Psychology
The Science of Mind and Behavior
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Psychology
The Science of Mind and Behavior
Fourth Edition
Michael W. Passer
University of Washington
Ronald E. Smith
University of Washington
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2009, 2007, 2004, 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
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Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Passer, Michael W.
Psychology: the science of mind and behavior/Michael W. Passer, Ronald E. Smith.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-338276-0 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-338276-0 (alk. paper)
1. Psychology––Textbooks. I. Smith, Ronald Edward, 1940– II. Title. BF121.P348 2008
150—dc22 2007032966
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v
About the Authors
MICHAEL W. PASSER, PH.D.
Michael Passer coordinates the introductory psychology pro-gram at the University of Washington, which enrolls about 2,500 students per year, and also is the faculty coordinator of training for new teaching assistants (TAs). He received his bache-lor’s degree from the University of Rochester and his PhD in Psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles, with a specialization in social psychology. Dr. Passer has been a faculty member at the University of Washington since 1977. A former Danforth Foundation Fellow and University of Washington Distinguished Teaching Award finalist, Dr. Passer has had a career-long love of teaching. Each academic year he teaches introductory psychology twice and a required pre-major course in research methods. Dr. Passer developed and teaches a graduate course on the Teaching of Psychology, which prepares students for careers in the college classroom, and also has taught courses in social psychology and attribution theory. He has published more than 20 scientific articles and chapters, primarily in the areas of attribution, stress, and anxiety, and has taught the introduc-tory psychology course for 20 years.
RONALD E. SMITH, PH.D.
Ronald E. Smith is Professor of Psychology and Director of Clinical Psychology Training at the University of Washington, where he also has served as Area Head of the Social Psychology and Personality area. He received his bachelor’s degree from Marquette University and his PhD from Southern Illinois Uni-versity, where he had dual specializations in clinical and physio-logical psychology. His major research interests are in anxiety, stress and coping, and in performance enhancement research and intervention. Dr. Smith is a Fellow of the American Psy-chological Association. He received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute for his contri-butions to the field of mental health. He has published more than 160 scientific articles and book chapters in his areas of in-terest and has authored or coauthored 23 books on introductory psychology, human performance enhancement, and personality, including Introduction to Personality: Toward an Integration, with Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda (Wiley, 2004). An award-winning teacher, he has more than 15 years of experience in teaching the introductory psychology course.
ix
Preface xxvii
CHAPTER 1
The Science of Psychology 1
CHAPTER 2
Studying Behavior Scientifically 27
CHAPTER 3
Genes, Environment, and Behavior 60
CHAPTER 4
The Brain and Behavior 91
CHAPTER 5
Sensation and Perception 125
CHAPTER 6
States of Consciousness 169
CHAPTER 7
Learning: The Role of Experience 210
CHAPTER 8
Memory 250
CHAPTER 9
Language and Thinking 290
CHAPTER 10
Intelligence 328
CHAPTER 11
Motivation and Emotion 362
CHAPTER 12
Development Over the Life Span 408
CHAPTER 13
Personality 452
CHAPTER 14
Adjusting to Life: Stress, Coping,
and Health 497
CHAPTER 15
Psychological Disorders 539
CHAPTER 16
Treatment of Psychological Disorders 582
CHAPTER 17
Social Thinking and Behavior 623
APPENDIX: Statistics in Psychology A-1
Credits C-1
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Brief Contents
Preface xxvii
CHAPTER 1
The Science of Psychology 1
The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human 11 Origins of the Cognitive Perspective 11
Renewed Interest in the Mind 12 The Modern Cognitive Perspective 12
The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human 13 Cultural Learning and Diversity 13
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Love and Marriage in Eleven Cultures 14 The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution 15
Behavioral Neuroscience 15 Behavior Genetics 16 Evolutionary Psychology 16
USING LEVELS OF ANALYSIS TO INTEGRATE THE PERSPECTIVES 18 An Example: Understanding Depression 18
Summary of Major Themes 19
BENEATH THE SURFACE What Did You Expect? 20
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY 21
A Global Science and Profession 21 Psychology and Public Policy 22 Psychology and Your Life 23
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Enhance Your Academic Performance 23
Contents
THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY 2 Psychology as a Basic and Applied
Science 3
Robber’s Cave and the Jigsaw Classroom 3
The Goals of Psychology 4
Psychology’s Broad Scope: A Levels-of-Analysis Framework 4 Mind-Body and Nature-Nurture
Interactions 5 PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOR 6
Psychology’s Intellectual Roots 6
Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism 7 The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within 8
Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Great Challenge 8 Modern Psychodynamic Theory 8
The Behavioral Perspective: The Power of the Environment 9 Origins of the Behavioral Perspective 9
Behaviorism 9
Cognitive Behaviorism 10
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Are the Students Lazy? 10
The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology 10
Behavior Genetics 65
Family, Adoption, and Twin Studies 65 Heritability: Estimating Genetic Influence 66
ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT: THE ROLE OF LEARNING 67 How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms 67
Why Do We Learn? The Search for Functions 68 GENETIC INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR 62
Chromosomes and Genes 63 Dominant, Recessive, and Polygenic
Effects 64
The Human Genome 64 A Genetic Map of the Brain 64
CHAPTER 3
Genes, Environment, and Behavior 60
Correlational Research: Measuring Associations Between Events 41
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Very Happy People 42 Correlation Does Not Establish Causation 43 The Correlation Coefficient 43
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Eating Ice Cream Cause People to Drown? 43
Correlation as a Basis for Prediction 44 Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect 45
Independent and Dependent Variables 46 Experimental and Control Groups 46 Two Basic Ways to Design an Experiment 46
Manipulating Two Independent Variables: Effects of Cell-Phone Use and Traffic Density on Driving Performance 47 THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF RESEARCH 50
