Textiles- History, Properties and Performance and Application 2014

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C

ONTENTS

Preface vii

Contributor Contact Details ix

Andrej Javoršek, Cesar Pulgarin, Eva Bou-Belda, Gordana S. Ušćumlić, Ignacio Montava, Jaime Gisbert and Sami Rtimi

Chapter 1 An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing 1 Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride,

Karina Nobbs and Linda Shearer

Chapter 2 Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels

by Stone and Enzymatic Washing 19

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan

Chapter 3 Digital Textile Printing Using Color Management 53

Dejana Javoršek, Primož Weingerl and Marica Starešinič Chapter 4 Inkjet Printed Photo-Responsive Textiles for Conventional

and High-Tech Applications 81

Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Chapter 5 Synthesis and Grafting of Cellulose Derivatives from

Cellulosic Wastes of the Textile Industry 123

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and A. B. M. Fakrul Alam

Chapter 6 History, Synthesis and Properties of Azo Pyridone Dyes 157

Dušan Ž. Mijin, Gordana S. Ušćumlić and Nataša V. Valentić Chapter 7 Smart Textiles and the Effective Uses of Photochromic,

Thermochromic, Ionochromic and Electrochromic

Molecular Switches 187

Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Chapter 8 Smart Textiles 239

Ali Akbar Merati

Chapter 9 Overview of Textiles Excavated in Greece 259

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Chapter 10 Innovative Ag-Textiles Prepared by Colloidal, Conventional Sputtering and HIPIMS Including Fast Bacterial Inactivation:

Critical Issues 277

Sami Rtimi, Cesar Pulgarin, Rosendo Sanjines and John Kiwi

Chapter 11 Fungal Deterioration of Aged Textiles 315

Katja Kavkler, Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Polona Zalar and Andrej Demšar

Chapter 12 Durability of Functionalized Textiles by Microcapsules 343

Lucia Capablanca, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Díaz and Maria Ángeles Bonet

Chapter 13 New Approaches and Applications on Cellulosic

Fabric Crosslinking 355

Eva Bou-Belda, Maria Ángeles Bonet, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Díaz, Ignacio Montava and Jaime Gisbert

Chapter 14 Wrinkle Resistant and Comfort Finishing of Cotton Textiles 367

Vahid Ameri Dehabadi and Hans-Jürgen Buschmann Chapter 15 Evaluation of Physical and Thermal Comfort Properties of

Copper/Alginate Treated Wool Fabrics by Using Ultrasonic Energy 383

Muhammet Uzun

Chapter 16 Hemp Fibers: Old Fibers - New Applications 399

Mirjana Kostic, Marija Vukcevic, Biljana Pejic and Ana Kalijadis

Chapter 17 Textiles Using Electronic Applications 447

Marica Starešinič, Andrej Javoršek and Dejana Javoršek

Chapter 18 Textiles for Cardiac Care 465

Narayanan Gokarneshan, Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan, Venkatachalam Rajendran and Dharmarajan Anita Rachel Chapter 19 Effect of Clothing Materials on Thermoregulatory Responses

of the Human Body 483

P. Kandha Vadivu

Chapter 20 Designing of Jute–Based Thermal Insulating Materials

and Their Properties 499

Sanjoy Debnath

Chapter 21 Effects of Ring Flange Type, Traveler Weight and Coating on

Cotton Yarn Properties 519

Muhammet Uzun and Ismail Usta

Chapter 22 Optical Fiber Examination by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 531

Andrea Ehrmann

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P

REFACE

This book reveals the expanding opportunity of textiles in a wide range of industrial applications. No longer limited to apparels and home furnishings, textiles are being used in many sciences and technologies, such as clothing and fashionable materials, smart textiles, technical textiles, medical textiles, agro-textiles, geo-textiles, electronics, photonics, intelligent sensors, etc.

This book is intended for all those who are interested and engaged in the latest developments in the field of textiles, especially chemists, engineers, technologists, application technicians and colorists of the textile industry, technical colleges and universities.

Textiles are essential and one of the most important classes of materials used by all people since ancient time. Despite textiles having been around and in use for so long, advances and improvements continue to be made. This book contains 22 invited contributions written by leading experts in the field of textiles. Each contribution presents an updated science and technological advances that have happened during this period and are fully discussed. The first chapter discusses the present and future prospects of vintage fashion clothing, i.e., an old fashion clothing and its retailing. Chapter 2 searches for the dynamic best method for producing specific washing effects and designs on denim ready-made apparels. The chapters 3 and 4 present a discussion on color management application in the field of digital printing onto textile substrates, and inject printed photo-responsive textiles used in fashion and design, self indicating security alert systems, anti-counterfeit and brand protection. In chapter 5 and 6, an attempt has been made to cover the most up-to-date information regarding synthesis, and application of cellulose derivatives and azo dyes on textiles. Smart textiles incorporated with different functionalities have many uses in a variety of fields, some of them are widely used in the fields of biomedical or healthcare applications. The smart textiles and its multi-disciplinary applications have been well discussed in chapters 7 and 8. In chapters 9, 10 and 11, preservation of textile objects in different environments like home, stores, museums etc. have been discussed. These chapters also discussed how to protect textiles from bacterial and fungal deterioration. An elaborative discussion has been made in Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 on the new applications of textile materials through modification by physico-chemical methods. The modification has been done to obtain durable, comfort, sustainable and environment friendly finished products using various organic and inorganic chemicals for much better performance. Use of micro-capsulation techniques to modify textiles offers extra-properties, e.g., durable fragrances, skin softeners to textiles. Electronic applications of textiles have been discussed in chapter 17. Textiles, from

