CHAPTER 1 THE SAILING VESSEL ILLUSTRATED
Picture courtesy of RYA
1. PULPIT (front safety rail) 2. FORESTAY (front wire supporting mast) 3. FAIRLEAD (to pass ropes through) 4. BOW ROLLER or STEMHEAD FITTING 5. ANCHOR WELL or LOCKER 6. GUARD RAIL (wire running around boat) 7. CLEAT (to attach rails to) 8. WINDLASS (winch for anchor) 9. JACKSTAY (to clip safety harness to) 10. SPINNAKER POLE 11. FORE DECK 12. STANTION 3. FENDER 14. FOREHATCH 15. INNER FORESTAY (baby stay) 16.
VENTILATOR 17. LIFERAFT 18. BLOCKS (pulleys) 19. MAST STEP (bottom of mast) 20. COACHROOF 21. GRABRAIL (handrail) 22. GOOSENECK 23. WINCH 24 MAST 25. BOOM 26 KICKING STRAP 27. SIDE DECK 28. CHAIN PLATE 29. RIGGING SCREW or BOTTLE SCREW 30. SHROUDS 31. DECK FILLER (fuel or water) 32. STEM (sharp bit between deck and water) 33. FOREFOOT (where stem and keel meet) 34. KEEL 35. SKEG 36. RUDDER 37. STERN (back) 38. DRAFT (depth of water of ‘what she draws’) 39. CAVITA LINE (decorative line) 40. BOW (front) 41. TOPSIDES (between water and deck) 42. BOOT TOP (painted band just above water)
Picture courtesy of RYA
1. ANCHOR LOCKER, ANCHOR WELL or CHAIN LOCKER (Often where the main anchor [bower] is stowed. Anchor cable is sometimes kept here or in a separate chain locker) 2.
FORWARD BULKHEAD 3. FORE CABIN, FORE PEAK or FO’C’SLE (cabin in the bows) 4. CEILING (cabin sides) 5. SAIL LOCKER (sometimes aft) 6. PIPE COT (folding bed) 7. LEE-CLOTH (stops you falling out of bed) 8. BULKHEAD (wall) 9. HANGING LOCKER (wardrobe – if used for wet oilies it is called a wet locker) 10. HEADS (lavatory) 11. SEACOCKS (valves to let water in and out) 12. PILOT BERTH 13. MAIN SALOON (cabin) 14. LOCKER (cupboard) 15. SETEE BERTH 16. CABIN SOLE (floor) 17. BILGE (where the bottom of the boat joins the sides or the space under the sole)
Picture courtesy of RYA
1. COMPANIONWAY (entrance to cabin) 2. WASH BOARDS (drop in boards) 3. FIRE EXTINGUISHER 4. FLARES (not always here) 5. COMPANIONWAY STEPS 6. FIRE BLANKET 7. QUARTER BERTH (bed) 8. DECK HEAD (ceiling) 9. CHART TABLE
(navigation area) 10. GALLEY (kitchen) 11. ICE BOX or COOL BOX 12. GIMBALLED STOVE (swings with the ships movements) 13. SAFETY STRAP FOR COOK 14. HALF-BULKHEADS 15. GRAB RAILS 16. LOCKERS (cupboards) 17. CABIN SOLE (floor)
CHAPTER 2 RIGS of SAILING VESSELS
Ketch Yawl
Lateen
Barquentine
Staysail Schooner
CHAPTER 3 HOW A BOAT SAILS
The Theory of Sailing
The earliest sailing craft carried a square sail and sailed only before the wind. In any other direction they used sweeps or paddles, or simply waited until the wind was in a favourable direction. The first development of fore and aft rig, with the ability to sail against the wind, was seen in the Arab dhow, a type of rig still basically unchanged to this day. The modern fore and aft rig, with the leading edge of the sail secured to a mast or stay, was a much later development. As the knowledge and understanding of sailing developed, so the design of ships gradually changed. Keels were deepened to create greater lateral resistance, while the high poops and forecastles were reduced in order to offer less wind resistance. Although it was realised that ships could sail against the wind, it was not until the development of the airplane, and the consequent study of aerodynamics, that the reasons for this were fully understood. It had been discovered that it was not merely pressure under the wings that lifted an airplane into the air, but also the low pressure area created above the wings by flowing more quickly over the curved surface. It was soon realised that the same principle applied to sails of modern sailing vessels. The air accelerates over the arc of the sail, causing a reduction in pressure on the upper side, thus pressure on the underside of the sail is greater than the pressure on the upper side. The natural tendency of different pressures to try to equalize creates a push or lift on the underside of the sail. Since the sail is attached to a body resting in a fluid mass, that body is moved through the mass by the lift on the sail, in other words the vessel is moved through the water.
When a single sail is used the air flow over the sail is not even, turbulence and eddies being formed on the leeward side of the sail of the sail which tends to reduce the venturi effect and consequent lift. If a second overlapping sail is added much of this turbulence is removed, thus increasing the lift created by the mainsail.
When sailing to windward, only a small proportion of the force of the wind is used in driving the vessel forward. Most of the effort is wasted trying to push the vessel sideways or heeling it over against the righting moment of the ballast. This can be illustrated by the use of a parallelogram of forces which divides the lift of the sail into a forward and leeward component. The sketch below shows a vessel sailing close to the wind and reaching off the wind, with lines A-B
indicating the direction and force of the forward lift. By completing the parallelogram it will be seen that A-C is proportional to the leeward drive in A-B, while A-D is proportional to the forward drive. As the point of sailing changes, so the proportions of the forces change, this explains why a vessel sails faster on a reach then when close to the wind.
CHAPTER 4 POINTS OF SAILING
Close Hauled
The yacht is sailed as close to the wind as possible without losing forward drive, with the sails sheeted in towards the yacht's centre-line. Depending on the design, a modern yacht will
normally point between 40o and 50o from the true wind or 30o to 40o from the apparent wind; this is the term used to describe the wind direction when the yacht is moving through the water. Thus a masthead wind indicator would show the apparent wind when the yacht is underway, and the true wind when stationary. As a yacht increases speed on a given course, the apparent wind direction will move forward.
The wind is forward of the beam, but the yacht is not fully close hauled. The sheets are eased as far as possible without spilling the wind and the headsail is set to follow the same curve as the main. This is normally the fastest point of sailing.
Beam Reach
The wind is on the beam and the sheets eased further, using the same principles as for a close reach.
Broad Reach
The wind is abaft the beam and the sheets eased still further. Running
The wind is over the port or starboard quarter, and the sheets eased until the sails are about right angles to the wind direction. The "lift" effect of the wind over the curvature of the sails has now been lost, and the wind is simply pushing the yacht through the water.
Goosewinging
When the yacht is running almost directly downwind, the main and the headsail set on opposite sides, usually with the headsail boomed out to windward. As more sail area is presented to the wind the speed of the yacht will increase. Under running conditions a “lazy guy” or “preventer” rigged from the end of the boom to the bow should be used to prevent an accidental gybe and to keep the mainsail steady.
