PHYSICS
LAB MANUAL
Department of Physics
College of Engineering Studies
FOR
Engineering Students
(Semester 1)
Name... Branch...Roll No... Institute...University of Petroleium and Energy Studies, Dehradun
2014 -1st Ed. RevisedAll right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, store in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute Price: .../-Published by:
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• The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and an attitude of learning. • You need to come well prepared for the experiment • Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable measurements!) and equally share the work with your partners. • Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor them to get a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully. In any event all the data recorded in the tables have to be faithfully displayed on the graph. • All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and carefully done. • Bring necessary graph papers for each of experiment. Learn to optimize on usage of graph papers. • Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and display units. • If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
No. EXPERIMENT PAGE NO. 5 8 12 15 20 23 26 30 33 37 41 46 51 To determine the wavelength of sodium light (monochromatic light) by Newton’s rings method.
To determine the wavelengths of the mercury (blue, green/ yellow y1, y2) light by normal incidence method, using diffraction grating. To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution with the help of Polari-meter.
To determine the resistance per unit length of a Carey foster’s bridge wire and then to determine the specific resistance of the given wire. To determine the energy band gap of PN junction semiconductor diode in reverse biased. To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor using four probe method. To study the Hall Effect and hence determine the hall coefficient (Rh) and carrier density (n) of a given semiconductor materials. To determine the (1) numerical aperture (NA), (2) power losses due to macro bending and adaptor of given optical Fiber. To study the V-I characteristics of p–n junction diode and to calculate resistance of a diode in forward and reverse bias. Laser Diffraction method for single slit experiment. Study of both the current–voltage characteristic and the power curve to find the maximum power point (MPP) and efficiency of a solar cell To determine the wavelength of sodium light with the help of Fresnel’s biprism To determine the dispersive power of a material of prism using spectrometer. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Index 55-56
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AIM: To determine the wavelength of sodium light (Monochromativ Light) by Newton’s rings method. APPARATUS: Optical arrangement for Newton’s rings, traveling microscope, sodium lamp, short focus convex lens, reading lens and spherometer. PRINCIPLE & FORMULA: Consider a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature placed on a circular plane glass plate. A thin film of air is formed between the glass plate and the lens as shown. At the point ‘O’ where the lens is in contact with the glass plate, the thickness of the air film is zero and as we proceed away from O, the thickness of the film gradually increases. At the points around ‘O’ and at equal distance from it, the thickness of the film is same since the bottom surface of the lens is spherical. Now suppose that monochromatic light is incident normally on the air film at X at a distance of ‘a’ from ‘O’. This light is partially reflected at the top surface of the air film at ‘X’ and after refraction in air partially at ‘Y’. The two reflected beams will have certain path difference depending upon the thickness of the film (XY). Interference of these two reflected beams takes place which can be observed through a microscope placed vertically above the lens. The point X will be bright or dark, depending upon whether the path difference is odd or even number of half wave length of incident light. Similarly interference of light occurs at all other points of the film and a set of rings which are alternately bright and dark will be observed with a dark spot at the centre of the rings. Each ring is the locus of all points in the film which are at the same distance from the centre O of the ring system. If dm and
dn are the diameters of the mth and nth dark rings respectively and R is the radius of curvature of the curved
surface of the Plano-convex lens, it can be shown that the wavelength of light is given by
2 2 m n d d λ 4R m n Thus by forming these rings called Newton’s rings and by measuring their diameters, the wavelength of light can be determined. APPLICATIONS • Thickness of a thin film. • Radius of curvature of convex surface of the given lens. • Refractive index of a liquid. • Wavelength of a monochromatic light. • Color separation scanning Equipments/ Colour scanners. • Anti Newton ring Glass in photographic industry. Figure 1.1EXPERIMENT NO. 1
PROCEDURE: 1. Place the Plano-convex lens on the circular plane glass plate such that the convex surface of the Planoconvex lens is in contact with the plane glass plate. Place this combination in the wooden box, which contain a plane glass plate inclined by 45o to the incident light from the short focus convex lens. Place the wooden box under the traveling microscope and adjust it until sharp rings are seen. 2. Bring the point of the cross wires to the centre spot of the ring system. Starting from the centre of the ring system move the microscope cross wires to the left up to the 19th dark ring. (This number selected arbitrarily). 3. Set the vertical cross wire tangential to the 19th dark ring at the left and note the reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope. Repeat the same for alternate dark rings until cross wire reaches 1st dark ring. Similarly take the readings of alternate rings at the right side starting from 1st ring. 4. Determination of radius of curvature of the convex surface of the Plano-convex lens (R) Take out the lens and mark the surface which was in contact with glass plate. Place the spherometer on the convex surface of the plano-convex lens and note the reading of the spherometer (h1) then place the spherometer on the plane glass plate and note the reading (h2). Reading of the spherometer for convex surface of the lens (h1) =……cm Reading of the spherometer for plane glass plate (h2) =……cm Average distance between the legs of the spherometer (l) =……cm Height of the convex surface (h) = (h1 – h2) =……cm Radius of curvature of the curved surface of the Plano-convex lens 2 h R ...cm 6h 2 l TABLE S.No. Ring No. Microscope Reading (cm) Diameter d=L ~ R (cm) d2 (cm2) Left side (L) Right side (R) 1 20 2 18 3 16 4 14 5 12 6 10 7 8 8 6 9 4 10 2
GRAPH Draw a graph with the ring number on X-axis and (diameter)2 on Y-axis. By joining the points a straight line passing through the origin is obtained as shown in figure 1.2. Find the slope of the straight line, which is:
2 2 m n d d m n CALCULATIONS Radius of curvature of the plano convex lens (R) =……cm Diameter square of the mth ring d2 m =……cm 2 Diameter square of the nth ring d2 n =……cm 2 Slope of the straight line =……cm2 Wavelength () =……cm RESULT: Wave length of Sodium light () is found to be =……cm = ……. AA0 PRECAUTIONS 1. The lens surface as well as circular glass plate must be well cleaned. 2. The centre spot of the ring system should be dark. 1. What is Newton’s Ring? How are these rings formed? 2. Why are these rings circular? If the fringes are not exactly circular what do you infer? 3. Why are you using the Plano-convex lens of large focal length? 4. Why do the rings get closer as the order of rings increases? 5. Why is the centre of these rings dark? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora Y d2m d2n n m X number of ring O D ia m e te r 2VIVA-VOCE