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fibers to fabric, with integrated special electronics are more and more used as special materials in newly developed smart clothing. The chapter 18 specifically focuses on the technological advances with regard to development of textiles for cardiology purpose, i.e., cardiac care. The thermoregulatory process of human body, the thermal comfort properties of fabrics and the effect of clothing material on the thermoregulatory process of human body in different weather conditions has been discussed in Chapter 19. In chapter 20, effort has been made on diversification of jute specifically, development of jute-based materials for thermal insulating applications. The main aim of chapter 21 is to utilize the ring flanges and travellers of ring spinning, which is the most effective staple yarn production process, for the yarn quality in terms of hairiness, twist, breaking strength and irregularity. The last chapter 22 gives an introduction into the techniques of confocal laser spinning microscopy, and depicts optical differences between several textile fibers, enabling a non-destructive examination of natural and chemical fibers.

I am very much grateful to all the specialized contributing authors of this book. My special appreciation is also extended to Ms. Carra Feagaiga of Nova Science Publishers, Inc., for her good collaboration, support and numerous discussions throughout the project for this book.

I wish thank to my colleagues Professor C. M. Mustafa, Professor F. I. Farouqui, and Professor M. A. Sayeed for their constant support and encouragement. I also thank my graduate students, Dr. Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan, Md. Raihan Sharif, Md. Saifur Rahman and Md. Tariqul Islam for their help during editing this book. Lastly I am thankful to Khadijatul Qubra and Ishrat Rafia for their constant encouragement, understanding and support.

Any constructive suggestions and comments are therefore welcome for future revisions and corrections.

Department of Applied Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Rajshahi University, Bangladesh November 2013 Professor Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal

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C

ONTRIBUTOR

C

ONTACT

D

ETAILS

A. B. M. Fakrul Alam

Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Ali Akbar Merati

Advanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute (ATMT), Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

E-mail: [email protected]

Ana Kalijadis

Laboratory of Physics, Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Andrea Ehrmann

Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology, Webschulstr. 31, 41065 Moenchengladbach, Germany

Andrej Demšar

Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Andrej Javoršek

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

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Biljana Pejic

Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Catherine Canning

Department of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland

Cesar Pulgarin

EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.

Christina Margariti

Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments / Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece

Dejana Javoršek

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Dharmarajan Anita Rachel

NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India E-mail: [email protected]

Dušan Ž. Mijin

Eva Bou-Belda

Departamento de Ingeniería Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politécnica de València, Plaza Ferrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Gordana S. Ušćumlić

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Hans-Jürgen Buschmann

Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen, NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany

Ignacio Montava

Ismail Usta

Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University, Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey

Jaime Gisbert

John Kiwi

EPFL-SB-ISIC-LPI, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bâtiment Chimie, Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Julie McColl

Karina Nobbs

London College of Fashion, 272 Holborn, London WCIV 7CY, UK

Katja Kavkler

Restoration Centre, Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Linda Shearer

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Louise McBride

Lucia Capablanca

Maria Bonet

Maria Retsa

Marica Starešinič

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Marija Vukcevic

Mashiur Rahman Khan

Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh and

Department of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal

Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

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Mirjana Kostic

Muhammet Uzun

Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, Deane Road, Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK, and

Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University, Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey

Narayanan Gokarneshan

Nataša V. Valentić

Nina Gunde-Cimerman

Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia,

and

Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

P. Kandha Vadivu

Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, India

Pablo Díaz

Pablo Monllor

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Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan

NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India

Polona Zalar

Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Primož Weingerl

University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snežniška 5,1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Rosendo Sanjines

EPFL-SB-IPMC-LNNME Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Bat PH, Station 3, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Sami Rtimi

EPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.

Sanjoy Debnath

National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Indian Council of Agricultural Research 12, Regent Park, Kolkata – 700 040, West Bengal, India

E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Department of Chemistry, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK and

The School of Textiles and Design, Heriot-Watt University, Galashiels TD1 3HF, UK E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Stavroula Moraitou

Vahid Ameri Dehabadi

Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universität Duisburg-Essen, NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Straße 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany

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Venkatachalam Rajendran

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Chapter 1

A

N

E

XPLORATION OF

V

INTAGE

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ASHION

R

ETAILING

Julie McColl

1,

, Catherine Canning

1

,

Louise McBride

1

, Karina Nobbs

2

and Linda Shearer

1

1_{Department of Business Management, Glasgow} Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland

2_{London College of Fashion, London, UK}

A

BSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to offer a definition of vintage fashion and consider the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer and the positioning of the vintage fashion store from the perspective of fifteen vintage fashion retailers. The research indicates that vintage fashion retailers position themselves on the basis of their uniqueness, based upon their experience, knowledge and skills.