Running by the Lee
When running, the boom is set on the windward side in the same quarter as the wind. Apart from reducing the efficiency of the sails, this point of sailing may cause a dangerous accidental gybe if no preventer is rigged.
In Irons
The yacht is lying exactly head to wind without enough momentum to pass through the wind onto another tack. In this situation the sails will not fill and the yacht will gradually lose way. To remedy this situation the headsail must be sheeted in hard either to port or starboard, when the sail will fill and the yacht begin to pay off on the opposite tack. When the normal direction of sailing is reached the windward headsail sheet is freed and the leeward sheet is taken in. As the yacht begins to make steerageway, head and mainsheets are trimmed in the normal way.
CHAPTER 5 MANOEUVERING UNDER SAIL
Tacking
In this manoeuvre the bow of the yacht is steered through the wind from one tack to another. A series of tacks close hauled along a mean course allows the desired course to be made good. This is known as "Beating to Windward"
A good desired course that is not exactly into the wind may also be made good by varying the lengths of legs between tacks. In a modern cruising yacht a tacking angle of 90o to 110o between tacks can be expected.
Gybing
This entails turning the stern of the yacht through the wind from one tack or gybe to the other. In strong winds it is a potentially dangerous manoeuvre, and should always be controlled by
sheeting in the mainsail to the centre line before the gybe commences.
Tacking Downwind
This is a method of sailing downwind by gybing about the desired course on a series of legs, with the wind first on one quarter and then on the other.
In certain conditions it may be preferable to running dead downwind, with less likelihood of an accidental gybe.
Heaving to
This manoeuvre is used to slow the yacht almost to a halt and to leave the tiller virtually unattended. It can be very useful in bad weather or when all hands are needed to attend to any damage or repairs. It is achieved by sheeting the headsail in to windward, easing the mainsail slightly and lashing the tiller to leeward. The exact position of sheets and tiller can be found only by experiment and experience. Under this rig a modern cruising yacht will normally sail very slowly at about right angles to the wind.
The sequence of progression that occurs when a yacht is hove to is illustrated. The backed headsail fills and swings the yacht's head to leeward. (Fig a)
As the yacht turns to leeward the mainsail fills and gives the yacht a little headway. (Fig b) With the tiller lashed to leeward the rudder turns the yacht's head into wind. (Fig c)
The backed headsail then fills again and the process is repeated. When heaving to by reason of heavy weather, the size of headsail and the amount of reefing in the mainsail should be adjusted according to conditions.
All yachts act differently whilst hove to, a yacht with a long keel will tend to sit quietly.Yachts with a fin keel will tend to fore reach slowly (track forward through the water)
CHAPTER 6 HELMSMANSHIP AND SAIL BALANCE
Helmsmanship can be described as the art of sailing a yacht to the best advantage, and of
knowing instinctively whether the sails are correctly balanced and trimmed for the desired course or whether too much or too little sail is being carried for the current weather conditions. To become a good helmsman takes practice and experience, but it is made easier if the principles of sail balance are understood.
The underwater profile of a yacht is designed to create a resistance to sideways movement caused by air pressure on the sails. This is known as Lateral Resistance, and the point through which the resultant of all the lateral forces is designed to act is the Centre of Lateral Resistance (CLR). Similarly, the forces of wind acting on the sails can be reduced to a single resultant acting through one point being called the Centre of Effort (CE). If the CE is aligned exactly above the CLR, the yacht will be perfectly balanced, but if the two points are not aligned a turning moment is created and the yacht will react accordingly. If the CE is aft of the CLR the yacht will tend to turn towards the wind, this is called “Weather Helm”. If the CE is forward of the CLR the yacht will tend to turn away from the wind, Called “Lee Helm”.
Normally a yacht is designed to carry slight weather helm, which gives a positive feel to the tiller and makes it easier to sail close to the wind. A yacht with lee helm is very uncomfortable to sail, and under certain conditions can be positively dangerous.
The position of the CLR in a fixed keel yacht cannot be changed except by structural alteration, but the position of the CE can be varied by changes in the sail plan, and to some extent the rake of the mast. Excessive weather helm can be corrected by reducing the size of the mainsail or increasing the size of the headsail, thus moving the CE forward and closer to the CLR. Lee helm can be corrected by reducing the size of the headsail and increasing the size of the mainsail, or, if the condition is inherent, by raking the mast further aft. Correct sail balance must be maintained when sail is reduced in heavy weather, thus it may be necessary to set a smaller headsail when the mainsail is reefed.
CHAPTER 7 SAIL TRIM
Trimming the Headsail
The factors affecting headsail trim are the tension on the forestay, the tension on the luff of the sail, the position of the sheet fairleads and the tension on the leech line.
Forestay Tension
Many modern yachts are fitted with some form of backstay adjuster that serves to vary the
tension in the forestay according to weather conditions. In light winds the forestay should be just firm enough to prevent the headsail from sagging away to leeward. As winds get stronger the backstay should be progressively tightened to increase the tension in the forestay until it is as tight as the strength of the rig and the condition of the hull will allow. On fractional rigs with aft raked spreaders an over tightened backstay will cause the cap shrouds to become dangerously loose. Over tightening may also cause irreparable damage to the hull of the yacht.
Headsail Luff Tension
Variation in the tension on the luff of the headsail has an effect on the position of the Centre of Effort of the sail. A light tension will tend to move the CE further aft, while increased tension will move it further forward. In light winds the luff tension should be eased slightly, and then progressively tightened as the wind increases.
Sheet Fairlead Position
Most yachts are fitted with tracks on which the position of the sheet fairleads can be altered according to conditions. Every headsail has an optimum position for the fairlead, depending on the cut of the sail, the type of rig and the design of the yacht. Any change in this position will also change the direction of the pull of the sheet on the clew of the headsail, and normally the angle of the sheet should subtend a line just above the bisecting seam of the headsail.
In light airs or when sailing off the wind the fairlead may be moved forward a little in order to increase the curvature of the sail, but when sailing close-hauled care must be taken not to stretch the leech out of shape, or to allow the upper part of the sail to touch the outer end of the
spreaders.
Leech Line Tension
If the leech of the headsail flutters when the yacht is close-hauled, it means that it has been made incorrectly or that it has been stretched out of shape. When a leech line is fitted this may be tightened slightly to remove the flutter, but overtightening will produce a pronounced hook to windward in the leech, which in turn distorts the smooth flow of wind over the mainsail. In these circumstances the flutter in the leech may be accepted as the lesser of the two evils.
Trimming the Mainsail
The trim of the mainsail is controlled by the tension of the rig, the luff, the foot of the mainsail and the position of the direction of pull of the mainsheet and kicking strap.
Rig Tension
Tension on the backstay induces a bend in the mast that tends to flatten the mainsail. This is of some advantage when sailing close-hauled in strong winds.
Luff Tension
Tension on the luff in all conditions should always be sufficient to set up the sail so that there are no bags or wrinkles in the luff of the sail. In light winds the luff may be eased slightly and in strong winds it should be tightened. This has the effect of altering the CE and fullness of the sail in the same way as it does with the headsail.