Figure 1.2EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: To determine the wavelength of the spectral lines (Blue, Green, Yellow, Y1, Y2) by using diffraction grating the normal incidence method. APPARATUS: Spectrometer, diffraction grating, sprit level, mercury vapor lamp and magnifying lens. PRINCIPLE & FORMULA Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the obstacle specially when passed close to sharp edges or through apertures or narrow openings. Consider a plane transmission grating with alternate opaque and transparent lines. Let a parallel beam of light rays are incident normally on the grating. Most of these rays are transmitted in the direction of the incident light through transparent portions of the grating and if a converging lens is placed in their path, they are brought to focus at O. there will be a very bright image. Some of the incident light is diffracted at the edges such as B, D and F etc., at different angles as shown in figure 2.1. If we consider these rays (bend at B and D at an angle from the direction of the incident light) all such rays form a parallel beam and after passing through the lens, they are brought to focus at I. The intensity at I will be maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference between the diffracted rays from B and D. If‘d’ is the grating element (distance between two consecutive lines on the grating), path difference is equal to d sin . B D F O I Thus if d sinq = nl (an integral number of wave lengths) the bright images are formed in the focal plane of the lens. These are called first order, second order (n=1, 2, 3,) etc., images. Thus one set of images will be formed on one side of the central bright image at O. also the diffraction or bending of light rays takes place to the other side of the incident direction and corresponding images of different orders are formed on the other side of the central image O. Thus in the field of view of a telescope of which the lens L forms the objective, a central bright image and the diffracted images of different orders (n=1, 2, 3, etc.) are observed. If the incident light is monochromatic, each order of diffracted image will be of the same color, but if white light (mercury) is incident on the grating, each diffracted image consists of a whole spectrum. Thus spectra of different orders are formed on either side of the central white image. APPLICATIONS • Grating as filters • Fiber optic telecommunication • Beam splitters Figure 2.1• Optical couplers • Metrological • Ground-based astronomy • Raman spectroscopy • Colorimetry • Atomic and molecular spectroscopy • Fluorescence spectroscopy FORMULA
ab sin
n
Grating equation
Or = n b)sin (a Where (a + b) = grating element = angle of diffraction. n = order of diffraction PROCEDURE 1. Make preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer. 2. Clamp the grating on the prism table with the help of a clamp. Adjust the grating for normal incidence position by the following method. I. Set the telescope for direct reading position and note the reading V1 and V2.
II. Add 90o to the above reading and rotate the telescope to this reading and fix it.
III. Now rotate grating until the image of the slit is at cross wires of the telescope and fix the prism
table. Now the incident light is making 45o with the grating plane (See figure 2.2).
IV. Release the vernier scale knob and rotate the vernier scale through an angle of 45o so that the
grating maintains exactly normal to the incident light. Fix the vernier table in this position; now grating is at normal incidence position.
3. Release the telescope and rotate it to left side of the direct reading position until the I order spectrum is
seen. Now coincide the vertical cross wire over the spectral lines of desired color and note down the
readings in the two verniers as V1 and V2. Further, rotate the telescope till II order spectral lines are
visible, coincide the cross wire and note down the readings in two verniers as V1 and V2 against 2nd
order.
4. Now rotate telescope to the right side of the direct reading position until the first order spectrum is seen.
Concide the cross wires with the same yellow spectral line and note down the readings in the two verniers
as V1 and V2. Rotate the telescope further until the II order spectral lines are seen, then coincide the
vertical cross wires with lines and note down the readings as V1 and V2. The angle of diffraction is
given by half the angle between corresponding lines. CALCULATIONS No. of lines per cm on the grating = grating element =
a + b = 1/N =
2.54 15000 Telescope Grating Collimator Source Slit 45o 45o 90o Prism table Figure 2.2TABLE RESULT: The observed wavelengths are given in table PRECAUTIONS 1. Optical adjustment of the spectrometer should be made directly. 2. The slit should be as narrow as possible. 3. Grating surface should not be touched with fingers as the slit might get damaged. 4. The grating should be exactly normal to the incident beam. 5. While taking observations, telescope and prism table should be kept fixed. Figure 2.3 Order of diffraction Spectral lines Spectrometer Readings Left Right 2
V1 V1
V2 V2
2
a b sin
n I order 1 V V2 V1 V2 Y1 Y2 Blue Green II order Y1 Y2 Blue GreenColour of specturl line (observed) (Standard) % (Error)
Blue Green Yellow 1 Yellow 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1. What is a plane transmission diffraction grating? 2. Why the grating should be kept normal to the plane of grating, then which formula should be applied? 3. What is (a+b) in the formula? 4. How many orders of spectra do you get here? Why do you not get the third order spectrum? 5. How many types of grating are known to you? 6. What is the main difference between the spectrum obtained by grating and due to prism? 7. What do you mean by dispersion of light? 8. Why a light on passing through the prism disperses into its constituent colours? 9. Define dispersive power of any material? 10. On what factors does the dispersive power depend? 11. What is the angle of deviation? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora 4 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley 5 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D.P Khandelwal 6 B.Sc Practical Physics – Harnam Singh
VIVA-VOCE
AIM: To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar with the help of a polarimeter. APPARATUS: Half-shade/Bi-quartz polarimeter, light source, sugar, measuring flask, beaker, analytical balance and a weight box. PRINCIPLE & FORMULA If a beam of unpolarised light is viewed through two crossed Nicol prisms (when the principal planes of the two are perpendicular to each other) the field of view is completely dark. The first Nicol is called the polariser and the second is called the analyzer. If the sugar solution is introduced between the two crossed Nicols, it is found that light is restored in the field of view. To extinguish the light, the analyzer has to be rotated through a finite angle depending on the concentration of the sugar solution. This experiment shows that the substance introduced between the Nicols has rotated the plane of polarization. Such substances are called optically active substances and the phenomenon is called ‘Optical activity’. If the plane of polarization is rotated clockwise, the substance is called dextro-rotatory (right handed) and if it is rotated anti-clockwise, the substance is called levo-rotatory (left handed). The angle by which the plane of polarization is rotated is directly proportional to the length of the path traveled by the light in the substance (l), the concentration of the substance (c). It also depends on the temperature and wavelength of light. Thus for a particular wavelength and temperature v c or S c or S c m l l l l Where S = specific rotation or specific rotatory power of the substance = rotation produced in degree m = mass of sugar in gm. dissolved in water v = volume of sugar solution l = length of the tube in decimeter Specific rotation, for a given wavelength at a given temperature, is defined as the rotation produced by one decimeter length of the solution having a concentration of 1 gm/cc. APPLICATIONS • Sugar Industry • Pharmaceutical Industry • Chemical Industry • Flavours, Fragrances and Essential Oils LAURENT’S HALF - SHADE POLARIMETER Laurents half shade polaririmeter is the instrument used for finding the specific rotation of certain optically active solutions. The essential parts of a Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter are shown in the figure. ‘S’ is unpolarised/
ordinary source of light and L is a convex lens which renders the incident light into a parallel beam. N1 and N2 are
two Niclo prisms. N1 acts as polariser while N2 acts as analyzer. N2 can be rotated about a common axis of N1
and N2. The rotation of analyzer (N2) can be read in a graduated circular scale (S.C.). The vernier is also
provided to read the fraction of a degree. Light after passing through polariser becomes plane polarized with its
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
vibrations in the principal plane of the Nicol (N1). The plane polarized light now passes through a half-shade device (H.S.) and then through a tube ‘T’ containing the optically active substance. Usually ‘T’ is a hollow glass tube having a large diameter in the middle so that no air bubble may be in the path of light when filled with a liquid.