Confounding of Variables 50 Placebo Effects 50
Experimenter Expectancy Effects 51
Replicating and Generalizing the Findings 51
BENEATH THE SURFACE Science, Psychics, and the
Paranormal 52
ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA 53 Being a Smart Consumer of Statistics 53 Using Statistics to Describe Data 54
Measures of Central Tendency 54 Measures of Variability 55
Using Statistics to Make Inferences 55
Meta-Analysis: Combining the Results of Many Studies 56 CRITICAL THINKING IN SCIENCE AND EVERYDAY LIFE 56
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life 57
CHAPTER 2
Studying Behavior Scientifically 27
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHOLOGY 28Scientific Attitudes 29
Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process 29
Step 1: Identify a Question of Interest 29
Step 2: Gather Information and Form Hypothesis 29 Step 3: Test Hypothesis by
Conducting Research 29 Step 4: Analyze Data, Draw Conclusions, and Report
Findings 29
Step 5: Build a Body of Knowledge 31 Two Approaches to Understanding Behavior 31
Hindsight (After-the-Fact Understanding) 31 Understanding through Prediction, Control, and
Theory Building 32
Defining and Measuring Variables 33 Self-Reports and Reports by Others 33 Measures of Overt Behavior 34 Psychological Tests 35 Physiological Measures 35 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH 35
Ethical Standards in Human Research 36 Ethical Standards in Animal Research 37 METHODS OF RESEARCH 37
Descriptive Research: Recording Events 37
Case Studies: The Hmong Sudden Death Syndrome 37 Naturalistic Observation: Bullies in the Schoolyard 39
Survey Research: Adolescents’ Exposure to Abuse and Violence 40
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Should You Trust Internet and Pop Media Surveys? 41
Learning, Culture, and Evolution 69 Shared and Unshared Environments 69
BEHAVIOR GENETICS, INTELLIGENCE, AND PERSONALITY 70 Genes, Environment, and Intelligence 70
Heritability of Intelligence 70 Environmental Determinants 71
Shared Family Environment 71
Environmental Enrichment and Deprivation 71 Educational Experiences 72
Personality Development 72 Heritability of Personality 72
Environment and Personality Development 72 GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS 73
How the Environment Can Influence Gene Expression 73 How Genes Can Influence the Environment 75
GENETIC MANIPULATION AND CONTROL 76
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Thinking Critically about Genetic Screening 77
EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOR: INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST 78
Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms 79 Natural Selection 79
Evolutionary Adaptations 79 Brain Evolution 80
Evoked Culture 81
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Natural Selection and Genetic Diseases 81
Evolution and Human Nature 81 Sexuality and Mate Preferences 82
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Sex Differences in the Ideal Mate: Evolution or Social Roles? 84
Evolutionary Approaches to Personality 86
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Not to Think about Evolutionary
Theory 87
CHAPTER 4
The Brain and Behavior 91
NEURONS 93The Electrical Activity of Neurons 94 Nerve Impulses: The Action
Potential 94 It’s All or Nothing 95 The Myelin Sheath 96 HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE: SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 96
Neurotransmitters 96 Specialized Neurotransmitter Systems 97
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain 99
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 100
The Peripheral Nervous System 100 The Somatic Nervous System 101 The Autonomic Nervous System 101 The Central Nervous System 102
The Spinal Cord 102 The Brain 103
Unlocking the Secrets of the Brain 103 Neuropsychological Tests 103
Destruction and Stimulation Techniques 103
Electrical Recording 104 Brain Imaging 104
THE HIERARCHICAL BRAIN: STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS 106
The Hindbrain 106
The Brain Stem: Life-Support Systems 106 The Cerebellum: Motor-Coordination Center 107 The Midbrain 107
The Reticular Formation: The Brain’s Gatekeeper 108 The Forebrain 108
The Thalamus: The Brain’s Sensory Switchboard 108 The Hypothalamus: Motivation and Emotion 108 The Limbic System: Memory, Emotion, and Goal-Directed
Behavior 109
The Cerebral Cortex: Crown of the Brain 110 The Motor Cortex 110
The Sensory Cortex 111
Speech Comprehension and Production 112 Association Cortex 112
The Frontal Lobes: The Human Difference 113
SENSORY PROCESSES 127
Stimulus Detection: The Absolute Threshold 128
Signal Detection Theory 128 Subliminal Stimuli: Can They Affect
Behavior? 129
BENEATH THE SURFACE Are Subliminal
Self-Help Products Effective? 129 The Difference Threshold 130 Sensory Adaptation 130
THE SENSORY SYSTEMS 131 Vision 132
The Human Eye 132
Photoreceptors: The Rods and Cones 132
Visual Transduction: From Light Waves to Nerve Impulses 134 Brightness Vision and Dark Adaptation 134
Color Vision 135
The Trichromatic Theory 135 Opponent-Process Theory 135
Dual Processes in Color Transduction 136 Color-Deficient Vision 137
Analysis and Reconstruction of Visual Scenes 138 Audition 139
Auditory Transduction: From Pressure Waves to Nerve Impulses 141
Coding of Pitch and Loudness 142 Sound Localization 142
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Navigating in Fog: Professor Mayer’s Topophone 143
Hearing Loss 143
Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses 144 Gustation: The Sense of Taste 144 Olfaction: The Sense of Smell 144
The Skin and Body Senses 145 The Tactile Senses 145 The Body Senses 146
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Sensory Prosthetics: “Eyes” for the Blind, “Ears” for the Hearing Impaired 147
PERCEPTION: THE CREATION OF EXPERIENCE 150 Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention 151
Inattentional Blindness 151
Environmental and Personal Factors in Attention 151 Perceptions Have Organization and Structure 152
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization 152 Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing 154 Perception Is Influenced by Expectations:
Perceptual Sets 154
Stimuli Are Recognizable Under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies 155
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Does That Rising Moon Look So Big? 156
PERCEPTION OF DEPTH, DISTANCE, AND MOVEMENT 157 Depth and Distance Perception 157
Monocular Depth Cues 157 Binocular Depth Cues 158 Perception of Movement 158
ILLUSIONS: FALSE PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES 159 WHAT DO YOU THINK? Explain This Striking Illusion 160
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stalking a Deadly Illusion 161 EXPERIENCE, CRITICAL PERIODS, AND PERCEPTUAL
DEVELOPMENT 163
Cross-Cultural Research on Perception 164 Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience 165 Restored Sensory Capacity 166
Some Final Reflections 167
CHAPTER 5
Sensation and Perception 125
HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION: THE LEFT AND RIGHT BRAINS 115The Split Brain: Dividing the Hemispheres 115 WHAT DO YOU THINK? Two Minds in One Brain? 116
PLASTICITY IN THE BRAIN: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE AND THE RECOVERY OF FUNCTION 117
How Experience Influences Brain Development 118 Healing the Nervous System 119
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do We Really Use Only Ten Percent of Our
Brain Capacity? 120
INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS 120
Interactions with the Endocrine System 120 Interactions Involving the Immune System 121
CHAPTER 6
States of Consciousness 169
THE PUZZLE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 171Characteristics of Consciousness 171 Measuring States of Consciousness 172 Levels of Consciousness 172
The Freudian Viewpoint 172 The Cognitive Viewpoint 173 Unconscious Perception and
Influence 173 Visual Agnosia 173 Blindsight 174
Priming 174
The Emotional Unconscious 174 Why Do We Have Consciousness? 174 The Neural Basis of Consciousness 175
Windows to the Brain 175
Consciousness as a Global Workspace 176
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: OUR DAILY BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS 177 Keeping Time: Brain and Environment 177
Early Birds and Night Owls 177
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Early Birds, Climate, and Culture 178 Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms 178
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Outsmarting Jet Lag, Night-Work Disruptions, and Winter Depression 179
SLEEP AND DREAMING 180 Stages of Sleep 180
Stage 1 through Stage 4 181 REM Sleep 181
Getting a Night’s Sleep: From Brain to Culture 182 How Much Do We Sleep? 183
Do We Need Eight Hours of Nightly Sleep? 184 Sleep Deprivation 184
Why Do We Sleep? 185
Sleep and Bodily Restoration 185 Sleep as an Evolved Adaptation 185 Sleep and Memory Consolidation 185 Sleep Disorders 186
Insomnia 186 Narcolepsy 187
REM-Sleep Behavior Disorder 187 Sleepwalking 188
Nightmares and Night Terrors 188 Sleep Apnea 188
The Nature of Dreams 188 When Do We Dream? 188 What Do We Dream About? 189
Why Do We Dream? 189
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 189
BENEATH THE SURFACE When Dreams Come True 190 Activation-Synthesis Theory 190
Cognitive Theories 191 Toward Integration 191
Daydreams and Waking Fantasies 191 DRUG-INDUCED STATES 193
Drugs and the Brain 193
How Drugs Facilitate Synaptic Transmission 193 How Drugs Inhibit Synaptic Transmission 194 Drug Tolerance and Dependence 194
Learning, Drug Tolerance, and Overdose 195 Drug Addiction and Dependence 195
Misconceptions about Substance Dependence 195 Depressants 196
Alcohol 196
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States 197
Barbiturates and Tranquilizers 198 Stimulants 198 Amphetamines 198 Cocaine 198 Ecstasy (MDMA) 199 Opiates 200 Hallucinogens 200 Marijuana 200
Misconceptions about Marijuana 200
From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects 201 Biological Factors 201
Psychological Factors 201 Environmental Factors 202 HYPNOSIS 203
The Scientific Study of Hypnosis 203 Hypnotic Behaviors and Experiences 203
Involuntary Control and Behaving against One’s Will 203 Amazing Feats 204
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Hypnosis and Amazing Feats 204 Pain Tolerance 204
Hypnotic Amnesia 204
Hypnosis, Memory Enhancement, and Eyewitness Testimony 205 Theories of Hypnosis 205
Dissociation Theories 206 Social-Cognitive Theories 206 The Hypnotized Brain 207
CHAPTER 7
Learning: The Role of Experience 210
ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT 212Learning as Personal Adaptation 212 Habituation 212
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: ASSOCIATING ONE STIMULUS WITH ANOTHER 213
Pavlov’s Pioneering Research 213 Basic Principles 214
Acquisition 214
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 215
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Did Carol’s Car Phobia Persist? 216 Generalization and Discrimination 216
Higher-Order Conditioning 217
Applications of Classical Conditioning 217 Acquiring and Overcoming Fear 217
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Was the “Little Albert” Study Ethical? 218 Attraction and Aversion 218
Sickness and Health 218 Allergic Reactions 218
Anticipatory Nausea and Vomiting 219 The Immune System 219
OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES 220
Thorndike’s Law of Effect 220
Skinner’s Analysis of Operant Conditioning 220 Distinguishing Operant from Classical Conditioning 222 Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond 222 Consequences: Determining How to Respond 223
Positive Reinforcement 223
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 223 Negative Reinforcement 224
Operant Extinction 224 Aversive Punishment 225
BENEATH THE SURFACE Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child? 225
Response Cost 226
Immediate, Delayed, and Reciprocal Consequences 227
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Can You Explain the “Supermarket Tantrum”? 227
Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time 227 Generalization and Discrimination 228
Schedules of Reinforcement 229 Fixed-Ratio Schedule 229 Variable-Ratio Schedule 230 Fixed-Interval Schedule 230 Variable-Interval Schedule 230
Reinforcement Schedules, Learning, and Extinction 230 Escape and Avoidance Conditioning 231
Applications of Operant Conditioning 232 Education and the Workplace 232 Specialized Animal Training 232 Modifying Problem Behaviors 232
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Using Operant Principles to Modify Your Behavior 234
CROSSROADS OF CONDITIONING 236
Biological Constraints: Evolution and Preparedness 236 Constraints on Classical Conditioning: Learned Taste
Aversions 236
Are We Biologically Prepared to Fear Certain Things? 237 Constraints on Operant Conditioning: Animals That “Won’t
Shape Up” 238
Cognition and Conditioning 238
Early Challenges to Behaviorism: Insight and Cognitive Maps 238 Cognition in Classical Conditioning 240
Cognition in Operant Conditioning 241 The Role of Awareness 241 Latent Learning 241
Self-Evaluations as Reinforcers and Punishers 242 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: WHEN OTHERS SHOW THE WAY 243
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory 243 The Modeling Process and Self-Efficacy 243 Imitation of Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 244 Applications of Observational Learning 244
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Using Social-Cognitive Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment 245
MEMORY AS INFORMATION PROCESSING 252 A Three-Stage Model 252 Sensory Memory 253 Working/Short-Term Memory 253 Memory Codes 254
Capacity and Duration 254 Putting Short-Term Memory to Work 255
Components of Working Memory 255 Long-Term Memory 255
ENCODING: ENTERING INFORMATION 257 Effortful and Automatic Processing 257
Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better 257 Exposure and Rehearsal 258
Organization and Imagery 259 Hierarchies and Chunking 259 Visual Imagery 259