Foot Tension
In light airs the mainsail should be fairly full while in strong winds it should be much flatter. Increasing the tension along the foot of the mainsail helps to flatten the sail and make it more efficient in strong winds, but the tension must be released when conditions do not require it. The Mainsheet Traveller
Most yachts are fitted with an adjustable mainsheet traveller, and this can be used to advantage in various wind conditions. The direction of pull on the sheet can be altered by changing the position of the traveller, and it should be moved to windward when sailing close-hauled, and pushed leeward when sailing off the wind.
The Kicking Strap
When sailing off the wind in strong winds the boom tends to lift in the air, thus creating an inefficient belly and twist in the mainsail. The lift of the boom can be controlled by the kicking strap, adjusting the tension to achieve the correct curvature in the sail. When sailing close to the wind tension on the kicking strap will help to prevent the boom from bending, thus keeping the sail flatter and more efficient for the conditions.
CHAPTER 8 GETTING UNDERWAY
From between Piles - Head to Wind
a. Single up stern warps, and rig slip line.
b. Move forward under control of stern and bow warps, and adjust bow warps on piles so that they can be cast off easily, then haul yacht back to original position. c. Make mainsail and headsail ready for hoisting.
d. Cast off stern warp and haul forward hard on the bow warps, making sure that they are led over the pulpit.
e. When level with piles flick off bow warps and stow them quickly.
f. Ensure yacht head to wind, hoist mainsail, and when clear of obstructions turn yacht until mainsail fills, then hoist headsail.
From between Piles - Wind Astern
As for getting under way when head to wind, except that the headsail is hoisted first, not the mainsail. When the yacht is clear of the piles and has sufficient headway luff up to wind and hoist the mainsail. The mainsail should never be hoisted when the wind is astern.
From a Jetty - Wind Offshore
a. Prepare headsail for immediate hoisting. b. Take off springs.
c. Hoist headsail and let go bow warp.
e. When sufficient way is on and yacht is clear of any obstruction's luff up and hoist mainsail.
From a Lee Shore Berth
a. If necessary warp the yacht round so that the wind is forward of the beam and adjust warps so that as much space as possible is available forward of the bow. b. Prepare mainsail for immediate hoisting.
c. Take a long stern warp to a bollard or post as far forward as possible and double it back to the stern of the yacht. (Slip line)
d. Take off all other mooring warps.
e. Steering the yacht to windward and pushing out on the bow with the boathook, pull in hard on the stern slip line, at the same time fending off the stern so that it is just clear of the jetty.
f. When sufficient way is on the yacht slip the stern line and haul in.
g. As the yacht goes through the wind hoist the mainsail and then the headsail. From an Anchorage
CHAPTER 9 BERTHING
Berthing into the Wind
a. Drop headsail when well downwind of selected berth.
b. Allowing for any leeway in a strong wind, luff up and drop mainsail when yacht has sufficient way to reach the selected berth without sails.
Much experience and practice is needed before the exact position to drop sails can be
determined. If the approach is too fast the way can be taken off by making a tight circle, and if too slow the headsail can be hoisted and the yacht sailed out of harbour to start the maneuver again.
a. When well upwind of selected berth, luff up into wind and lower the mainsail. b. Lower headsail when the yacht has just sufficient headway and distance off to reach the selected berth without sail.
Although it is sometimes necessary in very crowded harbours, a lee berth, and even a lee harbour, should be avoided if possible.
The outer line of piles should be treated as a jetty or harbour wall, and the approach made in the same way as described in Berthing into the Wind and Berthing Downwind. The bow warps are laid out as shown in Fig a with the port bow warp laid around the yacht outside all shrouds and rails to the starboard quarter, and the starboard bow warp laid down to the starboard side about midships position, again outside all shrouds and rails. If the approach is made from the opposite direction, the position of the warps will of course be reversed. Both warps should be finished with a bowline or running bowline large enough to pass over the top of piles.
As the yacht comes alongside the line of piles the bowlines are laid over the appropriate piles, any headway on the yacht being taken off by the warp on the after pile. Using the other warp would turn the yacht sharply into the line of piles, and would also prevent the helmsman from steering away from the line in order to bring the stern of the yacht into a more convenient position. Keeping the yacht fended off from the piles, with the help of two bow warps, the stern of the yacht is maneuvered between the piles until it is in the position shown in Fig b. By hauling in on the bow warps the yacht is guided astern with the help of the rudder until the mooring position is reached and a stern warp is attached ashore. Bow and stern warps are then adjusted and made fast.
CHAPTER 10 ANCHORING
As harbours become more crowded and harbour dues continue to rise, more and more people are resorting to anchoring their yachts and, if necessary, going ashore by dinghy. Provided that a suitable anchorage is used and the correct drill is carried out, lying to an anchor has great advantages over berthing in a crowded harbour that more that compensates for the possible inconvenience of not being able to step directly ashore.
Selecting an Anchorage
When deciding upon a suitable place for anchoring the first and most important consideration must be the weather conditions. Anchoring close to a lee shore in a rising wind, or even a weather shore when a complete change in wind is forecast, might lead to a nerve racking and sometimes dangerous experience of trying to beat away from a lee shore at night in a strong wind. Full use should be made of any local knowledge as well as recommendations made in pilot books or given on charts, while information about the quality of the bottom would be used to decide whether the selected anchorage has good holding ground. The proximity of underwater cables or other obstacles should be checked, and where the tidal stream or current may change in direction allowance must be made for the yacht to swing full circle without hitting an obstruction or going aground. The depth of the water in the anchorage is important and selection is to some extent conditioned by the length of the chain or warp carried on board. The depth to be allowed for is the maximum envisaged during the period of time at anchor.
Preparations for Anchoring
It is most important that all preparations are made and all ground tackle laid out ready for use well before the actual approach to the selected anchoring position.
Where a stemhead roller is fitted the chain is shackled directly to the anchor lying in position on the roller. The length of chain required for anchoring is then flaked down on the foredeck. This ensures that no jamming will occur in the hawse pipe or anchor locker. The length of chain required is 4 times (6 if using chain leader and warp) the maximum depth of water that will occur while the yacht is at anchor. The inboard end of the chain must be secured with a stout rope lashing to a strong point in the chain locker.
When anchoring on a rocky bottom, or whenever there is a possibility of the anchor fouling an underwater obstruction, it is good practice to buoy the anchor. A length of strong line at least equal to the depth of the water is attached to the crown of the anchor with a fisherman's bend, seized if anchoring for any length of time, with the other end secured to the buoy. The line and buoy are then laid out neatly on the foredeck ready to be paid out after the anchor is cast. Anchoring Drill
In non tidal waters the approach to the selected position should be made into the wind, and the anchor cast or lowered when all way is off the yacht. As the yacht begins to fall astern the chain
or warp is veered out slowly to the desired length, snubbing the yacht occasionally with a turn round the samson post or a cleat to encourage the anchor to bite into the bottom. In tidal waters or where there is a strong current the approach should be made against the current and the anchor cast when the yacht begins to make sternway.