The emergent light on passing through analyzer N2 is viewed through a telescope T. The telescope is focused on
the half shade.
lens polariser halfshade
L N1 HS SC circular scale tube T telescope T analyser N2 S PROCEDURE 1. Weight exactly 4 gms of sugar and dissolve it in 100 c.c. of distilled water in a measuring flask; make the solution exactly 100 c.c. 2. If the polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source is used and if bi quartz device is used than white light can be used. Clean the tube such that it is free from dust and fills it with distilled water and close the ends. Place the tube in position inside the polarimeter. 3. look through the telescope and rotate the analyzer till the two halves of the field of view appear equally bright. Take the reading of main scale as well as vernier scale and find out the total reading (1). 4. Take out the tube and fill it completely with the sugar solution so that there are no air bubbles in it. (Do
Not Over Tight the Cap It May Break the Tube) Close the tube, place it in its position in the polarimeter
and look through the telescope. Again set the field of view as explained in step-3. Note the reading of the analyzer on the circular scale (2). 5. Repeat step 4 of the experiment for different concentrations of the solution and tabulate the observations. OBSERVATIONS Least count of the vernier of the circular scale = ……. ° Length of the cylindrical tube (l) = …….cm Mass of the sugar dissolved (x) =……. gm Volume of the solution (v) =……. cc. Temperature of the solution (T) = room temperature =…….oC TABLE S.No. Concentration of solution (x/v) gm/cc Reading on circular scale when two halves are of equal intensity xn Angle of rotation of plane of polarization n 1 θ = x - x 10.θ. v S = .x l 1. 2. 3. 4. Air/plain water 4/100 8/100 12/100 x1 x2 x3 x4
GRAPH Plot a graph between concentration of the solution (c) on the X-axis and angle of rotation of the plane of polarization of plane polarized light () on the Y-axis. You get a straight line passing through the origin. CALCULATIONS c θ slope The specific rotatory power S = l 10 slope Where l is the length of the tube in cm Reading with distilled water, say 1 = ……. RESULTS: The specific rotation of glucose solution at …oC for the given light is _______________degree/unit concentration/unit length. PRECAUTIONS 1. The window cap of the tube containing the solution should be gently tight, so that there will be no leakage. 2. There should be no air bubble in the solution contained in the polarimeter tube. 3. The temperature of the solution must be recorded (room temperature). 4. Having set the analyzer in correct position w.r.t the polarizer, turn the former through 180o and again make a similar setting. 5. Under no circumstances the polarizer should be touched during one complete set of observation. 6. Use sodium light for half shade, and white light for bi-quartz. 1. What do you mean by polarization of light? 2. How does polarized light differ from ordinary light? 3. What is angle of polarization? 4. What are the plane of polarization and plane of vibration? 5. What is Polaroid? 6. What are the uses of Polaroid’s in daily life? 7. What is Brewster’s law? 8. What is the polarizing angle for the air-glass? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora 4 Electronics fundamentals and applications – Ryder, J.D 5 Properties of silicon and germanium – Conwell,E.M 6 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley 7 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D.P Khandelwal
VIVA-VOCE
X Y Concentration, c (in gm/cc)AIM: To determine the specific resistance of a given wire by using Carey-Foster’s Bridge.
APPARATUS USED: Carey-Foster’s bridge, Battery Eliminator , zero centre galvanometer, decimal resis-tance box, thick copper strips, given experimental resistance wire, a rheostat of range 10 to 20, plug-key, jockey, connection wires and screw gauge.
FORMULA USED:
(i) For Resistance per Unit length of bridge wire (ρ):The standard resistance box R.B. for X in G1 and thick copper strip for shortening so that Y=0. The resistance per unit length of bridge wire is given by; 2 1 X /cm l l where X = known fractional resistance value resistance box.
l1 is the balancing length with X in G1 and Y in G4 (before Interchanging )
l2 is the balancing length with X in G4 and Y in G1 (after Interchanging)
(ii) For the unknown Resistance: The unknown resistance (Y ) of the given wire is given by; R = Y = X - (l’2 – l’1) where Y(R) is the unknown resistance of the given wire connected in G4 and G1 X is the value of resistance in the decimal resistance box connected in gap G 1 and G 4 the outer gap. l’1is the balancing length with X in G 1 and Y in G 4 (before interchanging) l’2 is the balancing length with X in G 4 and Y in G 1 (after interchanging) ρ = resistance per unit length of the bridge wire. (iii) The specific resistance S of the wire is given by: 2 R A Y S r ohm-cm l l where, S = specific resistance, r = radius of wire in cm
l = length of wire in cm, Y = resistance of the wire in ohm.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Figure 4.1: Carey Foster’s bridge for determining specific resistance
E : Battery Eliminator, K – Key P,Q : Standard Resistance in G2 and G3 respectively. X : Variable resistance from Resistance Box Y : Unknown resistance for which S is to be determined. G : Galvanometer, J : Jockey SR SR G1 G2 G3 G4 E X P Q Y K J G W1 W2 l1 known resistance unknown resistance
PROCEDURE
The experiment is done in the following three steps;
(a) Measurement of Resistance per unit Length (ρ) of the Bridge Wire:Calibration of the Bridge Wire.