Other Mnemonic Devices 260
How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding 260 Schemas: Our Mental Organizers 260 Schemas, Encoding, and Expertise 260 Encoding and Exceptional Memory 261
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Would Perfect Memory Be a Gift or a Curse? 262
STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION 262 Memory as a Network 262
Associative Networks 262 Neural Networks 263
Types of Long-Term Memory 264 Declarative and Procedural Memory 264 Explicit and Implicit Memory 265 RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION 265
The Value of Multiple Cues 266 The Value of Distinctiveness 266 Arousal, Emotion, and Memory 266
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do We Really Remember It Like It Was
Yesterday? 268
The Effects of Context, State, and Mood on Memory 269 Context-Dependent Memory: Returning to the Scene 269 State-Dependent Memory: Arousal, Drugs, and Mood 270 FORGETTING 271
The Course of Forgetting 271 Why Do We Forget? 272
Encoding Failure 272
Decay of the Memory Trace 273 Interference 273
Motivated Forgetting 274
Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory 274 Amnesia 274
Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia 274 Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease 275 Infantile (Childhood) Amnesia 276 MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 276
Memory Distortion and Schemas 277
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Memory Illusions: Remembering Things That Never Occurred 278
Misinformation Effects and Eyewitness Testimony 279 Source Confusion 280
The Child as Eyewitness 280 Accuracy and Suggestibility 280
Recall of Traumatic Events 281
True versus False Reports: Can Professionals Tell Them Apart? 281 The Recovered Memory Controversy 281
Culture and Memory Construction 282 MEMORY AND THE BRAIN 284
Where Are Memories Formed and Stored? 284 Sensory and Working Memory 284
Long-Term Memory 285 Declarative Memory 285 Procedural Memory 285 How Are Memories Formed? 286
Synaptic Change and Memory 286 Long-Term Potentiation 286
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Improving Memory and Academic Learning 287
CHAPTER 8
LANGUAGE 291
Adaptive Functions of Language 292 Properties of Language 292
Language Is Symbolic and Structured 292
Language Conveys Meaning 293 Language Is Generative and Permits
Displacement 293 The Structure of Language 293 Surface Structure and Deep Structure 293
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Discerning Surface and Deep Structures of Language 294
The Hierarchical Structure of Language 294 Understanding and Producing Language 294
The Role of Bottom-Up Processing 295 The Role of Top-Down Processing 295
Pragmatics: The Social Context of Language 296
WHAT DO YOU THINK? The Sleeping Policeman 297 Language Functions, the Brain, and Sex Differences 297 Acquiring a First Language 298
Biological Foundations 298 Social Learning Processes 298
Developmental Timetable and Sensitive Periods 299 Can Animals Acquire Human Language? 300
Washoe: Early Signs of Success 300 Project Nim: Dissent from Within 301 Kanzi: Chimp versus Child 301 Is It Language? 302
Bilingualism 302
Does Bilingualism Affect Other Cognitive Abilities? 302
BENEATH THE SURFACE Learning a Second Language: Is Earlier
Better? 303
The Bilingual Brain 304
Linguistic Influences on Thinking 305 THINKING 307
Thought, Brain, and Mind 307 Concepts and Propositions 308
Reasoning 309
Deductive Reasoning 309 Inductive Reasoning 309
Stumbling Blocks in Reasoning 310
Distraction by Irrelevant Information 310 Belief Bias 310
Emotions and Framing 310
Problem Solving and Decision Making 311 Steps in Problem Solving 311
Understanding, or Framing, the Problem 311 Generating Potential Solutions 311
Testing the Solutions 312 Evaluating Results 312
The Role of Problem-Solving Schemas 312 Algorithms and Heuristics 313
Uncertainty, Heuristics, and Decision Making 313 The Representativeness Heuristic 314 The Availability Heuristic 315 Confirmation Bias and Overconfidence 315
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving 316
Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom 317 Acquiring Knowledge: Schemas and Scripts 317 The Nature of Expertise 318
Expert Schemas and Memory 318 What Is Wisdom? 318
Mental Imagery 319 Mental Rotation 319
Are Mental Images Pictures in the Mind? 320 Mental Imagery as Perception 321 Mental Imagery as Language 321 Mental Imagery and the Brain 321
Metacognition: Knowing Your Own Cognitive Abilities 322 Recognizing What You Do and Don’t Know 322
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP “Why Did I Get That Wrong?” Improving College Students’ Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material 322
Further Advice on Improving Metacomprehension 324
CHAPTER 9
INTELLIGENCE IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 330
Sir Francis Galton: Quantifying Mental Ability 330
Alfred Binet’s Mental Tests 331 Binet’s Legacy: An Intelligence-Testing
Industry Emerges 332 THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE 332
The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect 332 Factor Analysis 333
The g Factor: Intelligence as General Mental Capacity 333 Intelligence as Specific Mental Abilities 334
Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence 334
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Model: A Modern Synthesis 335 Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent
Thinking 336
Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies 336
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 337 Emotional Intelligence 338
THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE 340
Increasing the Informational Yield from Intelligence Tests 341 Theory-Based Intelligence Tests 341
Should We Test for Aptitude or Achievement? 341 Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests 342
Reliability 342 Validity 343
Intelligence and Academic Performance 343 Job Performance, Income, and Longevity 343 Standardization 344
The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter? 344 Testing Conditions: Static and Dynamic Testing 345 Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures 346
BENEATH THE SURFACE Brain Size and Intelligence 347
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE 348
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Early-childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence? 350
GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE 351 Ethnic Group Differences 352
Are the Tests Biased? 352
What Factors Underlie the Differences? 352 Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities 353
Beliefs, Expectations, and Cognitive Performance 354
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stereotype Threat and Cognitive Performance 355
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE 356 The Intellectually Gifted 356
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Are Gifted Children Maladjusted? 357 Mental Retardation 357
A Concluding Thought 358
CHAPTER 10
Intelligence 328
CHAPTER 11
Motivation and Emotion 362
