00Chapter 2- The First River-Valley Civilizations, 3500–1500
00Chapter 2- The First River-Valley Civilizations, 3500–1500
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II00.. MMeessooppoottaammiiaa A0.
A0. SettSettled led AgriAgricultculture ure in ain an Unn Unstablstable Lane Landscapdscapee 10.
10. MesopMesopotamiotamia is the ala is the alluvial pluvial plailain area alon area alongsidngside and betwe and between the Teen the Tigriigris ands and Euphrates Rivers. The area is a
Euphrates Rivers. The area is a difficult environment for agriculture becausedifficult environment for agriculture because there is little rainfall, the rivers flood at
there is little rainfall, the rivers flood at the wrong time for grain the wrong time for grain agriculture, andagriculture, and the rivers change
the rivers change course unpredictably.course unpredictably. 20.
20. MesopMesopotamiotamia does a does have a have a warm warm climclimate and ate and good sgood soil. oil. By 40By 400000BB..CC..EE. farmers. farmers were using cattle-pulled plows and a
were using cattle-pulled plows and a sort of planter to sort of planter to cultivate barleycultivate barley. Just after . Just after 3000
3000BB..CC..EE. they began constructing irrigation canals to bring water to fields. they began constructing irrigation canals to bring water to fields farther away from the rivers.
farther away from the rivers. 30.
30. OtheOther crops anr crops and naturd natural resoal resources ources of the area if the area includncluded date paed date palms, vlms, vegetabegetables,les, reeds and fish, and fallow land for grazing goats and sheep. Draft animals reeds and fish, and fallow land for grazing goats and sheep. Draft animals included cattle and donkeys
included cattle and donkeys and, later (second millenniumand, later (second millenniumBB..CC..EE.), camels and.), camels and horses. The area has no
horses. The area has no significant wood, stone, or metal resources.significant wood, stone, or metal resources. 40.
40. The earThe earliesliest peoplt people of Mesoe of Mesopotampotamia and the iia and the initinitial creaal creators of Mtors of Mesopoesopotamitamianan culture were the Sumerians, who were present at least as early as 5000
culture were the Sumerians, who were present at least as early as 5000BB..CC..EE. By. By 2000
2000BB..CC..EE. the Sumerians were supplanted by . the Sumerians were supplanted by Semitic-speaking peoples whoSemitic-speaking peoples who dominated and intermarried with the Sumerians but preserved
dominated and intermarried with the Sumerians but preserved many elements of many elements of Sumerian culture.
Sumerian culture. B0
B0.. CiCititieses, Ki, Kingngs, ans, and Td Traradede 10.
10. EarlEarly Mesopy Mesopotamiotamian sociean society was a socty was a society of viety of villaillages and ciges and cities lties linked tinked togethogether er in a system of mutual interdependence. Cities depended on villages to produce in a system of mutual interdependence. Cities depended on villages to produce surplus food to feed the nonproducing urban elite and craftsmen. In return, the surplus food to feed the nonproducing urban elite and craftsmen. In return, the cities provided the villages with military protection, markets, and cities provided the villages with military protection, markets, and specialist-produced goods.
produced goods. 20.
20. TTogethogetherer, a city and its agr, a city and its agriculticultural hinural hinterlterland formand formed what we caled what we call a city-stl a city-state.ate. The Mesopotamian city-states sometimes fought with each other over
The Mesopotamian city-states sometimes fought with each other over resourcesresources like water and land; at
like water and land; at other times, city-states cooperated with each other inother times, city-states cooperated with each other in sharing resources. City-states also traded with one another.
sharing resources. City-states also traded with one another. 30.
30. CityCity-sta-states coultes could mobild mobilize humize human resoan resources to ources to open new agpen new agriculricultural ltural land and toand and to build and maintain irrigation systems. Construction of irrigation systems required build and maintain irrigation systems. Construction of irrigation systems required the organization of large numbers
the organization of large numbers of people for labor.of people for labor. 40.