For this step, set up the following experimental set-up;
(i) Press the Jockey J at the two ends of the wire W1 and W2. If the deflections in galvanometer are
opposite the circuit connections are correct.
(ii) Plug out 0.1 ohm of resistance in X (in G1). Check for the opposite deflections. Then find the point
exactly where the deflection is becoming zero by moving the jockey. This point is the balancing point.
(iii) Note the distance of null deflection point from the positive end of wire W1 to get the balancing length
(l1) (iv) Repeat this process by changing X values from 0.1 ohm to 0.5 ohm and note down the corresponding values of l1. Calculate the value of linear resistance or resistance per unit length of bridge wire ρ for each set of observations by the following formula and find the average value of . 2 1 R l l and then find its mean. (b) Measurement of unknown resistance of the given wire:
(i) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 4.1. Remove the copper strip from the gap G4 and connect the
given unknown resistance wire of nearly 50 cm length.
(ii) Introduce a suitable resistance of nearly 1-3 ohm in the decimal resistance box x in gap G
1.
(iii) Slide the jockey on the wire till you get a balancing point. Note balancing length l’1 from left end W1
of the wire. (iv) Interchange the positions of resistance box and unknown resistance wire. Again get the balance point by sliding the jockey on the wire and note the balancing length l’2 from W1. (v) Repeat this experiment for different values of resistances from the resistance box and get other values of (l’2-l’1). (vi) The unknown resistance is given by the formula: 2 1 RYX ( 'l l' ) where X is the resistance introduced in the resistance box and
l2l1
is the difference of the two balancing lengths before and after interchanging the R.B. and unknown resistance in each case and find the value of unknown resistance. (c) For specific resistance: (i) Measure the length of the unknown resistance wire in cm. (ii) Measure the diameter of the given resistance wire by screw gauge at few places and then calculate mean value of diameter and hence radius; r = d/2OBSERVATIONS
Table for the determination of linear resistance of Bridge Wire (ρ)
S. Resistance (ohm) Balancing Length (cm) Linear
No. X Y Before After l2–l1 Resistance
Interchanging Interchanging (cm) 2 1 X /cm l l X in G1 (l1) X in G 4 (l2) 1 0.1 0 2 0.2 0 3 0.3 0 4 0.4 0 5 0.5 0 (ii) Table for the determination of unknown resistance of a given wire: S. Resistance (ohm) Balancing Length (cm)
No. X Y Before After l'2–l'1 Y X(l2 l1)
(Known) (Unknown) Interchanging Interchanging (cm)
X in G1 (l'1) X in G 4 (l'2) 1 0.5 Y 2 1.0 Y 3 1.5 Y 4 2.0 Y 5 2.5 Y Avg Y = ... The unknown resistance of the wire is Y = ……… (iii) Table for the measurement of radius of wire by using screw guage Error =... Correction =... S. No. P.S.R. H.S.C H.S.C.L.C. TR = P.S.R + H.S.C L.C (mm) Observed Corrected (mm) (mm) 1 2 3 Average Diameter : ……….mm Radius of the wire, r = d/2= …………..mm =……….cm
CALCULATIONS (a) The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire is given: 2 1 R l l (Similarly calculate for other observations and take the mean) (b) The unknown resistance of the given wire is given by;
2 1
Y=X ρ l l =... ohm. (Similarly, calculate Y for other observations and take the mean) (c) The specific resistance of given wire is given by; 2 R S r ...ohm-cm l RESULTS 1. The resistance per unit length of wire = ...ohm / cm 2. The specific resistance of the material of the wire = ...ohm-cmMeasured value (S)exp Standard value (S)
th Percentage Error
(ohm-cm) (ohm-cm) exp th
th S - S ×100 S PRECAUTIONS 1. The end of the connection wires should be cotton free, clean and must be tightly connected. 2. See that the resistances in four arms P, Q, X and Y of the bridge must be of the same order so that the bridge remains quite sensitive. 3. Continuous current should not flow in the wire otherwise it gets heated up and its resistance may undergo a change. 4. For this, the jockey should not be dragged continuously all along the length of the wire but should be tapped at different points on the bridge wire. 5. The bridge wire should be uniform in cross-section. 6. The jockey should be gently put on the wire and not pressed hard to avoid and change in the diameter of the wire. 7. The diameter of the wire must be measured in two perpendicular directions and at many places and then mean value of it must be used. 8. A high resistance should be used in the circuit to measure the exact balancing point. (conventionally) APPLICATIONS: 1. Compare two nearly equal resistance 2. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistance
.1. What is the principal of Carey Foster’s Bridge? Ans. It is based on the principle that when resistance of outer gaps are interchanged, there is shift in the position of balanced point. The difference between the resistance of bridge wire between these two balance point. P X Q Y 2. In what respect it is an improvement over Meter Bridge? 3. How does the accuracy of resistance per unit length of the wire () depend on the difference between the known resistances in the outer gaps? 4. What can be the maximum value of this difference which you can take? 5. When will your apparatus be most sensitive? 6. What is the material of the bridge wire? Why it has been selected? 7. What would you prefer, a copper strip or a copper wire in the outer gap? Why? 8. What does represents? Will it be same at every point of the bridge wire? 9. What is the effect of increasing the effective length of Bridge wire? 10. What is the basic construction of a Resistance Box? 11. Why is the wire doubled inside the box? 12. What is the percentage composition of the alloys constantan and Manganin of which resistance wires are made? 13. What do you mean by the resistance of a conductor? Ans. The ratio of the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor to the current flowing in it, is called the resistance of the conductor. 14. On what factors does it depend? Ans. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (l), inversely proportional to the area of cross section (A). It also depends upon the nature of material and temperature of the conductor.(R= kl / A). 15. What is its unit? Ans. Unit of resistance is ohm. 16. What is specific resistance? What is its unit? Ans. Specific resistance of a substance is defined as the resistance material having unit length and unit area of cross section RA S l if A= 1 and l =1 then S = R Its unit is ohm-cm 17. Is specific resistance same for all materials? Ans. No, it is different for different material. 18. What is effect of temperature on resistance? Ans. It increases with increase in temperature. 19. What is the effect of increasing the effective length of a Carey Foster’s bridge wire? Ans. It will increase the accuracy of the result because then percentage error in reading the position of the balance point is very much decreased. 20. What is the minimum difference resistance that you can measure with its bridge wire? Ans. It is equal to the resistance of the bridge wire. 21. What is the maximum difference in resistance that you can measure with this bridge wire? Ans. It is equal to the resistance of the total length of the bridge wire
VIVA-VOCE
AIM: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor using a junction diode.