Keywords: Vintage, fashion, definition, customer characteristics, positioning

I

NTRODUCTION

Over the past decade there has been an increasing trend for vintage fashion clothing [1]. Indeed, McMeekin [2] and Wilson and Thorpe [3] have identified that vintage fashion is a multimillion pound industry. Previously, second-hand clothing was purchased by low income groups, economically disadvantaged in terms of mainstream fashion. More recently, however, vintage clothing has become an alternative or an additional choice to high street fashion [4, 5]. Tolkien [6] has proposed that vintage stores and markets have become a desirable source for acquiring fashion items. This may be the result of increasing societal acceptance of an aesthetic shift, with vintage fashion being intended as a means of self-expression and differentiation [4, 7, 8].

 _{Corresponding author: Julie McColl. Department of Business Management, Glasgow Caledonian University,}

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The acceptance of second hand clothing as an alternative to high street fashion is partly due to the resurgence of fashion styles from the 1960s, 1970s and the 1980s [9], and the influence of celebrity culture [4, 10].

Consumers are increasingly aware of unethical practices in the fashion industry [10-12], and have become less tolerant towards disposable fashion and more suspicious of the behavior of global brands [8, 13]. The move of vintage from niche sub-culture to mainstream may be evidenced by the increased vintage offerings by high street, luxury and online retailers and by the plethora of guides on selecting and assembling vintage clothing outfits [4, 14, 15, 8, 16]. This apparent increase in vintage offerings has broadened the opportunities for the consumption of vintage clothing.

The term vintage is widely used yet has never been clearly defined [4, 7], in terms of the parameters, characteristics and the positioning of the vintage fashion retail store. The literature on the retailer positioning strategies is clearly established [17-26], however, there is little published research on vintage fashion retailing, and developments in the market and their implications for vintage fashion retailers has not been addressed. This exploratory study defines the concept of vintage fashion and the vintage fashion consumer. It evaluates the positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers, explores how they differentiate themselves in the face of increased competition and considers the implications of the more recent vintage trend for traditional vintage retailers.

L

ITERATURE

R

EVIEW

Definition of Vintage

It is difficult to define the concept of vintage, partly due to the lack of agreement regarding the specific time periods of ‘vintage’, ‘antique’ and ‘retro’ but also due to differences in opinion about the constituents of such clothing items.

According to De Long [7, p. 23] “in clothing, vintage usually involves the recognition of a special type or model, and knowing and appreciating such specifics as year or period when produced or worn”. Furthermore, they suggest that vintage clothing is concerned with a specific time period or setting and is distinguished from “antique, historical, consignment, re-used or second-hand”. Palmer and Clark [4, p. 175], define the term more broadly proposing that it is “used to cover a huge spectrum of clothes that are not newly designed”. Tungate [8, p. 221] offers a more focused definition which highlights the evolution and complexity of the term, identifying that “any one particular item may change through time and usage by the fashion media, so that second hand becomes known as retro then in turn as vintage”. The increase in availability of vintage and the growth of on-line availability of vintage clothing has added confusion to the array of vintage definitions [4].

From the customer view point, Tungate [8], proposes that vintage is an intangible concept which is more about attitude than style of dress.

Similarly Palmer [4], characterises vintage fashion as a symbol of individuality and originality. A primary aim of this research was to define vintage from the perspective of the vintage fashion retailer.

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Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer

Traditionally the buying of second-hand apparel has been subject to negative meanings as a mark of poverty [27, 28]. Tseëlon [29] acknowledged that this type of social judgment has been discounted by the vintage consumer in their quest for non-conformity to fashion trends. Silverman [30], recognized increased demand for vintage goods amongst the young consumer and the middle class consumer. Crewe and Forster [31], agree with this explanation, adding that these groups acquire vintage fashion for excitement and as a means of displaying themselves in public. Hansen [32], segments the vintage consumers into young professionals who want good quality apparel at modest prices, or young people keen on retro subculture looks like Punk, Rave or Mod styles.

In addition, Woodward’s [16] study explored younger consumer’s affection for vintage clothing and recognized that the incentive for consumption was to achieve a level of differentiation from their peers. Additionally, a substantial consumer group has been acknowledged as taste-makers: stylists, designers and image makers who use it as a means of inspiration and creativity [33-35]. The ownership, or the wearing of vintage items along with high street clothes, has become anindication of how fashionable the wearer is, with an increasing prominence on how the items are sourced, and not just on how the person looks [16]. The increase in mass market vintage has possibly weakened the authentic charm of vintage among ‘fashion’ orientated consumers, i.e., those more concerned with how things look and being individual in style, than having a deferential concern with the historic and representative links of these sometimes uncommon items which the vintage connoisseur and retail experts so value [7, 36, 38].

History and Key Drivers

Vintage as mainstream fashion emerged as a trend in the 1980’s [38]. Tolkien [6] has identified vintage as stemming from the New York social fashion elite, influenced by sentimental pictures of 1940’s couture. In addition, celebrities fueled demand and popularity of the style by wearing luxury vintage gowns to major award ceremonies and fashion shows. Others credit Barbra Streisand as the first vintage-couture advocate [39]. In turn, this encouraged designers such as Marc Jacobs, in the 1990s to create the ‘nouveau vintage’ look by reinventing older styles [40].