40. AltAlthough we knohough we know littlw little of the polite of the political inical institstitutionutions of Mesopos of Mesopotamiatamian city-sn city-statetates,s, we do have written and archeological records of two centers of power: temples we do have written and archeological records of two centers of power: temples and palaces. Te
and palaces. Temples were landholders, and mples were landholders, and their priests controlled considerabletheir priests controlled considerable wealth. Their religious power predates the secular power of
wealth. Their religious power predates the secular power of the palaces.the palaces. 50.
50. SeculSecular lar leaderseadership hip develodeveloped ped in tin the the third hird millmillenniumenniumBB..CC..EE. when “big men”. when “big men” ((lugal lugal ), who may have originally been leaders of armies, emerged as secular ), who may have originally been leaders of armies, emerged as secular leaders. The lugal ruled from their palaces and tended to take over religious leaders. The lugal ruled from their palaces and tended to take over religious control of institutions.
control of institutions. The Epic of GilgameshThe Epic of Gilgameshprovides an example of theprovides an example of the exercise of secular
exercise of secular power.power. 60.
60. EvenEventualltually some of ty some of the cityhe city-sta-states becates became poweme powerful enrful enough to abough to absorb otsorb others andhers and thus create larger territorial states. Two examples of this development are the thus create larger territorial states. Two examples of this development are the Akkadian state, founded by Sargon
Akkadian state, founded by Sargon of Akkad around 2350of Akkad around 2350BB..CC..EE. and the Third. and the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004
Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004BB..CC..EE.).) 70.
70. A thA third terird territorritorial staial state was estte was establisablished by Hammhed by Hammurabi anurabi and is known to hisd is known to historiatoriansns as the “Old Babylonian” state. Hammurabi is also known for the Law Code as the “Old Babylonian” state. Hammurabi is also known for the Law Code associated with his name, which provides us with a source of information about associated with his name, which provides us with a source of information about Old Babylonian law, punishments, and
Old Babylonian law, punishments, and societysociety.. 80.
80. The stThe states of ates of MesopMesopotamiotamia needea needed resoud resources anrces and obtad obtained tined them not hem not only byonly by territorial expansion, but also through a f
Merchants were originally employed by temples or
Merchants were originally employed by temples or palaces; later, in the secondpalaces; later, in the second millennium
millenniumBB..CC..EE., private merchants emerged. Trade was carried out through., private merchants emerged. Trade was carried out through barter.
barter. C0
C0.. MeMesosopopotatamimian San Sococieietyty 10.
10. MesopMesopotamiotamia had a straa had a stratifitified socied society in whety in which kinich kings and prigs and priests coests controlntrolled muchled much of the wealth. The three classes o
of the wealth. The three classes o f Mesopotamian society were: (1) the f Mesopotamian society were: (1) the freefree landowning class; (2) dependent farmers and
landowning class; (2) dependent farmers and artisans; and (3) slaves. Slaveryartisans; and (3) slaves. Slavery was not a fundamental part
was not a fundamental part of the economy, and most slaves were of the economy, and most slaves were prisoners of prisoners of war.
war. 20.
20. Some sSome scholacholars belirs believe thaeve that the det the developvelopment of ment of agricagricultuulture brore brought abught about aout a decline in the status of women as men did the value-producing work of plowing decline in the status of women as men did the value-producing work of plowing and irrigation. Women had no political role, but
and irrigation. Women had no political role, but they could own property, controlthey could own property, control their dowry
their dowry, and engage , and engage in trade. The rise of ain trade. The rise of an urban merchant class n urban merchant class in thein the second millennium
second millenniumBB..CC..EE. appears to have been accompanied by g. appears to have been accompanied by g reater reater emphasis on male privilege and
emphasis on male privilege and an attendant decline in an attendant decline in women’s status.women’s status. D0.
D0. GodGods, Ps, Prieriestssts, an, and Td Tempemplesles 10.
10. The reThe religioligion of Men of Mesopotsopotamia wamia was an amas an amalgam algam of Sumof Sumeriaerian and lan and later Seter Semitimiticc beliefs and deities. Mesopotamian deities were anthropomorphic, and each beliefs and deities. Mesopotamian deities were anthropomorphic, and each citycity had its own tutelary gods.
had its own tutelary gods. 20.