APPARATUS:Power supply (DC-3 Volts fixed), Micro ammeter, electrically heated oven, Thermometer,
Semiconductor diode (OA 79).
Formula Used: A graph is plotted between logs Is and (103 /T) that comes out to be a straight line. Its slope is
calculated. Band gap, ΔE, in electron volts, is given by ΔE = 036 . 5 line the of slope eV APPLICATIONS One of the most important applications of diodes is in the design of rectifier circuits, clipper, clamper, voltage multiplier, comparator, sampling gates and filters. THEORY A semi-conductor doped or undoped always possesses an energy gap between its conduction and valence bands. For conduction of electricity a certain amount of energy is to be given to the electron, so that it goes from the valence band to the conduction band. This energy so needed is the measure of the energy gap ΔE between the two bands. When a p-n junction is reverse biased as shown in Fig. the current through the junction is due to minority carriers i.e. due to electrons in P section and holes in N section. The concentration of these carriers depends upon the energy gap ΔE. The reverse saturated current Is value is function of the temperature of the junction diode, and varies according to the following relation:
p n s e n p p n V V I A N N e E kT P N log log exp …. (1)
Where Nn = density of electrons in N material Np = density of holes in p material Vp = velocity of holes Vn = velocity of electrons A = area of the junction k = Boltzmann Constant T = Absolute temperature of junction
n
3/2 n 3 2 2 m kT e N h
p
3/2 p 3 2 2 m kT e N h EXPERIMENT NO. 5
P
N
Figure 5.1: Reverse biasing of a PN junctionmn is the mass of the electron and mp is the effective mass of hole. For small range of temperature relation (1) can be put as,
logIs constant5.036 E 10 T
3
...(2)Obviously therefore, if a graph is plotted between log Is and 103/T, a straight line would be obtained.
Where the slope of this line = 5.036 ΔE Here ΔE is in electron volts. PROCEDURE 1. Plug the mains lead to the nearest main socket carrying 230V 10% at 50 Hz A.C. 2. Insert the thermometer and the diode in the holes of the oven (The hole near to the meter is for diode OA-79) 3. Plug the two leads to the diode in the socket, Red plug in red socket and black plug in black socket. Make the connections as per figure 5.2. (i) Now put the power ON/OFF switch to ON position and see the jewel light is glowing. (ii) Put the OVEN switch to ON position and allow the temperature to increase up to 90°C.
Note: As soon as the temperature reaches 95°C switch off the oven enabling the temperature to rise further and become stable around 90°C
When the temperature becomes stable start taking readings of current and temperature. The current readings should be taken in steps of 5μA. The readings should be taken during fall of temperature from 90°C downwards.
(iii) Tabulate readings in the form shown below:
TABLE
(iv) Plot a graph between the readings of 103/T on X-axis and log I
s on Y- axis. The graph should come as a straight line cutting both the X-axis and Y- axis. (v) Now determine the slope of the line. After determining the slope of the line calculates the Band Gap as follows: ΔE = 036 . 5 line the of slope =……eV Figure 5.2: Circuit diagram Reverse saturation current in Is (A) Temperature in oC Temperature T (oK) 103/T log I s
PRECAUTIONS 1. The maximum temperature should not exceed 95°C. 2. Bulb of the thermometer and the diode should be inserted well in the oven. 3. Silicon diodes should not be used with the set ups as in that case the temperature needed is 125°C, and the oven thermometer provided will not stand to this temperature. 1. What do you mean by energy band gap? 2. How are the bands formed in the solids? 3. What do you mean by valence band, conduction band and forbidden band? 4. How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor in relation to the energy gap? 5. What do you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? 6. Why semiconductors behave as an insulator at zero degree Kelvin? 7. What is a P-N junction? 8. What is an n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductors? 9. What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing of a junction diode?
10. What are the positions of holes and electrons in the two semiconductors (p-type and n-type)
before contact? 11. What is a depletion layer? 12. What is the order of thickness of depletion layer? 13. What are the approximate values of band gap in case of conductor, insulator and semiconductor? How does the resistivity changes with the change of temperature?
VIVA-VOCE
AIM: To study the resistivity of semiconductor of different temperatures and also to determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (germanium) using four probe method. APPARATUS: Probe arrangement, Sample (Germanium), Oven, Four Probe set - up, Thermometer etc. FORMULA USED: The resistivity of the semiconductor crystal which is given by: 0 0 V where 2 S W/ S I f where f (W/S) is a fraction which can be known for table given with the semiconductor. S is the distance between probes. W is the thickness of semiconductor crystal. V and I are the voltage and current across and through the crystal chip. The energy band gap Eg (in eV) of a semiconductor is given by: 10 2.3026 E 2 log 1 / T g k where k is Boltzman constant equal to 8.610–5 eV/degree and T is the temperature in Kelvin. APPLICATIONS Used to both characterize the material and as a process control parameter for the semiconductor manufacturing process. Resistivity of different semiconducting materials. PROCEDURE 1. Connect one pair of the direct current source through milli - ammeter. 2. Other pair of probes is connected to the milli - voltmeter. 3. Place the four probe arrangement in the electric oven connected to a power supply. 4. Fix up a thermometer in this arrangement. 5. Switch on the constant current source and adjust the current to a particular suitable value say 2 mA. 6. Go on measuring the inner probe voltage V for different temperatures.