This trend also occurred in the UK and Europe with designers and celebrities such as Stella McCartney and Kate Moss inspiring mainstream adoption of vintage fashion [41, 42]. The appreciation of vintage aesthetics which grew in the 1990s helped to decrease the stigma of wearing second hand clothing, and permitted them to develop in to acceptable sources of fashion. This resulted in a differentiation both in-store and in the consumer’s mind, between vintage and clothing purchased from charity stores [1, 4, 6, 43]. The media has endorsed vintage fashion as a means of conveying connoisseurship and uniqueness, more recently extended by the juxtaposition of vintage and contemporary in one ensemble [4, 8].

Jackson and Shaw [44] highlight an important driver in the vintage movement is media attention on the unethical practices which exist in the fashion industry, resulting in a consumer backlash against disposable fashion and the beginnings of a ‘slow fashion’ movement, who emphasize the importance of quality as opposed to quantity [45].

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An additional driver acknowledged by Tungate [8] is customer defiance of expensive, branded products and trends promoted through marketing communications. In recent years, the economic downturn has witnessed ‘upcycled’ fashion items becoming a mainstream phenomenon; this is the re-working of old clothes into more modern-day, higher value pieces [46, 47].

The influential ‘retail guru’, author and broadcaster Mary Portas, successfully developed a media campaign in 2009 called ‘Living and Giving’ which improved the image of charity shops and further increased demand in vintage clothing [48]. More recently, in a study of street style Woodward [16], indicated that the trend for vintage has reached maturity and might now be perceived as commonplace or omnipresent.

In the case of both the retailer and the consumer alike, the uptake of the vintage trend in the ‘noughties’ has caused a reduction in the availability of interesting and unusual items, affecting the market in two ways. Firstly key pieces have increased in value and vintage fashion has grown to be an investment prospectrivaling the collection of artwork [49-50]. Agins [51] has identified that this is as a result of the widely broadcast view that the couture industry is declining, with prices accelerating and skilled workmanship growing scarcer. Secondly it means that traditional vintage consumers are being forced to search extensively and even globally to source the desired article [52].

In total there are three key drivers of vintage fashion trends. Firstly, the trickle down feature from celebrities and designers, secondly, the ethical aspect of the fashion industry and finally the need for individual uniqueness and authenticity. Palmer [4, p. 197) proposes that “vintage has now shifted from subculture to mass culture because of the disappointing fact that, regardless of price, fashion today is rarely exclusive”.

Market Structure and Vintage Retail Formats

Mhango and Niehm [53] suggest that vintage clothing retailers are focused within the small business sector, and are characteristically independently owned. These include second-hand stores for example thrift or charity shops, estate sales, garage sales, flea markets and auctions, usually the province of commercially-mediated lateral recycling [31, 54]. Nevertheless, vintage clothing retailers have now developed to comprise multifaceted retail support functions such as sourcing, supply chain management and visual merchandising [55]. Moreover many charity stores in Great Britain have re-invented themselves as ‘vintage’ to increase their apparent brand value and to distinguish themselves from others in the sector [12]. Mainstream high street retailers such as Top Shop and Urban Outfitters have successfully sold vintage clothing ranges for a number of years [15]. Tolkien [6] ascertains that the internet as a significant channel in the distribution of vintage clothing, however this phenomenon requires an alternative research approach and can be addressed in future studies.

Retail Positioning

Porter's [56, 57] theory of positioning theory has had an lasting impact on the marketing literature [58-65], and practice [66, 67], as one of the most significant concepts and fundamental principles of marketing [63, 64], central to strategic marketing success [68].

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The positioning strategy implemented by any company is grounded in the needs of the customer, the behaviour of the competition, and is ultimately how companies can achieve competitive advantage [69-73].

It is commonly acknowledged that although there are a number of positioning typologies developed within the marketing planning framework [59, 73-74], there is a lack of empirical research testing these typologies [61, 64]. Yip [75] has proposed that a number of the positioning approaches suggested within the literature, are incomplete and may be confusing. Table 1 offers a summary of positioning typologies. The concepts of these positioning typologies are considered by the authors as the central means by which the organisation can attain differentiation, increase competitive advantage and therefore position themselves within the market [64].

Table 1. Summary of positioning typologies

Author Positioning constructs i.e., concepts

Features and Benefits

Aaker and Shansby [59]; Berry [78]; Buskirk [76]; Brown and Sims [77]; Crawford [79]; Hooley, et al. [63]; Wind [73]

Features, price, advertising, distribution, problem solved, usage situation, users, competitors, value, time efficiency, high contact, sensory, benefits, product class dissociation, attributes, price, quality, use or application, product/service user, product/service class, competition, direct/indirect, surrogates: nonpareil, parentage (brand, company, person), manufacture, target, rank, endorsements, experience, predecessor, innovation-imitation, superior service-limited service, differentiated benefits-undifferentiated features, tailored offering-standard offering.

Strategic positioning

Ries and Trout [66] Market leader, follower, reposition the competition, use the name, line extension (use of house name).