20. HumaHumans werns were regare regarded as sded as servanervants of tts of the godshe gods. In tem. In temples, ples, a compla complex,ex, specialized hereditary priesthood served the gods as
specialized hereditary priesthood served the gods as a servant serves a a servant serves a mastermaster.. The temples themselves were walled compounds containing religions and
The temples themselves were walled compounds containing religions and functional buildings. The most visible part of the temple
functional buildings. The most visible part of the temple compound was thecompound was the ziggurat.
ziggurat. 30.
30. We haWe have litve little kntle knowleowledge of tdge of the belhe beliefs aniefs and relid religious gious practpractices oices of commf commonon people. Evidence indicates a popular belief in magic and in the use of
people. Evidence indicates a popular belief in magic and in the use of magic tomagic to influence the gods.
influence the gods. E0
E0.. TTecechnhnolology aogy and Scnd Scieiencncee 10.
10. TTechnoechnology is delogy is defined afined as “any spes “any specialicialized knowlzed knowledge thedge that is useat is used to trand to transformsform the natural environment and human
the natural environment and human societysociety.” Thus defined, the concept of .” Thus defined, the concept of technology includes not only things
technology includes not only things like irrigation systems, but also nonmateriallike irrigation systems, but also nonmaterial specialized knowledge such as religious lore a
specialized knowledge such as religious lore a nd ceremony and nd ceremony and writing systems.writing systems. 20.
20. The MeThe Mesopotsopotamian wamian writiriting systng system (cunem (cuneiforeiform) evolm) evolved from ved from the use of pthe use of picturictureses to represent the sounds of words or parts of words. The writing system was to represent the sounds of words or parts of words. The writing system was complex, required the use of hundreds of signs, and was a
complex, required the use of hundreds of signs, and was a monopoly of themonopoly of the scribes.
scribes. 30.
30. CuneiCuneiform wform was deveas developed tloped to writo write Sumee Sumerian, rian, but wabut was lates later used tr used to writo writee Akkadian and other Semitic and non-Semitic languages. Cuneiform was used Akkadian and other Semitic and non-Semitic languages. Cuneiform was used toto write economic, political, legal, literary, religious, and scientific texts.
write economic, political, legal, literary, religious, and scientific texts. 40.
40. OtheOther techr technologinologies deves developeeloped by the Md by the Mesopotesopotamianamians incls included iruded irrigarigation,tion, transportation technologies (boats, barges, and the use of donkeys), bronze transportation technologies (boats, barges, and the use of donkeys), bronze metallurgy
metallurgy, brickmaking, engineering, and , brickmaking, engineering, and potterypottery, including the , including the use of use of thethe potter’s wheel.
potter’s wheel. 50.
50. MiliMilitary tetary technolchnology emplogy employed in Mesoyed in Mesopotaopotamia inclmia included paiduded paid, full-, full-time sotime soldierldiers,s, horses, the horse-drawn chariot, the bow
horses, the horse-drawn chariot, the bow and arrow, and siege machinery.and arrow, and siege machinery. Mesopotamians also used numbers (a base-60 system) and made advances in Mesopotamians also used numbers (a base-60 system) and made advances in mathematics and
mathematics and astronomyastronomy.. IIII00.. EEggyypptt
A0.
A0. ThThe Lane Land of Ed of Egypgypt: “t: “GiGift of ft of the the NilNile”e” 10.
10. The laThe land of Egypnd of Egypt is deft is defined by thined by the Nile Re Nile Riveriver, the nar, the narrow grerow green strien strip of arablp of arablee land on either side of its banks, and the
land on either side of its banks, and the fertile Nile delta area. The rest of thefertile Nile delta area. The rest of the country is barren desert, the unfriendly “Red Land” that contrasted with the country is barren desert, the unfriendly “Red Land” that contrasted with the “Black Land,” which was home to
“Black Land,” which was home to the vast majority of the the vast majority of the Egyptian population.Egyptian population. 20.