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Direct current source Power Supply Oven Oven I I Probes mV mV V S WFigure 6.1: Circuit Diagram for Four Probe Method
OBSERVATIONS
Current (I) = …. mA (constant)
Distance between probes (S) = …. mm
Thickness of the crystal chip (W) = …..mm
TABLE
S. Temperature Voltage Temperature ρ 1/T×103 Log10 ρ
No. (°C) (Volts) (°K) (ohm cm)
1. 20 293 3.41 2. 30 303 3.30 3. 40 313 4. 50 --5. 60 --6. 70 --7. 80 --8. 90 --9. 100 --CALCULATIONS Find resistance corresponding to temperature in K using: 0 0 V
ohm-cm where 2 S ...ohm cm
W/ S I f For different 'V' calculate 0 and hence in ohm cm. Find (W/S) and then corresponding to this value choose the value of function f (W/S) from the following table;
TABLE: For f (W/S) function corresponding to W/S geometry of the crystal
S.No. W/S f (W/S) S.No. W/S f (W/S) S.No. W/S f (W/S)
1. 0.100 13.863 5. 0.500 2.780 9. 3.333 1.022
2. 0.141 9.704 6. 1.000 1.504 10. 5.000 1.007
3. 0.200 6.391 7. 1.414 1.223 11. 10.000 1.00045
4. 0.250 5.9 8. 2.000 1.094
GRAPH
Now plot a graph for log10 versus 1/T103 as presented in figure 6.2.
Slope of the curve is 10 log A B 1 B C 1000 T ρ0 (ohm cm)
Hence band gap, 10 T 2.3026 E 2 log ( V) I g k e A B 2 2.303 1000 B C k E 0.396 A B V B C g e RESULT 1. Resistivity of semiconductor crystal at different temperatures was studied & is presented in the graph of log10 and I/T×103. 2. Energy band gap of semiconductor crystal Eg = ...eV Standard Eg of Ge = 0.72 eV and for Si = 1.1eV Standard value Observed value Percentage error 100 ...% Standard value PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCE OF ERROR 1. The surface on which the probes rest should be uniform. 2. Do not exceed the temperature of the oven above 120°C for safe side. 3. Semiconductor crystal with four probes is installed in the oven very carefully otherwise the crystal may get damaged because it is brittle. 4. Current should remain constant throughout the experiment. 5. Minimum pressure is exerted for obtaining proper electrical contacts to the chip. 1 What do you mean by energy band gap? 2 How are the bands formed in the solids? 3 What do you mean by valency band, conduction band and forbidden band? 4 How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor in relation to the energy gap? 5 What do you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? 6 Why semiconductors behave as an insulator at zero degree Kelvin? 7 What is a P-N junction? 8 What is an n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductors? 9 What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing of a junction diode? 10 What is the advantage of four probe method over other methods of measuring the resistivity? 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 10 20 30 40 Slope of the curve = AB BC 1 T(K) x 1000 A C B
VIVA-VOCE
Figure 6.2AIM: To study the Hall effect and hence determine the Hall coefficient (RH) and carrier density (n) of a given semiconductor material. APPARATUS: Hall Probe (Ge Crystal) (thickness 0.4-0.5 mm); Hall Probe (InAs crystal), Hall Effect set-up (Digital mill voltmeter (0-200 mV) and constant current power supply, Electromagnet (Field intensity 11,000 ± 5% gauss), Constant current power supply. FORMULA: As shown in Figure 7.1, z is the thickness along Z-axis of the crystal. Hz is the magnetic field applied along Z axis. Current I is flowing along X-axis. Hall voltage VH is developed across the faces normal to Y-axis and x is the length of the crystal along X-axis; (i) Hall coefficient z H H IH Z V R . volt cm cm Coulomb IH Z V G A z H / 10 . 8 3 1 1 where VH is in volts, I i n amperes, Z in cm and Hz in gauss. (ii) Carrier density 3 . 1 cm q R n H (where q = electronic charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C) THEORY: An E.M.F. is set up transversely across a current carrying conductor when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied. This is called the Hall Effect.
I
hE =
hV
y
Hy
Z
X
mV Crystal Pole piece Z S N Vh Ix IxFigure 7.1: Sample for studying Hall effect
Figure 7.2: Illustration of measurement of Hall Voltage
APPLICATIONS Automotive Industry: Level/tilt measurement sensor, Throttle angle sensor automotive sensors, Crankshaft position or speed sensor, Anti-skid sensor, Door interlock and ignition sensor Transmission mounted speed sensor, RPM sensors, Distributor mounted ignition sensor etc. Electronic industry: Sequencing sensors, Magnetic card reader, Proximity sensors, Office machine sensors Adjustable current sensors, Linear feedback sensor, Multiple position sensor, Microprocessor controlled sensor, Brushless DC motor sensors etc. Aerospace Industry: Temperature or pressure sensor, Remote conveyor sensing, Remote reading sensing, Current sensors, Flow rate sensor (linear output Piston detection sensor). PROCEDURE 1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe (with Ge crystal) to the voltage terminal and lengthwise contacts to current terminals of the Hall effect set-up. 2. Now switch ‘ON’ the Hall Effect set up and adjust the current to a few (mA). 3. Check the ‘Zero field Potential’ by changing Knob to the voltage side. This voltage is error voltage and should be subtracted from the Hall voltage reading. (i.e., when Hall probe is outside the magnetic field). 4. Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field. This Hall probe must be fitted in the wooden stand before placing in magnetic field so that Hall probe becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field. 5. Switch on the electromagnet power supply by connecting the pole piece to the power supply. 6. Now place the Hall probe (InAs) attached with Gauss-meter between the pole pieces to measure the magnetic field. 7. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of current keeping the magnetic field constant. 8. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of current as constant (This is done by placing two probes between the pole pieces and decrease the spacing between the pole piece and measure the magnetic field and Hall voltage).