Easingwood and Mahajan [80]

Reputation/capabilities of organisation: expertise, reliability, innovativeness, performance, augmentation of product offering: product augmentation, extra service, people advantage, more attractive package offering, a superior product through technology, accessibility, extra attention given to individual requirements through customisation, satisfaction of more user needs within the sector through offering a complete product line. Arnott [61, 58]

Empathy, solvency, promotions, administrative time, helpfulness, reliability, attentiveness, staff competence, flexible products, access to people, reputation, customisation, incentives, social awareness, security, technology.

Kalafatis, et al. [72]

Easy to do business, personal contact, product performance, range of offerings, presence, safety, leadership, distinct identity, status, country identity, differentiation, attractiveness.

Source: Adapted from Blankson and Kalafatis [64].

Blankson and Kalafatis [64], however, consider existing studies to be descriptive, difficult to put into practice and based on limited empirical testing, principally in terms of their representation within consumer marketplaces, their propensity being to represent the

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views of management. They propose that the literature lacks an empirically based consumer/ customer derived typology, which can measure the effectiveness of positioning strategies employed.

Having carried out extensive empirical research, they have proposed a positioning typology based on customer opinions, which they advise is suitable for both product and service markets and recommend that managers develop their positioning based on consumer perceptions of prestige, service, reliability, attractiveness, country of origin and brand name. These, they propose, are the key differentiating features within the marketplace and can be successfully deployed in marketing communication.

In the retailing literature, Cook and Walters [19] suggest that a company’s market position is its reaction to its understanding of the needs, desires and behavioural characteristics of its target customer profile. Retail positioning is defined by Wortzel [81, p. 47] who proposes:

“For a retailer, strategic positioning involves providing unique value. Strategic positioning involves selecting and then bringing to bear an integrated set of tools and communication techniques that identify and explain the store to the customer.”

Walters [18] offers a model of positioning developed as the consequence of wide-ranging empirical research within the retail sector. The fundamentals of the positioning strategy in retailing, he suggests, are a visible response to the needs and wants of the identified target market. The key decision areas for retailers in evolving their marketing strategy are those of trading format, merchandise strategy, customer service and customer communications strategy. These decision areas define the retailer positioning strategy, and position them in terms of what the customer anticipates and customer satisfaction, creating a point of distinction which separates retailers from their competitors and represents the retail brand [82, 26].

While established as a theoretical model, the strategic elements of Walters’s [18] value added positioning statement are still recognised in the retail marketing literature as the means by which retailers should position themselves in the market [17-26].

Therefore it forms the basis of a number of empirical studies on retailer brand positioning [20, 26, 81, 83-88, 89, 90], which stress the possible benefits of developing a clear and distinctive positioning statement using the elements of the retailing mix. Consequently it was thought to be the most suitable framework for application within this study. However, although there are a number of positioning typologies developed in the marketing and retailing planning context [59, 73-74], there is still a lack of empirical research testing these typologies [61, 64].

The literature suggests that small retailers, like those addressed within this study, are different from larger companies in terms of management systems and resources, and that planning, control and strategy are a result of the personal objectives and personality of the owner manager [91-93]. However, within the vintage retail sector, this proposition has not been tested. This research serves to help address this issue.

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M

ETHODOLOGY

Small companies are dominant within the vintage retail sector and generally evolve from the entrepreneurs who are enthusiastic about vintage themselves [12, 14]. The decision to focus on small scale companies is also supported by evidence provided in the vintage retailing literature, as existing research focuses on small companies [53, 54]. To be selected for this study the vintage retailers had to meet some or all of the specifications within the literature. They had to have high levels of experience in both buying and merchandising and so had to have been in business for at least two years. The participants of the study therefore had between two and twenty three years experience of running a vintage retailing company. To ensure consistency of trading practices, participants were required to trade as bricks and mortar businesses.

Therefore, participants would provide credible information as to the concept, positioning and differentiation of small vintage fashion retailers. Thirty nine vintage fashion retailers from Scottish towns and cities were identified from The Yellow Pages, trade journals and company websites.

Of these, twenty seven were found to have been in business for over two years, however one was found to sell only on an online basis. A letter was sent to these twenty six vintage fashion retailers from the population sample of thirty nine in September of 2009. A follow up phone call was made a week later. Sixteen retailers responded that they were willing to participate in the study, however, one potential participant remained unavailable. Therefore fifteen interviews were carried out with owner/managers of vintage retail stores. All participants had direct experience in the areas of buying and merchandising within the vintage retail sector. The owner managers were between twenty three and fifty eight years old.

The interviews took place within the retail premises and were approximately two hours long. Confidentiality was assured. The interviews were taped, transcribed and retained as Microsoft Word documents. Analysis was carried out by one member of the research team to ensure consistency. First of all the transcripts were analysed to identify common characteristics and emerging themes and issues.

At this stage, a “cluster” approach was adopted and a framework for theoretical development began to emerge [94]. These clusters were selected on the basis of significance, mutual exclusivity and ability to stand by themselves [95]. Yin [95] suggests that data analysis consists of examining, categorising, tabulating, and testing the content to address the initial propositions of the research. Interviews were analysed one at a time individually and then on a cross interview analysis. Patton [96] suggests that the analysis involves the application of the existing theoretical framework, developed from the literature, and the subsequent analysis of the interviews to allow for an examination of emerging patterns.