20. Egypt wEgypt was tradas traditioitionallnally dividy divided into twed into two areao areas: Uppes: Upper Egyptr Egypt, along t, along the southe southernhern part of the Nile as far south as the First Cataract, and Lower Egypt, the northern part of the Nile as far south as the First Cataract, and Lower Egypt, the northern
delta area. The climate was good
delta area. The climate was good for agriculture, but with little or no for agriculture, but with little or no rainfall,rainfall, farmers had to depend on the river for irrigation.
farmers had to depend on the river for irrigation. 30.
30. The NiThe Nile flole floods reguods regularly alarly and at the rnd at the right tiight time of yearme of year, leavi, leaving a rich anng a rich and easild easilyy worked deposit of silt. Egyptian agriculture depended upon the floods, and crops worked deposit of silt. Egyptian agriculture depended upon the floods, and crops could be adversely affected if the floods were too high or not high enough.
could be adversely affected if the floods were too high or not high enough. Generally speaking, however, the floods were regular, and this inspired the Generally speaking, however, the floods were regular, and this inspired the Egyptians to view the universe as a regular and orderly place.
Egyptians to view the universe as a regular and orderly place. 40.
40. EgyptEgypt’s oth’s other natuer natural resral resources iources includncluded reeds (ed reeds (such as pasuch as papyrus fpyrus for wrior writing)ting), wild, wild animals, birds and fish, plentiful building stone and
animals, birds and fish, plentiful building stone and clayclay, and access , and access to copper to copper and turquoise from the desert and gold from Nubia.
and turquoise from the desert and gold from Nubia. B0
B0.. DiDivivine ne KiKingngshshipip 10.
10. EgyptEgypt’s poli’s political ortical organizaganization evtion evolved frolved from a patterom a pattern of small stn of small states rulates ruled by localed by local kings to the emergence of a large, unified Egyptian state around 3100
kings to the emergence of a large, unified Egyptian state around 3100BB..CC..EE.. Historians organize Egyptian history into a series of
Historians organize Egyptian history into a series of thirty dynasties falling intothirty dynasties falling into three longer periods: the Old, Middle, and
three longer periods: the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. These three periodsNew Kingdoms. These three periods were divided by periods of
were divided by periods of political fragmentation and chaos.political fragmentation and chaos. 20.
20. KingKings knows known as pharn as pharaohs domaohs dominatinated the Eed the Egyptigyptian staan state. Tte. The pharhe pharaohs waohs wereere regarded as gods come to earth to ensure
regarded as gods come to earth to ensure the welfare and prosperity of thethe welfare and prosperity of the people. The death of a pharaoh was thought to be the
people. The death of a pharaoh was thought to be the beginning of his journeybeginning of his journey back to the land of the gods. Funeral rites and
back to the land of the gods. Funeral rites and proper preservation of the bodyproper preservation of the body were therefore of tremendous importance.
were therefore of tremendous importance. 30.
30. EarlEarly pharay pharaohs werohs were buriee buried in flatd in flat-topp-topped rected rectangulangular tombar tombs. Stes. Stepped pyrapped pyramidmid tombs appeared about 2630
tombs appeared about 2630BB..CC..EE. and smooth-sided pyramids a . and smooth-sided pyramids a bit later.bit later. 40.
40. The grThe great pyreat pyramid tamid tombs at ombs at Giza wGiza were conere construstructed bected betweetween 2550 ann 2550 and 2490d 2490 B
B..CC..EE. The great pyramids were constructed with stone . The great pyramids were constructed with stone tools and simple lever,tools and simple lever, pulley
pulley, and roller technology and , and roller technology and required substantial inputs of resources andrequired substantial inputs of resources and labor.
labor. C0.
C0. AdAdminminististratration anion and Comd Communmunicaicatiotionn 10.
10. Egypt Egypt was gowas governeverned by a cend by a central tral adminiadministratstration in tion in the capihe capital cital city thrty through aough a system of provincial and village bureaucracies. Bureaucrats at
system of provincial and village bureaucracies. Bureaucrats at the center keptthe center kept track of land, labor, taxes, and people; collected resources
track of land, labor, taxes, and people; collected resources from throughout thefrom throughout the country; and used them
country; and used them to support the central government to support the central government institutions (theinstitutions (the palace, the bureaucracy, and the army) and to
palace, the bureaucracy, and the army) and to maintain temples and constructmaintain temples and construct monuments.
monuments. 20.
