPress.

Turbe´,A.,DeToni,A.,Benito,P.,Lavelle,P.,Ruiz,N.,VanderPutten,W.H., Labouze,E.,Mudgal,S.,2010.Soilbiodiversity:functions,threatsandtools forpolicymakersIn:BioIntelligenceService,IRD,andNIOO,Reportfor EuropeanCommission(DGEnvironment).

Ullah,S.,Faulkner,S.P.,2006.Denitrificationpotentialofdifferentland-use typesinanagriculturalwatershed,lowerMississippivalley.Ecol.Eng.28 (2),131–214.

UnitedNations,2015.TransformingOurWorld:The2030Agendafor SustainableDevelopment,TheUnitedNationsSummitfortheAdoptionof thePost-2015DevelopmentAgendabytheGeneralAssemblyatits Sixty-ninthSession.Availableat:https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/7891TRANSFORMING%20OUR%20WORLD.pdf(accessed15.10.15). VanEekeren,N.,Bommele,L.,Bloem,J.,Schouten,T.,Rutgers,M.,deGoede,R.,

Reheul,D.,Brussaard,L.,2008.Soilbiologicalqualityafter36yearsof ley-arablecropping,permanentgrasslandandpermanentarablecropping.Appl. SoilEcol.40,432–446.

Wigley,T.M.L.,Schimel,D.S.,2000.TheCarbonCycle.CambridgeUniversity Press.

Wrage,N.,Velthof,G.L.,Laanbroek,H.J.,Oenema,O.,2004.Nitrousoxide productioningrasslandsoils:assessingthecontributionofnitrifier denitrification.SoilBiol.Biochem.36,229–236.

Xiong,X.,Grunwald,S.,Myers,D.B.,Ross,C.W.,Harris,W.G.,Comerford,N.B., 2014.Interactioneffectsofclimateandlanduse/landcoverchangeonsoil organiccarbonsequestration.Sci.TotalEnviron.493,974–982.

Yang,W.,Cheng,H.,Hao,F.,Ouyang,W.,Liu,S.,Lin,C.,2012.Theinfluenceof land-usechangeontheformsofphosphorusinsoilprofilesfromthe SanjiangPlainofChina.Geoderma189-190,207–214.