9. Plot the graph between VH and I (HZ = constant); VH and H (I = constant).
10. Calculate the slope VH/I and VH/HZ from the two graphs and calculate Hall coefficient in two ways and
determine the mean value. OBSERVATIONS Thickness of the semiconductor crystal Z = 0.5 mm =0.05 cm Conductivity 1 ohm cm1 1 Table – 1: Magnetic field Hz = 1000 Gauss Table – 2: Current I = 5 mA S.No. Current I (mA) Hall Votage VH (mV) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. S.No. Magnetic field HZ (Gauss) Hall Votage VH (mV) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
0
A
B
C
AB BCSlope=
Scale x-axis 1 cm = ...mA y-axis 1 cm = ...mVCurrent, I (mA)
0A
B
C
AB BCSlope=
Scale x-axis 1 cm = ...Gauss y-axis 1 cm = ...mVMagnetic field(H )
Z CALCULATIONS Slope BC AB I VH(From plot VH vs I), Slope
BC AB H V Z H (From plot VH vs HZ) (i) z H H H Z I V Slope R 1 Volt cm AA-1G-1 = ——x 108cm3/coul. I Z H V Slope R Z H H1 Volt cm AA-1G-1 = ——x 108cm3/coul. Mean / . 2 3 2 1 R cm coul R R H H H (ii) Carrier Density ( 1.6 10 ) 1 19 q q R n H 3 19 3 / ) 10 6 . 1 ) / ( 1 cm coul coul cm n RESULT
The value of Hall Coefficient (RH) is ——cm3/coul.
The carrier density (n) = ——/cm3.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The Hall probe is placed between the pole pieces (in magnetic field) such that maximum Hall
voltage is generated. 2. Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limit as mentioned by the manufacturer. 3. Hall voltage developed must be measured very accurately. 4. Magnetic field is varied gradually in steps to avoid damage to the electromagnetic coils. What is the Hall Effect? On what factor, the sign of the Hall potential difference develops? Why is the potential difference developed when a transverse magnetic field is applied to a current carrying conductor? How will you determine the direction of the force exerted on the charge carriers? What is the Hall coefficient? What are its units? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora 4 Electronics fundamentals and applications – Ryder, J.D 5 Properties of silicon and germanium – Conwell,E.M 6 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley 7 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D.P Khandelwal 8 B.Sc Practical Physics – Harnam Singh
VIVA-VOCE
AIM: To determine the (1) Numerical Aperture (NA), (2) Power Losses due to Macro bending and adaptor of givem optical fibre. APPARATUS: LED, NA Jig, D.M.M, scaled screen, adaptor, one and three meter length of optical fiber, mandrel. PRINCIPLE & FORMULA 1.The Numerical Aperture (N.A) of an optical fiber (step index) is given by
2 2
12 core clad N.A. n n ...(1) sin imaxor imax sin1
N.A.
...(2)ncore = refractive index of core, nclad = refractive index of cladding imax = acceptance angle As shown in figure 8.1, light from the end of the optical fiber ‘A’ falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of light falling on the screen BD=W, Let the distance between end of the fiber and the screen AO=L Knowing W and L, the N.A can be calculated and substituting this N.A value in Eq (2), the acceptance angle ‘θ’ can be calculated. 2. Losses of power in fibre optic cable are mainly due to absorption or scattering of light with Optical fibre, macro bending and joints between cables (adaptor). This loss of power ‘P’ from input (Po) to output (PL) at a distance ‘L’, can be written as PL P e0 L Where ‘α’ is the attenuation coefficient in decibels (dB) per unit length. (Generally dB/KM) L P P 10.log α L o 10 L 10 L 0 P P 10e APPLICATIONS • Telecommunications • Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) • Factory Automation, Premises Wiring. Fiber-optic biomedical sensors, Endoscopic imaging , Aerospace and Military Applications, Fiber optic sensors.
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Foled Optical fibre A imax L D O B W Screen N.A.= W (4L2 + W2) 1 2 Figure : 8.1PROCEDURE 1. Insert one end of either one or three meter length optical fiber cable the LED and NA jig.. Switch on LED, then red light will appear at the end of the fiber on the N.A Jig. Turn SET P0/IF knob the intensity will increase. Arrange the scaled screen at a distance L, and then view the red spot on the screen. Measure the diameter of the spot (w). Note the measured values L and W in the table. Repeat the experiment with different distances and note the readings.
S. No L ( mm ) W ( mm ) N.A i max
1 2 3 2. Insert one end of the three meter length plastic optical fibre cable to the FOLED and connect another end to the power meter module. Connect D.M.M test leads to Pout, red lead to red socket and black lead to black socket respectively. Set D.M.M to 2000 mV range. Switch on LED, adjust the Set Po/IF knob to
set output power of the FOLED to the value -22.0 dBm( milli decibels ) i.e., DMM reading will be -220mV, note this as PO, wind the fibre on the mandrel and note the reading as POw1, similarly for two
and three turns. Note the readings as POw2 and POw3 respectively.
x O/P power (dBm) Loss due to turns (dBm) Po0 - POw1 - ( PO0 - POw1 ) = POw2 - ( PO0 - POw2 ) = POw3 - ( PO0 - POw3 ) = 3. Connect one meter OF cable as given above and set D.M.M for a constant value (-120mV) and note the
reading as P1. Similarly take P2 by replacing one meter cable with 3 meter cable without disturbing SET
PO/If knob. Now join the 1 and 3 m cables with the adopter on shown in the figure and note DMM reading as P3. OBSERVATIONS P1 = P2 = P3 = CALCULATIONS
Take P1, P2 and P3 as shown in Fig., without disturbing the SET Po / If knob.