20. The anThe ancient cient EgyptEgyptians deians developveloped two ed two writwriting sysing systemstems: hier: hieroglypoglyphics ahics and and a cursive script. Egyptians wrote on papyrus
cursive script. Egyptians wrote on papyrus and used writing for religious andand used writing for religious and secular literature as well as for
secular literature as well as for record keeping.record keeping. 30.
30. TTensioensions betwens between centren central and local and local goveral governmennment are a const are a constant fetant featurature of e of Egyptian political history
Egyptian political history. At times when the . At times when the central power was central power was predominant,predominant, provincial officials were appointed and promoted by the
provincial officials were appointed and promoted by the central government oncentral government on the basis of merit. W
the basis of merit. W hen central power was weak, provincial officials tended tohen central power was weak, provincial officials tended to become autonomous, made their positions hereditary, and had themselves become autonomous, made their positions hereditary, and had themselves buried in their own districts rather than near the tombs of their kings.
buried in their own districts rather than near the tombs of their kings. 40.
40. Egypt wEgypt was moras more rural te rural than Mesohan Mesopotampotamia. It diia. It did have citd have cities, buies, but since tt since they havehey have not been excavated, we know little about urban life in Egypt.
not been excavated, we know little about urban life in Egypt. 50.
50. Egypt rEgypt regardeegarded all ford all foreigneeigners as enemrs as enemies, buies, but its dest its desert nomert nomad neighad neighbors posbors poseded no serious military threat. Egypt was generally more
no serious military threat. Egypt was generally more interested in acquiringinterested in acquiring resources than in acquiring territory; resources could
resources than in acquiring territory; resources could often be acquired throughoften be acquired through trade.
trade. 60.
60. Egypt tEgypt traded diraded directlrectly with thy with the Levant ae Levant and Nubind Nubia and india and indirectlrectly with thy with the land of e land of Punt (probably part of modern
Punt (probably part of modern Somalia). Items of trade included exports of Somalia). Items of trade included exports of papyrus, grain, and gold
papyrus, grain, and gold and imports of incense, Nubian gold, and imports of incense, Nubian gold, Lebanese cedar,Lebanese cedar, and tropical African ivory, ebony, and animals.
and tropical African ivory, ebony, and animals. D0
D0.. ThThe Pe Peoeoplple oe of Ef Egygyptpt 10.
10. AnciAncient Eent Egypt hagypt had a populd a population ation of abouof about 1 to 1.t 1 to 1.5 mill5 million phyion physicalsicallyly heterogeneous people, some dark-skinned, and some
people were divided into several social strata: (1) the king and high-ranking people were divided into several social strata: (1) the king and high-ranking officials; (2) lower-level officials, local leaders and
officials; (2) lower-level officials, local leaders and priests, professionals,priests, professionals,
artisans, well-off farmers; and (3) peasants. The majority of the population was artisans, well-off farmers; and (3) peasants. The majority of the population was peasants.
peasants. 20.
20. PeasPeasants liants lived in vived in villagesllages, cult, cultivateivated the soid the soil, and wel, and were respre responsibonsible for payle for payinging taxes and providing labor service.
taxes and providing labor service. 30.
30. SlaveSlavery exiry existed on a listed on a limitemited scale. d scale. TreTreatmeatment of slavnt of slaves was gees was generalnerally humaly humane.ne. 40.
40. PainPaintings itings indicandicate thate that womt women weren were subore subordinatdinate to men e to men and engand engaged inaged in domestic activities. Egyptian women did have the right
domestic activities. Egyptian women did have the right to hold, inherit, and willto hold, inherit, and will property and retained rights over their
property and retained rights over their own dowry after divorce. They probablyown dowry after divorce. They probably had more rights than
had more rights than Mesopotamian women.Mesopotamian women. E0
E0.. BeBelilief ef anand Kd Knonowlwlededgege 10.
10. EgyptEgyptian relian religious bigious belieeliefs were bfs were based on a cyclased on a cyclical vical view of naiew of natureture. T. Two of thwo of thee most significant gods, the sun-god Re and Osiris, god of the Underworld, who most significant gods, the sun-god Re and Osiris, god of the Underworld, who was killed, dismembered, and then restored to
was killed, dismembered, and then restored to life, represented renewal and lifelife, represented renewal and life after death.
after death. 20.