When the yacht comes to rest at the end of the chain or warp, the required day or night signals for a vessel at anchor must be displayed; a black ball by day and an all round white light by night, hoisted at the forward end of the vessel. When finally anchored, it is important to take a bearing on some fixed object ashore, or to get two prominent objects in transit, so that a periodic check can be made on the yachts position to ensure that she is not dragging. Another simple way to check whether dragging is occurring is to lower a weighted line over the side. If the yacht is still the line will remain up-and-down, but if she is dragging, the weight will appear to move forward.
Warp in Place of Chain
With the great strength an durability of nylon ropes, it is now common practice for a nylon warp to be used instead of a chain. Although it may not give quite the same feeling of security, if the right size of warp is used it can be as strong or even stronger than chain. Other advantages are that it is much quieter in use, easier to handle and far gentler on deck fittings and wooden trim, it has more “give” and elasticity when anchored in a choppy sea, and it can be used in conjunction with the yachts sheet winches when an anchor winch is not fitted. The main disadvantages are that it is not heavy enough to give a good horizontal pull to the anchor, and is liable to chafe if lying on an abrasive bottom. These disadvantages can be minimised by shackling two or three fathoms of anchor chain between the anchor and the warp.
Lying to Two Anchors
In some circumstances it may be either necessary or desirable to lay to two anchors. For example, in very strong winds two bow anchors would give greatly added security and reduce swing. This method is not suitable for strong tidal waters, as there would be a danger of the two warps becoming tangled when the tide changes.
In restricted areas the swinging circle of the yacht must be controlled, a bow and stern anchor may be used, but this has the disadvantage of exposing the stern to the weather, with all the consequent discomforts.
A better method is shown below. The kedge anchor is lowered as the yacht is approaching the anchorage, and after finally coming to rest on the main anchor the two warps are shackled together just above the waterline. Sufficient bow warp is then veered out to take the kedge warp just below the surface. The yacht will now ride to one anchor or the other as the wind or current changes, with only a small swinging circle.
CHAPTER 11 GROUNDING
Running aground in non tidal waters sometimes presents problems, there being no rising tide to lift the yacht off. There are many different methods of dealing with this emergency, but
experience has shown that the following drill generally gives the best chance of success: a. As soon as grounding occurs bring all crew weight amidships.
b. Lower all sails and furl them neatly, ensuring that all sheets and halyards are inboard.
c. Take time to stop, think and weigh up the situation.
d. Start motor, and try to motor off in a reciprocal direction to the grounding course. e. If this fails, stop motor and inflate dinghy.
f. Bending warps together if necessary, lay the anchor and the longest possible warp in the dinghy, row out to known deep water as far from the yacht as possible and cast anchor.
g. Recover the dinghy crew.
h. Using crew weight, fairleads or winches, haul in on the anchor from the most convenient position until the yacht floats off.
i. Stop hauling, establish exact position and decide on the course necessary to reach deep water.
j. Recover the anchor and sail away.
If this is unsuccessful, another variation of the method is to greatly increase the angle of heel either by swinging out the boom with one or two crew members straddling it, or hauling in from the top of the mast by attaching the main halyard to the anchor warp.
Man Overboard
As this is one of the most difficult and potentially hazardous situations that can occur when sailing, it is a sensible precaution for all members of the crew to have a clear idea of the action to be taken in the event of such an emergency.
Many articles have been written and many recommendations made on the subject, often advocating widely different drills for dealing with the situation, but the
“Quickstop” method given below has proved itself in many cases. It can also be easily learnt by a novice (and it could be the skipper who is overboard!). The “Reach-Tack-Reach” method also works well in certain cases. This method is also described below. Whichever method is chosen, it must be practiced until all members of the crew are familiar with it, and action becomes instinctive if an actual emergency arises.
Man Overboard - Quickstop
Shout “MAN OVERBOARD” push the tiller well to leeward and throw a lifebuoy to the man in the water.
On hearing the shout, all hands turn out on deck and the first one is detailed to watch and keep pointing at the man overboard.
With the tiller to leeward the boat tacks through the wind; the headsail is left aback, as soon as the main boom comes across to the new leeward side the tiller is again pushed to leeward and held there. The boat is effectively hove-to and stopped, possibly within talking distance of the man in the water. Adjust sheets if necessary.
Clear any trailing sheets or lines, start engine and motor to the man in the water, lowering or freeing sails as necessary.
If there is no engine, let go the headsail halyard (the sail will fall onto the foredeck); gybe or tack and sail to the man in the water.
Man Overboard - Reach-Tack-Reach
Shout “MAN OVERBOARD” and throw a lifebuoy to the man in the water.
On hearing the shout all hands turn out on deck, the first one being detailed to watch and keep pointing at the man overboard.
At the same time the helmsman immediately turns the yacht onto the nearest beam reach, notes the compass course and starts counting steadily. As soon as the yacht is settled on the reach, the hand pointing at the casualty takes over the count.
As soon as all hands are an deck and ready for action, the helmsman tacks the yacht through the wind, at the same time noting the count that has been reached. The yacht then sails back on a reciprocal course, with the count starting again as the tack is completed.
When the count comes to the same figure that was reached before tacking, the yacht should be in the same position as when the man went overboard, and the casualty spotted in the proximity of the yacht. As soon as this happens, the yacht should be
manoeuvred to a position just downwind of the casualty, who is then approached in exactly the same way as coming alongside a mooring.
Hours of Darkness
During the hours of darkness the problem of keeping the man in the water under observation becomes more difficult or even impossible, and in these circumstances it is essential that a lifebuoy fitted with an efficient light is used. For this reason, regular checks on this equipment should be made.
Recovering Man in Water
When the yacht has been manoeuvred alongside the casualty, he must be made fast to the yacht immediately. Even with a strong crew he will be extremely difficult to lift out of the water without some extra purchase, and this can be provided by passing a rope under his armpits and securing it with a bowline; a bowline on a long bight, with one bight under the armpits and one under the backs of the knees will lift even an unconscious man safely. If he is wearing a harness, a line or a snap shackle on a line can be attached to it.
If the casualty is unconscious or completely exhausted the problem of getting him back aboard becomes more difficult. In these circumstances it may be necessary to put another man into the water to help to attach the lines or lifting tackle, but if this is done he must be wearing a lifejacket and safety harness and be attached to the yacht with a strong line.
One trialled method of lifting a man from the water is to drop the mainsail, and use the main halyard. This has the advantage of running from the back of the mast, and can be easily brought aft of the shrouds. Using the main halyard a man can be
winched from the water and safely lowered, even through the companionway and into the saloon.
CHAPTER 13 KNOTS, BENDS & HITCHES, WHIPPING & SPLICING
There are many kinds of knots that have been developed over the years for specific purposes. Those used by seamen have stood the test of time and weather, and there is a correct knot, hitch or bend for every purpose on board. To be fit for their purpose they have to satisfy a number of requirements; they must not come undone when shaken or rocked about, they must not slip under load, they must not jam and they must be easy to undo.
The number of knots with which the average yachtsman must be familiar is not large, but he should be able to make them rapidly and correctly under any conditions, and in the dark if necessary.