According to the theories and concepts extracted from the literature, the interviewees were asked open-ended questions about their definition of vintage, the vintage customer, merchandising and the positioning of the vintage store.

The results and discussion section is therefore divided into three sections. Firstly, the research seeks to define vintage fashion and investigate the vintage fashion movement, secondly, the research explores the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer from the perspective of the store owner/managers, and finally it explores positioning in relation to the retail vintage fashion sector.

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R

ESULTS

Defining Vintage Fashion

There was no unified or clear definition of vintage with each vintage retailer offering differing opinions and suggestions. However, three dimensions emerged. Firstly the age of the apparel, secondly the style, (a piece of clothing which sums up the era), and finally the

quality of the vintage clothing. The majority stated that fashion which predates the 1990s

would be considered to be vintage. To a number of interviewees ‘vintage’ could be categorised as anything up until the 1950s, with anything that pre dates 1980 being classified as ‘retro’, and anything before the 1920s being considered as ‘antique’.

“Probably not the 1990s but anything before that, especially the 1980s at the moment. Only the fashion forward are looking for 1990’s articles”

Some items of clothing were seen to represent the zeitgeist of bygone eras and these were particularly important to vintage consumers. Examples included a 1950’s prom dress or Dior’s ‘New Look’ full skirt. In 1960, ‘Twiggy-style’ 1960’s mini dress, in the 1970’s platform shoes and bell bottom trousers and 1980’s pedal pusher short trousers and frilled shirts from the New Romantic movement.

All participants agreed that, in order to satisfy customers, articles have to be of good quality. Almost all the participants agreed that vintage fashion was second hand, however, a few retailers sold old clothing manufactured in the past which was unworn. One retailer was selling unworn “Brutus” and “Lee” denim jeans from the 1970s which had been discovered in a warehouse. The most desirable items were those which had been bought in a past era but had rarely or never been worn, for example items which have been kept for special occasions and were in pristine condition. Examples included evening dresses, a wedding dress or a formal suit. One participant summed up the general opinion stating:

Vintage fashion isn’t something that is just old. If a ‘50’s dress is an ugly hideous rag- that is what it is, an ugly hideous rag. Vintage is the very, very best of its type.

Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer

Retailers were invited to define the vintage consumer from their own viewpoint. Participants stated that many of their customers were “fashion conscious” and “young” consumers, with an average age of between eighteen and twenty (many of them students), however all participants stated that the age range of their consumers was very diverse. It was found that he 18-25 year old consumers are most likely to be influenced by fashion trends. It was recognised that this particular segment had adopted the ongoing vintage trend which had positively increased demand for vintage clothing overall. These younger consumers were seen to be setting the trend for current trickle up fashion looks such the “nerd college look”, and “geek chic” (spectacles, drainpipe trousers or retro skirts with blouses and tank tops). The interviewees proposed that these trends had also extended to celebrities and were linked to sub-culture music trends.

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Young consumers were seen to purchase for originality and enjoyment, to display aspects of their own individual style, and in many cases, price. Participants stressed their ability to offer uniqueness which people see as a method of individual self expression. There was a certain status provided by the originality of rare clothing. One proposed:

You always feel quite smug when you say ‘Oh its Vintage’ there’s no way the person can go out and copy you

The next most important group of consumers identified were older customers (aged 30-70) who tended to purchase on price and nostalgia rather than trend. This segment were likely to invest more time, money and effort in their purchases and were generally more motivated about the authenticity of the product. For example, a number of participants discussed the importance to the customer of the story behind the garment; what one termed as “vintage magic.” Consumers were buying ‘more than a skirt or shirt,’ they were buying a piece of history, and often enjoyed hearing a story behind an item or ‘a treasure.’ Additionally, participants highlighted an increase in the number of ethical consumers, conscious of environmental issues and recycling. This customer group was diverse in age and nature. Finally, a small proportion of customers were collectors and business customers, for example television, film and theatre wardrobe designers and stylists for fashion magazines.

Vintage Retailer Positioning

Merchandising Strategy

The main concern by the retailers in sourcing garments was the authenticity of vintage fashion. Most considered vintage fashion to be authentic by the perceived age and its level of originality. They particularly sought garments which had been handmade and were therefore exclusive. Exclusivity is of particular importance as it allows premium pricing and provides differentiation for the store. Older designer clothing from fashion brands such as Chanel and Biba are becoming rare and difficult to source. Some of these older garments particularly with brand names are highly sought after. Products that are mass produced (even older clothing from the 1980s for example) are less likely to be perceived as authentic and are therefore less desirable. One retailer stated:

Authentic vintage is an original garment and not a vintage label from a high street store. They are obviously complete one offs and that in my mind is worth a lot more than some dress that’s been churned out by Marks and Spencer. Back in the ‘40s, ‘50s and ‘60s people were making their own clothes, which are highly desirable now.