MOTIVATION 363Perspectives on Motivation 364 Evolution, Instincts, and Genes 364 Homeostasis and Drives 364 Approach and Avoidance Motivation:
The BAS and BIS 365
Cognitive Processes: Incentives and Expectancies 365
Psychodynamic and Humanistic Views 366 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy 366 Self-Determination Theory 366
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Is Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Valid? 367
Hunger and Weight Regulation 367 The Physiology of Hunger 367
Signals That Start and Terminate a Meal 368
Signals That Regulate General Appetite and Weight 368 Brain Mechanisms 369
Psychological Aspects of Hunger 370 Environmental and Cultural Factors 372 Obesity 372
Genes and Environment 373 Dieting and Weight Loss 373
Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia 373 Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia 374
Sexual Motivation 375
Sexual Behavior: Patterns and Changes 375 The Physiology of Sex 376
The Sexual Response Cycle 376 Hormonal Influences 377 The Psychology of Sex 377
Cultural and Environmental Influences 378 Sexual Orientation 279
Prevalence of Different Sexual Orientations 379 Determinants of Sexual Orientation 379 WHAT DO YOU THINK? Fraternal Birth Order and Male
Homosexuality 381 Social Motivation 381
Why Do We Affiliate? 381 Achievement Motivation 383
Motive for Success and Fear of Failure 383 Achievement Goal Theory 384
Achievement Goal Orientations 384 Motivational Climate 385
Family, Culture, and Achievement Needs 386 Motivational Conflict 387
EMOTION 388
The Nature of Emotions 388 Eliciting Stimuli 389
The Cognitive Component 389 Culture and Appraisal 390
The Physiological Component 391
Brain Structures and Neurotransmitters 391 Hemispheric Activation and Emotion 392 Autonomic and Hormonal Processes 392
BENEATH THE SURFACE The Lie Detector Controversy 393
The Behavioral Component 394
Evolution and Emotional Expression 394 Facial Expression of Emotion 394 Cultural Display Rules 396 Instrumental Behaviors 397 Theories of Emotion 398
The James-Lange Somatic Theory 398 The Cannon-Bard Theory 398 The Role of Autonomic Feedback 398 The Role of Expressive Behaviors 399 Cognitive-Affective Theories 400
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Cognition-Arousal Relations: Two Classic Experiments 400
Happiness 403
How Happy Are People? 403 What Makes People Happy? 403
Personal Resources 403 Psychological Processes 404
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Be Happy: Guidelines from Psychological Research 405
A Concluding Thought 406
CHAPTER 12
Development Over the Life Span 408
MAJOR ISSUES AND METHODS 409PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 411
Genetics and Sex Determination 411 Environmental Influences 412 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD 413
The Amazing Newborn 413 Sensory Capabilities and Perceptual
Preferences 413
Reflexes and Learning 414 Physical Development 415
The Young Brain 415
Environmental and Cultural Influences 416 Cognitive Development 416
Piaget’s Stage Model 416 Sensorimotor Stage 417 Preoperational Stage 417
Concrete Operational Stage 419 Formal Operational Stage 419
Assessing Piaget’s Theory: Stages, Ages, and Culture 419 The Social Context of Cognitive Development 419 Information-Processing Approaches 420
Information-Search Strategies 420
Processing Speed, Attention, and Response Inhibition 420
Working Memory and Long-Term Memory 420 Metacognition 421
Understanding the Physical World 421
Theory of Mind: Understanding Mental States 422 Social-Emotional and Personality Development 422
Early Emotions and Emotion Regulation 422 Temperament 423
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 424 Attachment 425
The Attachment Process 425 Types of Attachment 426 Attachment Deprivation 427 The Child-Care Controversy 427
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children 428
Styles of Parenting 429
Parenting-Heredity Interactions 430 Gender Identity and Socialization 430 Moral Development 431
Moral Thinking 431
Culture, Gender, and Moral Reasoning 432 Moral Behavior and Conscience 432 ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD 434
Physical Development 435 Puberty 435
The Adolescent Brain 435
Physical Development in Adulthood 435 The Adult Brain 436
Cognitive Development 436
Reasoning and Information Processing in Adolescence 437 Information Processing in Adulthood 438
Intellectual Changes in Adulthood 438
BENEATH THE SURFACE Aging and Mental Ability: Use It or
Lose It? 439
The Growth of Wisdom? 440
Cognitive Impairment in Old Age 441 Social-Emotional Development 441
Adolescents’ Search for Identity 441 Relationships with Parents and Peers 442 Emotional Changes in Adolescence 443 The Transition to Adulthood 444
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP What Does It Take to Become an Adult? 444 Stages versus Critical Events in Adulthood 445
Marriage and Family 446
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Cohabitation as a “Trial Marriage” 447 Establishing a Career 447
Midlife Crisis: Fact or Fiction? 448 Retirement and the “Golden Years” 448 Death and Dying 448
CHAPTER 13
Personality 452
WHAT IS PERSONALITY? 454
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE 455 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 455
Psychic Energy and Mental Events 456 The Structure of Personality 456 Conflict, Anxiety, and Defense 457 Psychosexual Development 458 Neoanalytic and Object Relations
Approaches 458 Adult Attachment Styles 459
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Attachment Style and Abusive Romantic Relationships 461
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach 462 Understanding Charles Whitman 463
THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL-HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE 464 George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory 464
Carl Rogers’s Theory of the Self 465 The Self 465
The Need for Positive Regard 467 Fully Functioning Persons 467
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Is Self-Actualization a Useful Scientific Construct? 467
Research on the Self 467 Self-Esteem 467
Self-Verification and Self-Enhancement Motives 468
Evaluating the Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach 469 Understanding Chales Whitman 469
THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE: MAPPING THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY 470
Factor Analytic Approaches 470 Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors 470 The Five Factor Model 471
Stability of Personality Traits over Time 472
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Consistent Is Our Behavior Across
Situations? 473
Evaluating the Trait Approach 473 Understanding Charles Whitman 474
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY 474 Genetics and Personality 474
Personality and the Nervous System 475 Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model 475 Temperament: Building Blocks of Personality 476 Evaluating the Biological Approach 477
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORIES 478