Round Turn and Two Half Hitches
A simple and useful method of making fast to a ring or a post. As the load is taken by the round turn, the two half hitches will not jam.
Fisherman's Bend
A variation of the round turn and two hitches in which the first half hitch is made inside the round turn. This prevents the round turn from
tightening up on the post or ring. As an added safety measure the free end may be seized with twine to the standing part. The fisherman's bend is invariably used when attaching a warp to an anchor.
Clove Hitch
A simple non-slipping hitch which must be used with caution. It should not be used to secure the end of a rope which may be subjected to strain as it may jam and prove very difficult to release. It may be used for attaching fenders to lifelines, or for attaching the signal halyard to the burgee staff.
Rolling Hitch
This hitch will not slip when a sideways pull is exerted, and is in effect a clove hitch with an extra turn on the side of the pull. It is often used for securing the tail of a purchase to a warp or a sheet so that the strain can be temporarily
transferred in order to release a riding turn from a winch or some other jamming of the sheet or warp.
Figure of Eight Knot
A simple stopper knot formed in the bitter end of a rope to prevent it running through a block, or fairlead. The knot looks just like its name.
Double Overhand Knot
A non-jamming stopper knot used at the ends of sheets or halyards; it is used in preference to a figure-of-eight knot as it can always be released by breaking the two turns apart with the fingers.
Single and Double Sheet Bend
An extremely useful bend can be used for
securing the ends of two ropes together, especially when they are wet or of unequal size. In the double sheet bend the running end is passed round twice for added grip and security.
Reef Knot
A useful knot for joining two ends of two small ropes, but it should not be used for large ropes or ropes of different sizes, as it may capsize and fail under load.
Bowline
An essential knot for use at sea whenever a non-slip loop is required in the end of a rope. It will never jam, however much strain is put on the rope.
Running Bowline
A bowline with the standing part passed through to form a slipping loop. It can be used when a very large loop is required to be passed over the top of a mooring post and then tightened up when in position.
Bowline on a Bight
This can be used to form a loop in the middle of a line, as an emergency bosun's chair, and, with long loops, as a cradle for lifting a body.
To form a bowline on a bight, take a bight of the rope, and begin the knot as if the bight were a single line. When the loop is passed through the twist in the standing part, the protruding "ear" is spread and passed completely over the two hanging parts of the bight and the twist, to form the completed
Whipping
The usual method of whipping the end of synthetic rope is to heat-seal it by melting the ends of the fibers into a solid mass. This should be backed up by whipping.
Common Whipping
There are a number of ways to make a common whipping, the differences being only in the ways in which the loose ends of twine are secured and concealed. One method, which works as well as any, is to lay a bight of twine along the rope, wind the long end of the twine tightly around the rope and both parts of the twine until the whipping is long enough, usually about 12 turns. Hold the whipping tight and feed the spare through the bight. Pull the other end of the twine until the bight and the spare end disappear under the whipping. Cut off spare ends
Short Splice
A strong splice used for joining the ends of two ropes together: it's only disadvantage is that the splice is thicker than the rest of the rope. To form the splice, unlay the two ends of the rope to be joined and tape or whip the ends of each strand. Marry the two ends, so that each strand is between two opposite strands. Tape or whip one set of strands temporarily. Tuck each of the free strands in turn under and over the adjacent strands of the other rope, against the lay. After three or four tucks of each strand, remove tape or whipping from the free strands and repeat. Cut off the excess from the strands leaving a small amount protruding. Roll the splice underfoot to settle it.
Eye Splice
A strong permanent eye in the end of a rope. Unlay a length of the rope and whip or tape the end of each strand. Tuck the middle strand under a strand of the rope at the point where the throat of the eye is required. Now tuck the strand nearest the middle of the eye under the strand next to the first, both against the lay. The third strand is then tucked under the remaining free strand of the rope, but from around the back, with the free strand being turned so that it can be tucked under against the lay. Finish as for a short splice
CHAPTER 14 THE WEATHER Weather Forecasting
In order to understand properly and to make use of weather forecasts, it is necessary to have some knowledge of simple meteorology. As the yachtsman is essentially interested only in the direction and strength of the wind and the possibility of fog or poor visibility it does not require an expert knowledge, but merely an understanding of certain basic principles.
The weather in the sea areas of the Western Baltic is considerably influenced by the depressions which form on the Polar front and move across the area in an easterly or north-easterly direction. These depressions usually have ridges of high pressure between them. The low pressure areas are caused by warm air rising and cooling, bringing with them rain and strong winds, while high pressure areas are caused by air from the upper regions dropping towards the earth, the
associated weather normally being dry with light winds.
The air movement round a low pressure area travels in an anti-clockwise direction (in the Northern Hemisphere) and increases in strength towards the centre, while round a high pressure area it travels in a clockwise direction and decreases in strength towards the centre. From this knowledge an important rule, known as Buys Ballot Law, may be learned and understood. This states that in the Northern Hemisphere an observer facing the wind have low pressure on his right and high pressure on his left.
Another important and helpful rule is called Cross Winds Rule. This rule lays down that if an observer with his back to the surface wind has the upper wind, indicated by the movement and direction of high cloud, coming from his left, the weather can expect to deteriorate, and if coming from his right it will normally improve.
Due to gravity the air exerts a force called atmospheric pressure, expressed in units of measurements called millibars. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1000 millibars, written as 1000 mb. On a weather or synoptic chart, the line joining the points of equal atmospheric pressure at any given time is called an isobar, and as the wind is caused by air moving due to changes of pressure, it follows that a stronger wind will be experienced where the isobars are closer together, while light winds can be expected where they are widely spaced. The function of the barometer is to indicate visually changes of atmospheric pressure as they occur, while the barograph will also record these changes of pressure. Changes of pressure should be recorded at regular intervals so that a barometric gradient may be built up. The greater the gradient, the closer will be the isobars and thus the stronger the winds. When the barometer remains steady more settled conditions can be expected, although there will always be some slight variation in pressure during the day even during long settled periods. This is known as Diurnal Wave. Gale warnings are normally issued when a rise or fall of 10 millibars in 3 hours has been recorded, but even a change of 5 millibars in the same time will usually herald a strong blow.
Stationary Surface
Small Wave
Wave Path
Fronts
CHAPTER 16 THE BEAUFORT SCALE
Force Wind Speed Description Sea State
Knots m/sec
0 0 - 1 0.0 - 0.2 Calm Like a mirror
1 1 - 3 0.3 - 1.5 Light Air Ripples only
2 4 - 6 1.6 - 3.3 Light Breeze Small wavelets, not breaking 3 7 - 10 3.4 - 5.4 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets, crests
breaking, white horses 4 11 - 16 5.5 - 7.9 Moderate Breeze Small waves with frequent
white horses 5 17 - 21 8.0 -
10.7
Fresh Breeze Moderate waves, many white horses, some spray
6 22 - 27 10.8 - 13.8
Strong Breeze Large waves with white crests, some spray 7 28 - 33 13.9 -
17.1
Near Gale Sea heaping up, foam streaks blowing from crests
8 34 - 40 17.2 -20.7
Gale High waves with crests breaking into spindrift 9 41 - 47 20.8 -
24.4
Severe Gale High waves with tumbling crests, streaks of foam 10 48 - 55 24.4 -
28.4
Storm Very high waves with long overhanging crests
11 56 - 63 28.5 - 32.6
Violent Storm Exceptionally high waves, sea covered with foam 12 64 Plus 32.7 &
Over
Hurricane Air filled with foam, sea white with driving spray NOTE: It will be observed that there is a steady approximate ratio of 2 : 1 between metres per second and knots for each wind force in the Beaufort scale. In Danish and Swedish weather forecasts wind strength is given in metres per second, not in the Beaufort Scale.