Participants explained that they were able to verify the authenticity of garments through their personal expertise, gained through experience of sourcing and buying. Many retailers considered themselves to have expert technical knowledge, and could determine garment authenticity by the stitching, (e.g., of hand sewn products rather than machine produced) the fabric quality, and the smell of the garments. Because of the increasing difficulty in sourcing good quality vintage items some retailers had decided to sell more modern items that had been manufactured more recently but were made to an appropriate vintage design.

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They understood that the authenticity of these garments was debatable; however they agreed that consumers wanted to purchase this type of ‘pseudo-vintage’ product due to the desire to follow the vintage trend.

Retailers sourced second hand merchandise from a wide variety of second hand stores and markets both at home and abroad, charity and second hand clothing stores, car boot sales, recycling plants and many garments are donated by customers or other shoppers who wish to recycle. Vintage retailers will also recycle clothing back to recycling plants or ‘rag yards’ if they are unable to sell the garments.

Merchandise was both bought in bulk ‘by the sack’ or ‘large load’, or handpicked. Retailers occasionally sourced more exclusive merchandise from private individuals who perhaps were collectors themselves and chose to trade their personal vintage garments to be enjoyed by other enthusiasts or vintage collectors.

Some store representatives discussed of more recent emerging markets in Eastern Europe which offer opportunities for trade and sourcing of vintage clothing, offering alternatives to what is still available in the UK market. Participants also highlighted France and the US as fruitful sources. One stated that the US was particularly good for 1920’s dresses. One retailer observed:

I am sure there is a totally untapped market in Russia. I would like to visit there and raid some wardrobes. Russia is so large and many people don’t know the value of vintage garments yet.

Retailers selected merchandise according to ‘gut feel’ and intuition and was therefore a very personal issue. Participants sourced according to their personal expertise of the market, their customers and their personal knowledge of fashion history. The research found therefore that this personal expertise was highlighted by all participants as their main point of differentiation and competitive advantage. In many cases they proposed that a synergy existed between themselves, their knowledge of style and their customers. In most cases retailers explained that they understood their regular customers’ needs and wants and were able to buy accordingly.

The most popular brands were found to be Biba, Bus Stop, Mary Quant, Burberry, Dior and Chanel. Unlike high street fast fashion models, stock was not ‘turned around’ in weeks however, there is a seasonal approach to vintage merchandise. During the spring and summer, female consumers were looking for summer dresses, 1950’s style dirndl skirts (full skirt gathered at the waist), miniskirts and more recently in line with changing fashion trends, maxi dresses. During the winter, the demand was for heavier outerwear and coats, hats, gloves and scarves. Retailers explained that as a result of catwalk trends, there is still demand for real fur coats.

Participants explained that consumers believed that the wearing of old, second hand fur coats was acceptable to many of their customers because these items were manufactured prior to increased ethical awareness of animal rights issues.

Older fur therefore was perceived as glamorous and stylish despite the recent concerns surrounding new fur products. ‘Occasion’ dresses from any vintage era were always in demand and at Christmas, customers were looking for appropriate glamorous party wear. A table of the most popular items is outlined in Table 2 below. Selection of these items was based on more than half of the sample highlighting these product categories:

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Table 2. Most popular vintage items for men and women Ladies vintage items Men’s vintage items

1950s prom dresses 1960s shift dresses, 1970s maxi dresses

Evening wear – glamorous gowns, sequined and embroidered dresses

Real and fake fur coats and jackets Cashmere jumpers and cardigans Jewellery and watches

Handbags, scarves and belts

High heels and flat boots for ladies from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s

Formal wear Evening suits

Suits from the 1950s and 1960s Traditional dress (Kilts)

Retro Adidas tracksuit tops from the 1970s Levis jeans and denim jackets

Cowboy boots Military dress Leather briefcases Ties

One of the key challenges that participants highlighted was the procurement of appropriate, second hand stock which is in good condition. Due to the popularity of the trend, there is an increasing scarcity of stock as older garments become more worn and therefore less appealing due to reduced quality. This was seen to be an enduring problem which has heightened competition in the vintage sector.

There was a level of preparation required for all second hand garments. All the vintage retailers washed or dry cleaned items before sale. Some items required repairs such as sewing on buttons or zips, or making alterations such as altering hem lines. However, normally alterations were minimal so that the authenticity of the garments was not compromised. In some cases however, participants created new garments by combining two pieces together. If a part of a garment was too ‘worn out’ to be sold, sections of garments and fabrics could be ‘rescued’. One participant proposed:

We buy dresses that are full length and we cut them to mini dresses. We actually have a tailor next door who does all that for us. We have bought blazers and put accessories on them to make them look more interesting

Customer Service

Personal service was found to be essential to the success of most of the retailers. Most employees were owner/managers, assisted by partners, friends or family members who had a vested interest in the success of the store. All retailers explained that they know a high proportion of their customers very well, considering individual customer tastes, needs and style when sourcing garments. Some participants would store items for particular customers. In addition, customers frequently request the sourcing of specific items. Therefore, the basis of much of the customer service for vintage retailers was the building of relationships. Additionally, all had a loyal and regular customer base. Many proposed that the development of these relationships allowed retailers to offer a personalised service. A number of retailers offered an alteration service for their customers. Therefore differentiation was possible for these retailers due to the relationships and customer service they developed with their consumers.