20. The kiThe kings who wngs who were ideere identifintified wited with Re and wih Re and with Horuth Horus, the sos, the son of Osirn of Osiris, seis, servedrved as chief priests. The supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon was generally the as chief priests. The supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon was generally the god of the city that was serving as the capital.
god of the city that was serving as the capital. 30.
30. The EThe Egyptigyptians speans spent a lant a large amorge amount of unt of their their wealtwealth in conh in construcstructing fting fabuloabulousus temples. T
temples. Temple activities included regular offerings to emple activities included regular offerings to the gods the gods and greatand great festivals.
festivals. 40.
40. We knoWe know littw little about ple about populaopular religr religious beious beliefliefs. What ws. What we do know ine do know indicatdicates thates that the Egyptians generally believed in magic
the Egyptians generally believed in magic and in an and in an afterlife. Concern with theafterlife. Concern with the afterlife inspired Egyptians to mummify the bodies of
afterlife inspired Egyptians to mummify the bodies of the dead before entombingthe dead before entombing them.
them. 50.
50. TTombs wombs were usuaere usually builly built at the elt at the edge of the ddge of the desert tesert to avoid wo avoid wastinasting arablg arable land.e land. T
Tombs contain pictures and samples ombs contain pictures and samples of food and of food and other necessities and thus areother necessities and thus are a valuable source of
a valuable source of information about daily life in Egypt. The amount information about daily life in Egypt. The amount and qualityand quality of tomb goods and the form of the
of tomb goods and the form of the tombs themselves reflect the social status of tombs themselves reflect the social status of the deceased.
the deceased. 60.
60. The ancThe ancient Eient Egyptigyptians acquians acquired mucred much advanch advanced knowled knowledge and tedge and technoechnologylogy.. Knowledge of chemistry and anatomy was gained in the process of
Knowledge of chemistry and anatomy was gained in the process of
mummification. Other areas of scientific and technological advance included mummification. Other areas of scientific and technological advance included mathematics, astronomy
mathematics, astronomy, calendar making, , calendar making, irrigation, engineering andirrigation, engineering and architecture, and
architecture, and transportation technology.transportation technology. III0.
III0. The The Indus Indus VValley alley CiviCivilizalizationtion A0
A0.. NaNatuturaral l EnEnviviroronmnmenentt 10.
10. The cenThe central patral part of thrt of the Indus Ve Indus Valley aalley area is threa is the Sind ree Sind region of mgion of modern Podern Pakistakistan.an. Adjacent related areas included the Hakra River (now dried up), the Punjab, and Adjacent related areas included the Hakra River (now dried up), the Punjab, and the Indus delta region.
the Indus delta region. 20.
20. The InThe Indus carrdus carries a lot of sies a lot of silt anilt and floodd floods regulas regularly twrly twice a yeaice a year. r. AcceAccess to rivss to river er water for irrigation allowed farmers in the Indus
water for irrigation allowed farmers in the Indus ValValley and related areas ley and related areas toto produce two crops a
produce two crops a year despite the region’s sparse year despite the region’s sparse rainfall.rainfall. B0
B0.. MaMateteririal Cal Culultuturere 10.
10. The IThe Indus Vndus Valley alley civicivilizatlization fion flourilourished fshed from 2rom 2600 to 600 to 19001900BB..CC..EE. Knowledge of the. Knowledge of the civilization is gained from archaeological excavation of the
civilization is gained from archaeological excavation of the remains of Indusremains of Indus V
Valley settlements. The two largest and best-known sites are alley settlements. The two largest and best-known sites are those at Harappathose at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
and Mohenjo-daro. 20.
20. We know lWe know littlittle of the idente of the identityity, origi, origins, or fate of tns, or fate of the people of the people of the Indus Vhe Indus Vallealleyy, nor , nor do we know what historical circumstances led to the development of a
do we know what historical circumstances led to the development of a sophisticated urban civilization. Part of the problem is that,
sophisticated urban civilization. Part of the problem is that, although they had aalthough they had a writing system, modern scholars are unable to
writing system, modern scholars are unable to decipher it.decipher it. 30.