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control 479
Locus of Control 479
Albert Bandura: Social Learning and Self-Efficacy 480 Self-Efficacy 480
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting 482
Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda: The Cognitive-Affective Personality System 483
Encodings and Personal Constructs 483 Expectancies and Beliefs 484
Goals and Values 484 Affects (Emotions) 484
Competencies and Self-Regulatory Processes 484
Reconciling Personality Coherence with Behavioral Inconsistency 485
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories 486 Understanding Charles Whitman 487 CULTURE, GENDER, AND PERSONALITY 488
Culture Differences 489 Gender Schemas 490
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT 490 Interviews 491
Behavioral Assessment 492 Remote Behavior Sampling 492 Personality Scales 493
Projective Tests 494
CHAPTER 14
Adjusting to Life: Stress, Coping, and Health 497
STRESS AND WELL-BEING 499Stressors 499
Measuring Stressful Life Events 501 The Stress Response: A Mind-Body Link 501
Cognitive Appraisal 501 Physiological Responses 502 Effects of Stress on Well-Being 502
Stress and Psychological Well-Being 502
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Stressful Events Cause Psychological Distress? 503
Stress and Illness 503 Stress and Aging 504
Stress and the Immune System 504
Factors That Influence Stress-Health Relations 506 Social Support 506
Physiological Reactivity 507 Type A Behavior Pattern 507 Mind as Healer or Slayer 508
Coping Efficacy and Control 508 Optimism and Positive Attitudes 508 Finding Meaning in Stressful Life Events 509 Resilient Children: Superkids or Ordinary Magic? 509 COPING WITH STRESS 511
Effectiveness of Coping Strategies 512 Controllability and Coping Efficacy 512 Trauma Disclosure and Emotional Release 513
Bottling Up Feelings: The Hidden Costs of Emotional Constraint 513
Gender, Culture, and Coping 514
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Hold My Hand and I’ll Be Fine 515 Stress Management Training 517
Cognitive Coping Skills 517 Relaxation Techniques 518 PAIN AND PAIN MANAGEMENT 518
Biological Mechanisms of Pain 519 Spinal and Brain Mechanisms 519 The Endorphins 520
Cultural and Psychological Influences on Pain 521 Cultural Factors 521
Meanings and Beliefs 522
Personality Factors and Social Support 523
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Psychological Techniques for Controlling Pain and Suffering 523
HEALTH PROMOTION AND ILLNESS PREVENTION 526 How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model 526 Increasing Behaviors That Enhance Health 528
Exercise 529 Weight Control 530
Lifestyle Changes and Medical Recovery 530 Reducing Behaviors That Impair Health 531
Psychology and the AIDS Crisis 531 Combating Substance Abuse 532
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 541
DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 543 What Is “Abnormal”? 543 Diagnosing Psychological Disorders 544 Consequences of Diagnostic Labeling 545
Social and Personal Consequences 545 Legal Consequences 545
WHAT DO YOU THINK? “Do I Have That Disorder?” 546
ANXIETY DISORDERS 546 Phobic Disorder 547
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 547 Panic Disorder 548
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 549 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 549
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Growth from Trauma? 550 Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders 550
Biological Factors 550 Psychological Factors 551
Psychodynamic Theories 551 Cognitive Factors 551 The Role of Learning 552 Sociocultural Factors 552
SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS: ANXIETY INFERRED 554
Somatoform Disorders 554 Dissociative Disorders 555
Dissociative Identity (Multiple Personality) Disorder 555 What Causes DID? 556
MOOD DISORDERS 556 Depression 556 Bipolar Disorder 557
Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders 558
Causal Factors in Mood Disorders 559 Biological Factors 559
Psychological Factors 560
Personality-Based Vulnerability 560 Cognitive Processes 560
Learning and Environmental Factors 561 Sociocultural Factors 562
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding and Preventing Suicide 562
SCHIZOPHRENIA 564
Characteristics of Schizophrenia 564 Subtypes of Schizophrenia 565 Causal Factors in Schizophrenia 566
Biological Factors 566 Genetic Predisposition 566 Brain Abnormalities 567 Biochemical Factors 567 Psychological Factors 567 Environmental Factors 568 Sociocultural Factors 569 PERSONALITY DISORDERS 570
Antisocial Personality Disorder 570 Causal Factors 572
Biological Factors 572
Psychological and Environmental Factors 572
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Fear, Avoidance Learning, and Psychopathy 573
Borderline Personality Disorder 575 Causal Factors 575
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Dangerous Are People with
Psychological Disorders? 576
CHILDHOOD DISORDERS 578
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 578 Autistic Disorder 578 Causal Factors 579 A Closing Thought 580
CHAPTER 15
Psychological Disorders 539
Motivational Interviewing 533Multimodal Treatment Approaches 533
BENEATH THE SURFACE College-Age Drinking: Harmless Fun or
Russian Roulette? 534
Harm-Reduction Approaches to Prevention 535
Relapse Prevention: Maintaining Positive Behavior Change 535 A Concluding Thought 537
PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 583 PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES 584 Psychoanalysis 585 Free Association 585 Dream Interpretation 585 Resistance 586 Transference 586 Interpretation 586
Brief Psychodynamic and Interpersonal Therapies 587 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES 588
Person-Centered Therapy 588 Gestalt Therapy 589
COGNITIVE THERAPIES 590
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy 590 Beck’s Cognitive Therapy 591 BEHAVIOR THERAPIES 592
Exposure: An Extinction Approach 592
Systematic Desensitization: A Counterconditioning Approach 593
Aversion Therapy 594
Operant Conditioning Treatments 595 Positive Reinforcement Techniques 595 Therapeutic Application of Punishment 596 Behavioral Activation Therapy 596 Modeling and Social Skills Training 597 INTEGRATING AND COMBINING THERAPIES 597 GROUP, FAMILY, AND MARITAL THERAPIES 598
Family Therapy 599 Marital Therapy 599
CULTURAL AND GENDER ISSUES IN PSYCHOTHERAPY 600 Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization 600
Gender Issues in Therapy 601
EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPIES 602 Eysenck’s Great Challenge 602 Psychotherapy Research Methods 603
Survey Research 603
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Survey Results Provide an Accurate Picture of Treatment Effectiveness? 604
Randomized Clinical Trials 604
Empirically Supported Treatments 605 The Search for Therapeutic Principles 605 Meta-Analysis: A Look at the Big Picture 605 Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy 606
Client Variables 606
Therapist and Technique Variables 606 Common Factors 607
BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO TREATMENT 608 Drug Therapies 608
Antipsychotic Drugs 608 Antianxiety Drugs 609 Antidepressant Drugs 609
BENEATH THE SURFACE Some Depressing Facts about
Antidepressant Drugs 610 Electroconvulsive Therapy 611 Psychosurgery 612
Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions 612
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drugs versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial 614
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND SOCIETY 616 Deinstitutionalization 616
Mental Health Treatment in a Managed-Care Environment 617 Preventive Mental Health 618
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE When and Where to Seek Therapy 620
CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL THINKING 624
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior 624
Personal versus Situational Attributions 625 Attributional Biases 625 Culture and Attribution 626 Forming and Maintaining
Impressions 627 How Important Are First
Impressions? 627 Seeing What We Expect to See 627
Creating What We Expect to See 628 Attitudes and Attitude Change 628
Do Our Attitudes Influence Our Behavior? 628 Does Our Behavior Influence Our Attitudes? 629
Cognitive Dissonance 629 Self-Perception 630 Persuasion 631 The Communicator 631 The Message 632 The Audience 632 SOCIAL INFLUENCE 633
Norms, Conformity, and Obedience 633 Norm Formation and Culture 633 Why Do People Conform? 634 Factors That Affect Conformity 635 Minority Influence 636
Obedience to Authority 636
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority 636 Factors That Influence Obedience 638
Would People Obey Today? 639
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Women Differ from Men in Obedience? 639 Lessons Learned 639
Detecting and Resisting Compliance Techniques 640 Behavior in Groups 641 Social Loafing 641 Group Polarization 641 Groupthink 642 Deindividuation 643 SOCIAL RELATIONS 644
Attraction: Liking and Loving Others 644
Initial Attraction: Proximity, Mere Exposure, and Similarity 644 Spellbound by Beauty 645
CHAPTER 17
Social Thinking and Behavior 623
Affiliating with Beautiful People 645
Facial Attractiveness: Is “Average” Beautiful? 645 As Attraction Deepens: Close Relationships 646 Sociocultural and Evolutionary Views 647 Love 648
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research 648
Ostracism: Rejection Hurts 650 Prejudice: Bias against Others 650
Explicit and Implicit Prejudice 651 Cognitive Roots of Prejudice 651
Categorization and “Us–Them” Thinking 652 Stereotypes and Attributional Distortions 652 Motivational Roots of Prejudice 652
Competition and Conflict 652 Enhancing Self-Esteem 652 How Prejudice Confirms Itself 653 Reducing Prejudice 654
An Educational Approach to Reducing Stereotype Threat 654
Promoting Equal Status Contact to Reduce Prejudice 654 Using Simulations to Reduce “Shooter Bias” 655 Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others 656
Why Do People Help? 656
Evolution and Prosocial Behavior 656 Social Learning and Cultural Influences 656 Empathy and Altruism 656
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Pure Altruism Really Exist? 657 When Do People Help? 657
Whom Do People Help? 658 Increasing Prosocial Behavior 658 Aggression: Harming Others 658
Biological Factors in Aggression 658 Environmental Stimuli and Learning 659 Psychological Factors in Aggression 659
Media (and Video Game) Violence: Catharsis versus Social Learning 660
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do Violent Video Games Promote
Aggression? 662 A Final Word 663
APPENDIX: STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY A-1 CREDITS C-1
GLOSSARY G-1 REFERENCES R-1 NAME INDEX NI-1 SUBJECT INDEX SI-1
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Mind and behavior: There is nothing more fascinating in all the universe, but we didn’t recognize this when we entered college. In fact, the study of psychology wasn’t on either of our radar screens. Michael planned to major in physics, Ron in journalism. Then something unexpected occurred. Each of us took an intro-ductory psychology course, and suddenly our life paths changed. Because of instructors who brought psychology to life, we were hooked, and that initial enthusiasm has never left us.
Now, through this textbook, we have the pleasure and priv-ilege of sharing our enthusiasm with today’s instructors and a new generation of students. We’ve endeavored to create a book that will spark a passion for psychology in today’s students. Whether it is the development of a new lens for viewing every-day life, an appreciation for the myriad ways psychological re-search has changed and illuminated human understanding, or an enthusiastic engagement with a wide variety of new concepts and theories, we believe that the study of psychology has some-thing to offer everyone. We want students to experience, as we did, the intellectual excitement of studying the mind and behav-ior. We also seek to help students sharpen their critical-thinking skills and dispel commonly held myths. All of this is done within a simple conceptual framework that emphasizes rela-tionships between biological, psychological, and environmental levels of analysis. A key goal is for students who use this book to leave the course understanding the centrality of the scientific method in psychology and, as a result, thinking like scientists.
We are particularly excited about the diverse and creative ways in which general psychology is taught and learned. The teaching and learning program underpinning Psychology: The Sci-ence of Mind and Behavior is extensive, carefully crafted, and, perhaps most important, it “uses science to teach science.” Specifically, we have taken note of research (e.g., Hamilton, 1985; Moreland et al., 1997; Thiede & Anderson, 2003) showing that recall of textual material is significantly enhanced by asking students to summarize material they have just read and by psenting focus questions and learning objectives that serve as re-trieval cues and help students identify important information.
Focus Questions, which are placed in the margins and
inte-grated into each chapter of this textbook, serve these purposes and help students assess their mastery of the material. But well beyond that, the Focus Questions provide a comprehensive teaching and learning framework for the supplements.
These in-text Focus Questions, along with the Learning Objectives for each chapter, form the cornerstones of the Instructor’s Manual, Online Learning Center, student Study Guide, and all three test banks. Items in the three test banks are keyed specifically to the Focus Questions and Learning
Objec-tives as well as to the APA guidelines for learning outcomes in key mastery areas, enabling instructors to teach and assess di-rectly to the core content of your choice. Students who are guided by the Focus Questions and Learning Objectives should be well prepared for questions taken from the test banks and should achieve at a high level.
Let’s take a closer look at the features of our fourth edition.
LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
Psychology is a vibrant but sprawling discipline, and the tremendous diversity of issues covered in the introductory course can lead students to perceive psychology as a collection of unrelated topics. To reduce this tendency and also to help stu-dents become more sophisticated in their everyday understand-ing of behavior, we present a simple unifyunderstand-ing framework that is applied throughout the book. This framework, called Levels of Analysis (LOA), emphasizes how psychologists examine the in-terplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors in their quest to understand behavior. The LOA framework is easy for students to understand, encourages critical thinking about each topic, and is consistently applied in every chapter.
Although we carry the LOA framework throughout the book in textual discussion and graphics, we are careful to apply it se-lectively so that it does not become overly repetitious for students or confining for instructors. Indeed, one of the beauties of the LOA framework is that it stands on its own and instructors can easily adapt it to their personal teaching preferences. For exam-ple, some adopters of the book have told us that they never bring up the LOA framework explicitly in class. Instead, they empha-size their own preferred theoretical perspectives in lectures while resting assured that, behind the scenes, each textbook chapter il-lustrates for students how behavior can be studied from multiple angles, that is, from different levels of analysis. Other instructors consistently incorporate a levels-of-analysis approach into their lectures. Finally, as we do in our own courses, instructors can ex-plicitly bring the LOA framework into their lectures only for se-lected topics, once again knowing that, for other topics, the text-book will round out their students’ conceptual exposure.
NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION
Although all of the book’s chapters have been thoroughly up-dated, we also have made several important structural changes to enhance the book’s presentation of psychological science.
Preface
• Enhanced coverage highlighting the centrality of
scientific methods in psychology: We have made significant
revisions in Chapter 2 (Studying Behavior Scientifically) to strengthen its pedagogy and show the important links be-tween theory development and research methods. We have sought to simplify the material somewhat and to strengthen students’ understanding of basic research design. A prominent new Figure 2.2, called Using the Scientific Method, now illustrates the discussion of the scientific method. Using the Scientific Method integrates the five key steps of the scientific approach with the example of Darley and Latané’s famous experiment on bystander interven-tion. In addition, a new table entitled Assess Your Under-standing: Independent and Dependent Variables accompanies the section on experiments. It contains seven examples that enable students to see how well they understand the key conceptual distinction between independent and dependent variables. We also have chosen some timely new studies to illustrate the research methods, including one on the effects of using cell phones while driving.
• Visual signpost on Research Design: Another important addition is a new graphic element called Research Design within each chapter’s Research Close-Up. This feature fol-lows the Method section of the journal-style research pres-entation and visually summarizes the type of study being discussed (e.g., correlational, experimental, observational), the independent and dependent (or predictor and criterion) variables, and the relation(s) being assessed. We believe that this feature will enhance our in-depth presentations of research and visually reinforce students’ grasp of basic research methodology.
• A new chapter on Genes, Environment, and Behavior
(Chapter 3) highlights some of the most significant new
developments in contemporary science on how nature and nurture combine to influence behavior. The new chapter expands on the material found in the combined chapter on genetic and neural processes in the previous edition. Writ-ten with an adaptational theme, the chapter progresses from basic genetics to behavior-genetics techniques and how they inform our study of gene-environment interac-tions. These interactions are illustrated in two domains that will be of special significance to introductory students, namely, individual differences in intelligence and
personality. We then discuss the practical and ethical impli-cations of genetic screening in the chapter’s Appliimpli-cations feature. The chapter ends with a major section on evolu-tion and behavior, highlighting the debates on the origins of gender differences in sexual behavior and mate selec-tion, together with a Beneath the Surface feature on “How Not to Think About Evolutionary Theory.” We should note that genetic factors are still discussed in the intelligence, personality, and motivation chapters, so that treatment of these topics in the new chapter does not detract from a bal-anced presentation in the remaining chapters. Aside from its role in addressing the important topics of genetics,
envi-ronment, and evolution early in the book, another benefit of the new chapter is that the following chapter, Chapter 4 on Brain and Behavior, is now more manageable for stu-dents and instructors.
• Re-organized developmental chapter allows more
thematic flexibility: We have undertaken an important
reorganization of Chapter 12 (Development Over the Life Span). While retaining a chronological approach to the main chapter heads (as almost all introductory psychol-ogy texts do), we have made it easier for instructors and students to follow the major “themes” or types of devel-opment (i.e., physical, cognitive, social-emotional/person-ality). Specifically, we have combined the formerly separate sections on Adolescence and Adulthood into one section. As a result, the topic of cognitive develop-ment, for example, does not start and stop three or four times within the chapter, as happens when the chrono-logical approach is used with separate sections for In-fancy, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood. This new organization strikes a better balance between the ad-vantages of covering human development chronologi-cally versus topichronologi-cally.
• Revised and up-dated Research Close-Ups and other
features: To focus on important new developments while
also highlighting classic studies, we have replaced several of the Research Close-Ups from the previous edition (typi-cally moving the replaced studies to the textual portion of the chapter). For example, the new genes-environment chapter’s Close-Up features the debate on evolutionary versus social-role explanations for sex differences in mate preferences. The new Close-Up in Chapter 13 (Personality) is a 2006 study on attachment style and its relation to abu-sive romantic relationships. Chapter 14 (Stress, Coping, and Health) features a Close-Up, based on a 2006 social-support study, on how simple human contact with an-other human (having one’s hand held) reduces subjective fear and fMRI responses in parts of the brain involved in fear as women encounter a stressful situation. Chapter 16’s Close-Up describes an important new randomized clinical trial comparing behavioral activation treatment, cognitive therapy, and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depression.
A new Beneath the Surface feature in Chapter 12 (Devel-opment Over the Life Span) critically examines the popular topic of “mental exercise and mental aging.” When it comes to aging and the retention of mental abilities, do we indeed “use it or lose it”? A new What Do You Think? criti-cal-thinking feature in Chapter 15 (Psychological Disor-ders) addresses new findings on personality growth following the experiencing of trauma. In Chapter 17 (Social Thinking and Behavior), the question on many students’ and other people’s minds regarding Milgram’s obedience research—“Would the same results occur today?”—is addressed with a new discussion of social psychologist Jerry Burger’s (2007) APA approved, partial replication of