Loss in one meter cable (X) =
2 P P2 1
1m cable PO P1 3m cable PO P2 1m cable PO 3m cable Adapter P3 RESULT 1. N.A of given Optical fiber is ——————— 2. Power loss due to one turn—————— dBm, two turns —————dBm and three turns ———dBm 3. Power loss due to one meter cable—————— dBm and due to adaptor ——— dBm PRECAUTIONS 1. Gently insert the optical fiber cable is to LED by turning clockwise direction of its clinch nut. (until you feel the fiber touches the micro lens) 2. Do not push applying over force which may damage micro lens 3. Gently tight the clinch nut that holds the inserted fiber firmly. 4. Before taking reading check out fiber is free of all twists and strains. 5. Two cables must meet at the center of the adopter while taking P3 reading. 1. What do you mean by numerical aperture? 2. On what factors the numerical aperture depends? 3. What do you mean by acceptance angle? 4. On what factors the acceptance angle of the fiber depends? 5. A fiber with high numerical aperture (NA) is preferable or not? Why? 6. What is irradiance? 7. What do you mean by bandwidth? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora 4 Electronics fundamentals and applications – Ryder, J.D 5 Properties of silicon and germanium – Conwell,E.M 6 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley 7 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D.P Khandelwal 8 B.Sc Practical Physics – Harnam Singh Figure 8.2
VIVA-VOCE
AIM: To study the characteristics of P–N Junction diode and to calculate resistance of a diode in forward and reverse bias. APPARATUS: Power supply, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Diode and connecting wires PRINCIPLE When a P–type material is joined with N–type, a P–N Junction is formed. The plane dividing the two zones is known as a junction. Due to diffusion, some of the electrons from N–region cross over to P–region where they recombine with holes, and holes from P–region cross over to N–region and recombine with electrons. Thus a layer is formed which is known as depletion layer or charge free region or space charge region where there is no free charges available for conduction of current. The diffusion of the electrons and holes across the junction continues till a potential barrier is developed in depletion layer which prevents further diffusion of charges. The potential barrier can be increased or decreased by applying an external bias voltage. APPLICATIONS Electronic industry • Signal rectifier / Diode gates / Diode clamps • Limiter / Over-voltage protection / Ionizing radiation detectors • Temperature measuring / Computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. THEORY Forward Bias: When the P-N junction is forward biased i.e., when the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side and –ve terminal is connected to the N–side, the holes from P–side are repelled by positive charges of the battery towards the junction. Similarly at the same time electrons in N–side will be repelled by negative charges from the battery towards the junction. Here battery voltage should be high to impart sufficient energy to these carriers to overcome the potential barrier at the junction and enable them to cross the junction. Hence a current start flowing after a minimum voltage called potential barrier voltage Reverse Bias: Revese biasing increases the potential barrier, there by resulting in a very little current to flow. When the junction is reverse biased i.e., when +ve terminal of the battery connected to the N–side and –ve terminal is connected to the P-side, the electrons in N–side and holes in P–side are attracted away from the junction. For sufficient negative bias, the depletion region breaks down and reverse current starts flowing across the circuit. PROCEDURE a) Forward bias: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 9.1.
2. Vary the potent ial difference and note the
corresponding current value. 3. Draw the graph by taking potential or voltage (V) on X-axis and current (I) on Y-axis.
EXPERIMENT NO. 9 A
+ mA V p n RL Rheostat or POT + + Figure 9.1: Forward biasb) Reverse bias: 1. Make the connections as shown in figure 9.2. 2. Vary the potential difference and note the corresponding current value. 3. Draw the graph by taking potential or voltage (V) on X-axis and current (I) on Y- axis. TABLE Forward bias Reverse bias
S.No. V (volts) I (mA) S.No. -V (volts) -I (µA)
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 RESULT: The Volt – Ampere characteristics of a given PN Junction Diode are studied. PRECAUTIONS 1. See that all the connections given properly 2. Identify the position of the diode, whether it is in forward or reverse bias. 3. Do not apply voltage beyond certain values in either bias. AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of given Zener Diode and to determine Zener break down voltage also find the forward and reverse resistance. APPARATUS:Zener diode (3Z15V), 3 watts, Resistor 75
, 5W, Ammeter (0-500mA), Voltmeter (0-30V), RPS. + V p n RL Rheostat or POT + + Figure 9.2: Reverse bias mA Forward bias Reverse bias V Figure 9.3EXPERIMENT NO. 9 B
THEORY: Diodes are designed with adequate power supply dissipation capabilities to operate in breakdown voltage region may be employed as voltage reference as without voltage devices. Such diodes are known as avalanche diode. Breakdown or zener diode, two mechanisms of breakdown of diode for increasing reverse voltage are found. First we thermally generated potential to produce new carriers in turn produce additional carrier again through process of miscopying bonds. Even if initially available carriers don’t acquire sufficient energy to disrupt bonds. It is possible to initiate breakdown voltage through a direct rupture of bonds because of existence of strong electric field under these circumstances. Breakdown is known as zener breakdown. PROCEDURE Forward Bias: To determine forward characteristics built up the circuit as shown in the figure. Increase the source value voltage Vcs so that voltmeter advances in steps of 0.05V. Note the corresponding ammeter reading for increment value of Vf. Reverse Bias: To determine reverse characteristics built up the circuit as shown in the figure. Increase source voltage VBB so that voltmeter reading advances in steps of 0.5 V. Note that corresponding ammeter
reading IZ for every increment at value of VZ. Tabulate all readings and
plot forward characteristics. CALCULATIONS Static forward resistance, F F F V R I = ... Static reverse resistance, R R R V R I = ... Dynamic forward resistance F F V I = ... Dynamic reverse resistance Z Z V I = ... V (0-30V) R PS S Zener Diode A + _ _ + V F + _ + _ V (0-30V) R PS BB A _ + VZ + _ (0-30 mA) 75 ohms, 5W + _ 02 3Z15V + _
Figure 9.5: Reverse bias circuit
S.No. VF (Volt) IF (mA)
1 2 3 4 5
S.No. VZ (Volt) IZ
μA
1 2 3 4 5 +I(mA) I -I(mA) Z +V(VsHs) -V VsHs Barrier Potential IZ Mar VZ 22 mA IF VF Figure 9.6
RESULT Dynamic forward resistance = Static forward resistance = Dynamic reverse resistance = Static reverse resistance = PRECAUTIONS 1. Care must be taken that all the sources and meters are connected with correct polarity. 2. See that the current limit of regulated power supply is set to 250mA. 1. What is a Zener diode? 2. What do you understand by breakdown voltage? 3. Explain Zener and Avalanche breakdown? 4. What is knee voltage? 5. Explain the role of doping for different behavior of diodes. 6. Can we interchange the V axis and I axis of diode characteristic curve? If not why? REFERENCES 1 Practical Physics – Gupta.Kumar 2 A text book of Practical Physics – R.K Goel.Govind Ram 3 B.Sc Practical Physics – C.L Arora 4 Electronics fundamentals and applications – Ryder, J.D 5 Properties of silicon and germanium – Conwell,E.M 6 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley 7 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D.P Khandelwal 8 B.Sc Practical Physics – Harnam Singh