CHAPTER 17 HEAVY WEATHER SAILING
The most frequent reason for being caught out in heavy weather is lack of time. When planning a cruise, allowance should always be made for an element of time to be used for the purpose of sheltering in bad weather. In this way the necessity of sailing when it would be more prudent not to do so may be avoided.
Given the availability of weather forecasts a yacht should never have to face heavy weather without some prior warning. Even without a weather forecast, the tell-tale signs in the sky and a quickly falling barometer will give early warning of deteriorating conditions ahead.
When it is obvious that the weather will deteriorate, there are a number of precautions and preparations that the prudent skipper should make. One of the most important is to decide on how much sail is to be carried. This must always be done in advance of immediate necessity, for the longer the decision to reef or to change headsails is deferred, the harder it will be to carry out. A cruising yacht should carry enough sails to suit the squalls and gusts, not the mean force of the wind, which may sometimes be much less. When sailing off the wind, there is an inclination to carry more sail than is prudent in the conditions. In heavy weather it is good seamanship to carry only sufficient sail to suit close-hauled sailing, whatever the actual point of sailing. This enables the helmsman to react immediately in any emergency and be in complete control even if having to round up head to wind.
Bad weather usually brings poor visibility, and every effort must be made to determine the yachts exact position, and then to keep an accurate plot of dead reckoning (DR) and estimated position (EP). The fact that leeway will be more pronounced in strong winds should be allowed for when calculating EP.
If no suitable shelter is available within a reasonable distance the only safe alternative is to stay at sea. In this case it will be necessary to have plenty of sea-room and be well clear of the shipping routes and shallow water.
All the crew should wear warm clothing, safety harnesses and life jackets, and all gear on deck, especially halyard and sheet ends, should be checked and made secure. The bilge should be pumped dry and checked regularly, and the engine checked for easy starting in an emergency. Moveable gear below should be safely stowed away, and safety items such as torches, flares, foghorn, warps and reefing gear be readily available. Cockpit drains must be checked and the main companionway closed and washboards fitted. Meanwhile sandwiches or similar food and vacuum flasks of soup or coffee should be prepared before conditions make it impossible to work in the galley.
As winds and seas increase it may be impossible to make any real progress and it may become necessary to heave-to. Most yachts, especially long-keeled types, will heave-to satisfactorily, but this is something that should have already been practiced under less demanding conditions. It is quite surprising how comfortable a yacht can be properly hove-to even in a gale force wind.
As conditions get even more severe it may be necessary to lie a-hull, that is with all sails lowered, and the yacht allowed to drift as she pleases. As seas will break on board, the crew should stay below if possible, and be well prepared for violent movement of the hull. Even in less severe weather in the Baltic, for example when sudden violent line squalls pass during comparatively easy sailing weather, it is often advisable to lie a-hull for the short period that the squall will last, with no discomfort and no danger of sails or rigging being damaged.
Provided there is ample sea-room to leeward, it may be an advantage to run downwind under bare poles, streaming warps over the stern in order to reduce speed and keep the yacht end on to the sea. To have any effect the warp must be the longest and largest available and towed in a bight over the stern, each end being made securely fast to opposite quarters.
A more modern concept of riding out gales in light displacement vessels is to run at speed under much reduced canvas with the seas being taken on the quarter. This manoeuvre requires a good deal of sea-room and some skill and experience on the part of the helmsman, and is rarely advisable or even possible in the restricted waters of the Baltic Sea.
Anyone who has read accounts of sailor's experiences of storm conditions will be aware that not all advocate the same course of action. However, two points are common to all recommended methods for dealing with such conditions: the boat must be properly prepared, crew properly dressed and warm, everything lashed and stowed, sail plan adjusted to the conditions and plan of action; and there must be plenty of sea-room.
CLOUD FORMATIONS Stratocumulus
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Altostratus
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Cirrostratus
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Cumulus
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Picture courtesy of K Pilsbury
Cumulonimbus
CHAPTER 18 FOG Radiation (Land) Fog
Radiation fog occurs at night over land, and is caused by the rapid radiation of land heat into the lower atmosphere. This causes the land temperature to drop sharply and so cool the layer of air immediately above it until the dew-point is reached. Although it does not actually form over the sea, it can drift out from land for two or three miles and persist for several hours.
Advection (Sea) Fog
Advection fog may occur on land or sea at any time, and is caused by the horizontal movement of warm air over a cold surface, with the air temperature falling to dew-point. It often occurs in spring, when the land mass has begun to warm up but the sea remains cold. Advection fog is invariably accompanied by wind, which sometimes can be quite strong, but which will not necessarily disperse the fog; this will occur only when the wind changes and a warmer drier air stream appears, or when the sun becomes strong enough to raise the air temperature above dew-point. Radiation fog however, will not persist in anything more that the lightest of breezes. Sailing in Poor Visibility
When there is any possibility of sailing into conditions of reduced visibility, it is of vital
importance to obtain an accurate position fix before visibility deteriorates so much that nothing can be seen. The time, log readings an speed should be noted, and the course to steer adjusted as necessary according to the circumstances.
Unless the wind is strong which is unlikely though not impossible in foggy conditions, there is little point in trying to reduce speed of a yacht under sail, on the principle that the slower the speed the less the ability to take avoiding action, although, it is good practice to clear the foredeck by handing the head sail and sailing under main sail alone. Under these conditions a forward watch will be easier to maintain, and preparations for anchoring, if necessary, can be made without much trouble.
The principle danger to a yacht in fog is the risk of being run down by a larger vessel, but this can be avoided by sailing out of the shipping lanes into shallow water. There remains the danger of collision with other small craft, but in this respect a vessel under sail has one great advantage over other vessels, and that is silence, thus for early warning of approaching danger a really good listen out is probably more important than a good look out. The prescribed fog signal should be sounded if necessary, but otherwise the crew should maintain silence and look and listen. The steps to be taken when sailing into reduced visibility may be summed up as follows:
a. Obtain an accurate fix, note time, log readings and speed. Adjust course to steer according to circumstances.
b. Reduce speed, if necessary by shortening sail or handing the head sail. c. Hoist radar reflector if not permanently hoisted.
d. Have foghorn ready and prepare to sound prescribed signal. e. Record depths at regular intervals.
f. Post a good look and listen-out in the bow, and tell him to point in the direction of anything he sees or hears.
g. If conditions warrant it, life jackets should be worn. h. Check life raft and/or dinghy is ready for launching. i. Prepare the anchor for letting go in the prescribed manner. j. At night have signal flares and a powerful torch ready for use.
k. Check that the engine is ready for instant starting. The best advice that can be given in respect of fog is to try to avoid it. If there is a forecast of poor visibility or it is already poor it may be advisable to stay in harbour, particularly if the planned course involves crossing shipping lanes.