30. The twThe two major uo major urban cerban centers of tnters of the Indus Vhe Indus Valley walley were Harere Harappa (3appa (3½ mile½ miles ins in circumference, population about 35,000) and Mohenjo-daro (several times circumference, population about 35,000) and Mohenjo-daro (several times
larger). Both settlements are surrounded by brick walls, have streets laid out in a larger). Both settlements are surrounded by brick walls, have streets laid out in a
grid pattern, and are supplied with covered drainage systems to carry away grid pattern, and are supplied with covered drainage systems to carry away waste. There are remains of something like a citadel that may have been a waste. There are remains of something like a citadel that may have been a center of authority, structur
center of authority, structures that may hes that may h ave been storehouses for ave been storehouses for grain, andgrain, and barracks that may have been for artisans.
barracks that may have been for artisans. 40.
40. Both uBoth urban cenrban centers maters may have cony have controltrolled the suled the surrounrrounding farding farmlandmland. Harap. Harappa waspa was located on the frontier between agricultural land and pastoral economies and located on the frontier between agricultural land and pastoral economies and may have been a nexus of
may have been a nexus of trade in copper, tin, and precious stones from thetrade in copper, tin, and precious stones from the northwest.
northwest. 50.
50. The IndThe Indus Vus Valley cialley civilivilizatiozation is characn is characteriterized by a high degrezed by a high degree of standae of standardizardizationtion in city planning, architecture, and even the size of the bricks. Some scholars in city planning, architecture, and even the size of the bricks. Some scholars have sought to explain this uniformity by hypothesizing the existence of an have sought to explain this uniformity by hypothesizing the existence of an authoritarian central government, whi
authoritarian central government, while others argue that it may have been le others argue that it may have been aa result of extensive trade within the
result of extensive trade within the region.region. 60.
60. The peoThe people of thple of the Indus Ve Indus Valley halley had bettad better acceer access to metss to metal than dial than did the Egyd the Egyptianptianss and the Mesopotamians. Thus the Indus
and the Mesopotamians. Thus the Indus VValley artisans used metal to alley artisans used metal to createcreate utilitarian goods as well as luxury
utilitarian goods as well as luxury items.items. 70.
70. TTechnoechnologiclogical achieval achievemenements of the Indus Vts of the Indus Vallealley civiliy civilizatiozation includen included extensid extensiveve irrigation systems, the potter’s wheel, kiln-baked bricks, a
irrigation systems, the potter’s wheel, kiln-baked bricks, a sophisticated bronzesophisticated bronze metallurgy
metallurgy, and a , and a system of writing. The people of the system of writing. The people of the Indus ValIndus Valley carried out anley carried out an extensive trade with the northwestern mountain areas, Iran
extensive trade with the northwestern mountain areas, Iran and Afghanistan, andand Afghanistan, and even Mesopotamia.
even Mesopotamia. C0.
C0. TrTransfansformatormation of tion of the Indhe Indus Vus Valley alley CiviCivilizatlizationion 10.
10. ScholScholars forars formerly bmerly belieelieved that ved that the Induthe Indus Vs Vallealley citiy cities were abes were abandoneandoned around aroundd 1900
1900BB..CC..EE. because of an invasion. Further evidence has convinced researchers. because of an invasion. Further evidence has convinced researchers that the decline of the
that the decline of the Indus VallIndus Valley civilizations was due to ey civilizations was due to a breakdown causeda breakdown caused by natural disasters and ecological change.
by natural disasters and ecological change. 20.
20. EcolEcologicaogical changl changes that pres that probablobably led to a decy led to a decline in aline in agricugriculturltural prodal productiouction andn and the eventual collapse of the
the eventual collapse of the Indus VallIndus Valley civilizations include the drying up ey civilizations include the drying up of theof the Hakra River
Hakra River, salinization, and erosion. When , salinization, and erosion. When urban centers collapsed, so did urban centers collapsed, so did thethe way of life of the elite, but the peasants probably adapted and survived.