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Most proposed that they themselves personally were the differentiation through their passion for the vintage concept, their choice of merchandise, their expert knowledge and expertise. One participant stated:

It’s me. The company is built around my personality, personal style and taste. My customers like that and they trust my judgement.

Communications

Store image elements were the most important methods of communication for vintage stores. That is, the window display and the store interior. The window display was seen as vitally important to generate interest and curiosity from passersby and the unique store interior and merchandise communicated a distinctive brand image. In terms of traditional communications, most of the retailers did not use print advertising often due to expense and due to limited success using this method in the past. A few advertised in local directories and the Yellow Pages. Many participants explained that local press editorial had proved to be very effective in increasing awareness and enhancing business profile. The main type of communication reported that was thought to be essential by all interviewees is word of mouth (WoM) marketing due to the high levels of personal service outlined above. Positive customer experiences were thought to be vitally important for promotion and generating custom.

The group was divided in relation to e-marketing. Only half of the participants operated a website. However, several participants interacted with social media platforms (at varying levels) in order to connect with the vintage fashion community, to increase brand awareness and generate enquires and consumer awareness.

Store Trading Format

All the participants in the study were small-scale retailers who were independently owned. Typically, most stores were single units which were 700-1100sq.ft. in size. Many were located in secondary geographical locations with a ‘neighbourhood feel.’ All of the retailers included in this research described themselves as traditional ‘bricks and mortar’ boutique-style shops. Of those that operated websites, most were non transactional, and two of the stores had their own on-line stores. The majority of sales were traditional, meaning in store retailer to consumer business. Interestingly, a few retailers had evolved their stores from market stalls and indicated that a proportion of vintage trade still took place on that basis.

All proprietors explained that the store image was essential to vintage retailing. Many participants stated that the window styling, store layout and product display was important to create the atmosphere of “a bygone era” and many described the stores as “quirky” and “individual”. Each store represented the personality of the owner, with one retailer explaining that he wanted to “create the right kind of vibe” with music from a previous era and choosing items carefully to represent his sense of taste and style. Many displayed interesting pieces that were collectors’ items or were appropriate to present the vintage image. Old gramophones, old bicycles, wallpaper from the 1970s and 1980s, old pictures and pieces of art and various other pieces of memorabilia were displayed according to the proprietors’ preference. The product display varied from store to store. Most displayed clothing in racks similar to new modern high street retailing and many had containers such as baskets and boxes and shelves of mixed accessories and jewellery that consumers enjoyed “sifting through” and “hunting for a treasure or a bargain.”

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C

ONCLUSION

The vintage movement was mainly something of a “fad” that was followed by a small group of innovators such as art school and fashion students. However more recently it would appear to be an enduring trend, increasing in popularity, growing into a mainstream fashion phenomenon. This is evidenced by its diverse customer base, adopted by young, fashion conscious consumers and maintaining a group of diverse traditional vintage customers of a variety of age groups.

The movement has also gained interest due to more recent concerns over ethical issues such as recycling and sustainability. This study discovered two main groups of consumers; young and fashion conscious, interested in current trends and mix and matching from various styles, high street and vintage and also an older customer with a greater focus on price and interest in nostalgia. An emerging issue for many customers were their ethical concerns. This research explores the retailer perspective of the vintage fashion trend. Future research is necessary, to investigate consumer motivation buying vintage fashion of these different groups.

This research set out to define the concept of vintage fashion within its current context. Therefore, vintage fashion can be defined as:

Garments and accessories which are more than twenty years old, which represent a particular fashion era, and which are valued for their uniqueness and authenticity.

Positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers was also explored. Table 3 highlights the key areas of positioning within vintage retailing.

The research therefore revealed that vintage retailers position themselves through their distinctive retailing mix. Vintage proprietors explained they could source items that were totally individual and unique. As one store owner stated, You are buying a piece of history…

a treasure. This was the main difference between other independent stores. Table 3. Vintage Retailer Positioning Elements Customer

communication Trading format

Merchandise

strategy Customer service

Individual retail brand image, quirky and constantly evolving, distinctive store environment, window and interior displays, retro props, localised PR, word of mouth, growing importance of social media Small scale, independent, single site, secondary geographical location, multi-channel participation, boutique style, unique store image which represents the personality of the owner

Sourcing: personal, diverse, intuitive, expert and historical knowledge, global Product: authentic, original, exclusive, rare brands, pre-owned, handpicked, limited supply of merchandise

Personal, individual, relationship based, long term, synergy between business owner and customer, availability of adjustments and alterations, employee passion for the vintage concept

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Sourcing therefore was an extensive challenging and time consuming process which reflected the personality and expertise of the proprietors. The “quirkiness” of the store interior and environment was also of importance and word of mouth communication was also found to be very important in terms of promotions. Vintage retailers are often small scale, owner-managed businesses, and are because of this, closer to their customers and able to form individual relationships through merchandise supply and customer service. The influence of the owner/manager, their style and personality is consequently reflected and embedded in the positioning of the company, offering differentiation of their individual stores in the market. There remains a gap in the literature in terms of analysis of the vintage customer. The positioning model above could, in future studies, be used to establish consumer responses to vintage retailer strategy.

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