CHAPTER 19 SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Most accidents at sea are caused through carelessness and inefficiency, and seldom through stress of weather or the caprice of the elements. A well found yacht handled by an efficient crew will rarely run into serious trouble but it must be equipped with the proper safety gear and
equipment. All crew members must know where each item of safety equipment is, and how, and in what circumstances, to operate it.
Fire Extinguishers
Extinguishers should be of the dry powder type, and should be located at exits, cooker and engine compartments.
Lifebuoys
Two lifebuoys with sea anchors should be provided, located near the cockpit so that they can be easily removed and used in an emergency. At least one of the buoys should be equipped with a safety light, and this should be checked daily. A danbuoy on a line attached to one of the buoys is an additional safeguard.
Life-Raft
A self inflating life-raft is carried on deck in an easily accessible position, with the painter firmly secured to a strong point on the yacht. All crew members of the crew must be familiar with the drill for launching the life-raft.
Lifejackets
One lifejacket for each member of the crew is provided on board. It must be worn by all non-swimmers when on deck, and by all hands at the skippers discretion, when abandoning to the life-raft and when going into the dinghy.
Safety Harness
On the principle that prevention is better than cure, a safety harness is probably more important than a lifejacket. It should be fitted individually and be made ready for use at all times, and be worn by clipping on in heavy weather, especially when moving forward out of the cockpit. Safety harnesses will always be used at night and any crew member who is seasick is to be clipped on for his own safety.
Distress Flares
Flares should be securely stored in a dry place where there is no danger of accidental ignition or deterioration through damp. All members of the crew should be familiar with the operation of the flares.
Bilge Pumps
All yachts carry two hand operated bilge pumps, one in the cockpit and one below decks, this is in addition to any other type of pump. The bilge pumps should be checked for efficient
operation before departure, checks must also be made to ensure that any limber holes are clear for the passage of bilge water.
Fog Horn
A “lung” operated fog horn is provided. One short blast is a sufficient check for correct operation.
First Aid Kit
Every yacht is equipped with a first aid kit. Hints on first aid afloat are in a later Chapter of this handbook.
CHAPTER 20 RADIO TELEPHONY
All yachts are fitted with VHF radios capable of simplex two way communication. All members of the crew must be able to use the radio telephone in an emergency and to this end a plaque, giving step by step instructions for sending a distress message, including the MMSI number, should be mounted near the set.
The most important details of operation should be known by the skipper, even though he may not be qualified as an operator; these are listed and described below:
The vessel requires a ship's licence.
Transmissions must be controlled by the holder of a Short Range Certificate. (VHF only). The set must have: Digital Selective Calling (DSC). Channel 16 Distress, Safety and Calling Frequency. Channel 6 Primary Inter-ship Channel. One other Channel.
A listening watch should be maintained on Channel 16, at all times, when at sea. No one may operate the Radio Telephone without the authority of the skipper.
Except in an emergency, no one may operate the Radio Telephone unless under the control of a licensed operator.
The following only may take place on Channel 16: Distress Working. Urgency Traffic. Initial contact with another station.
The definitions of Distress and Urgency are:
Distress: A vessel or a life is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requests immediate assistance.
Urgency: The station sending has a very urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of a vessel or the safety of a person.
To make a distress call: Check the set is switched on and high power is selected, ensure Channel 16 is selected. Press and hold the red DSC button for five seconds to send an undesignated distress call. Follow immediately with voice message. Hold microphone a short distance from mouth, press press-to-talk switch and say:
MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY
THIS IS (Yacht's name) THIS IS (Yacht's name) THIS IS (Yacht's name) MY MMSI NUMBER IS ………. (Nine digit number)
MAYDAY ... (Yacht's name)
MY POSITION IS ...(Bearing and distance FROM a prominent object or Lat and Long)
... (Nature of distress) ...(Any other relevant information) I REQUIRE IMMEDIATE ASSISTANCE
OVER.
RELEASE PRESS-TO-TALK SWITCH.
Repeat and continue to repeat (leaving time (approx. 30 seconds) between transmissions to hear any answer) as necessary.
The obligation to accept distress calls is absolute.
To make an urgency call: prepare the equipment as for distress calls. Say: PAN-PAN PAN-PAN PAN-PAN
HELLO ALL STATIONS ALL STATIONS ALL STATIONS
THIS IS (Yacht's name) THIS IS (Yacht's name) THIS IS (Yacht's name) MY MMSI is ... (Nine digit number)
MY POSITION IS...(Bearing and distance FROM a prominent object or Lat and Long) ... (Nature of urgency)
... (Any other relevant information) OVER.
RELEASE PRESS-TO-TALK SWITCH.
Examinations for the Short Range Certificate (VHF/DSC only) are held regularly by the KTC, details can be obtained from the Courses Clerk.
CHAPTER 21 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR PREVENTING COLLISIONS AT SEA
RYA Book G2 explains fully all aspects of the regulations, a summary of which is given below. Rules for Sailing Vessels
A vessel sailing on the port tack keeps out of the way of a vessel sailing on a starboard tack. When two vessels are sailing on the same tack, the windward vessel keeps out of the way of the other vessel.
A vessel under power normally keeps out of the way of a vessel under sail, but attention is drawn to the necessity of giving a safe passage in restricted waters to vessels, which by virtue of there size and lack of manoeuverability cannot alter course.
Any vessel overtaking any other vessel shall keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken. A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with another vessel from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the stern light of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.
Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of the Rules or relieve her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and clear.
Most of the rules applying to sailing vessels are illustrated below. The diagram shows how the rules affect the yacht sailed by YOU, while how they affect yachts A, B, C and D.
Yacht A Keeps clear of B, as she is to leeward. Stands on for C, close hauled on port tack. Stands on for D, who has wind on her port side. Stands on for E and YOU.
Yacht B Stands on for A, who is windward. Stands on for C, close hauled on port tack. Stands on for D, who has wind on port side. Stands on for E and YOU.
Yacht C Keeps clear of A, who has wind on starboard side. Keeps clear of B, close hauled on starboard tack.
Stands on for D, who is windward.
Yacht D Keeps clear of A, who has wind on starboard side. Keeps clear of B, who has wind on starboard side.
Keeps clear of C, who is to leeward.
Keeps clear of E and YOU, both on starboard tack.
in addition, a sailing vessel underway keeps out of the way of a vessel not under command, a vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre and a vessel engaged in fishing.
Rules for Power Vessels (including sailing vessels under power)
When two power vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter her course to starboard so that each shall pass on the port side of the other.
When two power vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the vessel which has the other on her starboard side shall keep out of the way and shall, if the circumstances of the case permit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel.
Important Local Rules
Within the confines of Kiel Fiord, inside a line drawn from Bulk Lt through Kiel Lt to Stein, all yachts and pleasure craft must keep out of the way of commercial traffic passing through the shipping lanes.
If it is possible, it is advisable for sailing vessels to keep outside the shipping channels in the Fiord.
CHAPTER 22 LIGHT AND SHAPES CARRIED BY VESSELS Daymarks
These are shown by day on vessels to denote activities in which the vessels are engaged.
Lights
Lights are shown by vessels from Sunset to Sunrise and during the day in poor visibility.
ARCS OF VISIBILITY OF A VESSEL'S NAVIGATION LIGHTS
LIGHTS
Power Driven Vessel Over 50m Underway Daymark None
Lights Two White Masthead Lights, Red and Green Sidelights, White Sternlight
Power Driven Vessel Under 50m Underway Daymark None
Lights White Masthead Lights, Red and Green Sidelights, White Sternlight
Sailing Vessel Underway Not Using Power Daymark None
Lights Red and Green Sidelights, White Sternlight Vessels Under 12m
Sidelights and Sternlight may be combined into one Masthesd Lantern Vessels Under 7m and Vessels Under oars
White light in sufficient time to prevent collision
Vessel At Anchor
Daymark One Black Ball in forepart of Vessel
Lights Two all-round White Lights, Aft lower that Fore; Vessels under 50m need only show the higher light; Vessels over 100m also illuminate their decks
NORMAL NAVIGATION LIGHTS OR MARKS AND ANCHOR LIGHTS AS APPROPRIATE
Vessels Fishing and Trawling
Daymark Two Black Cones points together
If gear extends over 150m from vessel, One Black cone point up in direction of gear Lights
Vessels Fishing Two all-round Lights Red over White, White Masthead Light (optional for vessels under 50m), If gear extends over 150m from vessel, One all-round White Light in direction of gear; If underway Red and Green Sidelights and White Stern Light
Vessels Trawling Two all-round Lights Green over White, White Masthead Light (optional for vessels under 50m), If underway Red and Green Sidelights and White Stern Light
Daymark One Black cone point down, forward where best seen Lights As for Power driven Vessels
Pilot Vessel on Duty
Daymark Pilot Jack
Lights Two all-round lights - White over Red,
If underway Red and Green Sidelights and White Sternlight. If at anchor - anchor lights
Vessel Constrained by Her Draught
Daymark One Black Cylinder
Lights Three all-round Red Lights, Normal Navigation Lights
Daymark Black Ball over Black Diamond over Black Ball; Plus anchor shape when at anchor
Lights Three all-round Lights Red over White over Red; Normal Navigation Lights
Vessel Engaged in Underwater Operations or Dredging
Daymarks
As for vessel Restricted in Her Ability To Manoeuvre, plus Two Black Balls on the side of the Obstruction, and Two Black Diamonds on the side on which the vessel may pass. Vessels too small to show the above marks show a rigid replica of code flag ‘A’ at least 1m high
Lights As for vessel Restricted in Her Ability To Manoeuvre, plus Two all-round red Lights on the side of the obstruction, and two all-round Green Lights on the side the vessel may pass
When making way, normal Navigation lights are shown but Anchor Lights are not shown when the vessel is at anchor
Vessel Towing - Length of Tow less than 200m (Measured from Stern of Towing Vessel to Stern of Vessel Towed)
Daymark None
Lights Two White Masthead Lights, Yellow Towing Light above Stern Light, Red and Green Sidelights, Vessel Towed shows Side and Stern Lights
Vessel Towing - Length of Tow over 200m
Daymark
One Black Diamond on Vessel Towing, One Black Diamond on Vessel Towed
Lights Three White Masthead Lights, Yellow Towing Light above Stern Light, Red and Green Sidelights, Vessel Towed shows Side and Stern Lights
Vessel Engaged in Minesweeping (Dangerous to approach within 1000m astern or 500m each side)
Daymarks Three Black Balls
Vessel Aground (NOT Distress)
Daymark Three Black Balls
Lights Two all-round Red Lights, Anchor lights
Vessel Not Under Command
Daymark Two Black Balls
Lights Two all-round Red Lights, If underway Red and Green sidelights, White sternlights
CHAPTER 23 SOUND SIGNALS
Short Blast - About 1 second in duration. Prolonged Blast - 4-6 seconds duration. Sound Signals given in Clear Visibility
I am altering course to starboard.
I am altering course to port. I am operating astern propulsion.
or more, I fail to understand your intentions or actions / I doubt if you are taking sufficient action to avoid collision. I intend to overtake you on your
starboard side.
I intend to overtake you on your port side.
I understand your overtaking intentions. Vessel approaching bend in channel, and reply.
Sound Signals given in Restricted Visibility
Power driven vessel making way,
sounded at intervals of not more than two minutes.
Power driven vessel not making way, sounded at intervals of not more than two minutes.
A vessel not under command, a vessel restricted in ability to manoeuvre, a vessel constrained by draft, a sailing vessel, a vessel engaged in fishing, or a vessel towing or pulling
A manned vessel being towed or the last vessel of the tow, at intervals of not more than two minutes, immediately after the signal made by the towing vessel.
5 Sec 5 Sec
A vessel at anchor shall at intervals of not more that one minute ring a bell rapidly for about five seconds. In a vessel of 100m or more in length the bell shall be sounded in the forepart of the vessel and immediately after the ringing of the bell, a gong shall be sounded for about five seconds in the after part of the vessel.
In addition to the above a vessel at anchor may sound one short, one prolonged and one short blast in succession to give warning of her position to an approaching vessel.
3 Times 5 Sec 3 Times
5 Sec
A vessel aground shall in addition to the bell and gong signal, give three
distinctive strokes on the bell
immediately before and after the rapid ringing of the bell.
A vessel less than 12m in length is not obliged to give the signals mentioned above, but if she does not, shall make some other sufficient sound signal at intervals of not more than two minutes.
CHAPTER 24 DISTRESS SIGNALS AND INTERNATIONAL CODE SIGNALS
INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SIGNALS, CODE FLAGS, MORSE SYMBOLS
AND SINGLE LETTER SIGNALS
A Alfa
I have a diver down, keep well clear at slow speed
*B Bravo
I am taking in, discharging, or carrying dangerous goods
*C Charlie Yes (affirmative)
*D Delta
Keep clear of me; I am manoeuvring with difficulty
*E Echo
I am altering course to starboard
F Foxtrot
I am disabled, communicate with me
*G Golf
I require a pilot
*H Hotel
I have a pilot on board
*I India
I am altering my course to port
J Juliet
I am on fire and have dangerous cargo on board: keep well clear of me
K Kilo
I wish to communicate with you
L Lima
You should stop your vessel instantly
*M Mike
My vessel is stopped and making no way through the water
N November No (negative)
O Oskar Man overboard
P Papa
In harbour: all persons should report on board as the vessel is about to proceed to sea
Q Quebec
My vessel is healthy and I request free pratique
R Romeo
(no single letter meaning)
*S Sierra
I am operating astern propulsion
*T Tango
Keep clear of me; I am engaged in pair trawling
U Uniform
You are running into danger
V Victor
