ISSN: 2157-4898; EISSN: 2157-4901
© 2019 IJLS; Printed in the USA by Lulu Press Inc.
The motivational profile of adolescent foreign language learners: An international comparison
Scott KISSAU, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA1 Chuang WANG, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA Marion RODGERS, Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany Helga HAUDECK, Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany Christine BIEBRICHER, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Despite the many benefits associated with learning another language, multiple studies have indicated that students across nations have differing motivational profiles that leave them more or less interested in pursuing language learning. Understanding the motivational influences of language learners in different countries and cultures has the potential to help guide and shape curriculum that meets student needs and interests. In response, the researchers used a mixed methodology to investigate the motivational profile of 132 American students studying Spanish, 220 German and 184 Chinese students learning English, and 38 students from New Zealand studying German. Data collected from surveys and interviews suggested both many commonalities among the students with respect to their reasons for language study and what motivates them in their language classrooms, as well as a number of interesting differences. Foreign language teaching stakeholders should consider the results of the study when planning instruction, instructional materials, and programming in order to better meet the motivational profile of their students.
Keywords: Adolescent Learners; Foreign Language; International Comparison; Mixed Methodology; Motivation
1. Introduction
The benefits of being able to communicate in more than one language are plentiful. Multiple accounts underscore the cognitive, academic, employment, and cultural reasons for learning another language (Kroll & Dussias, 2017;
Damari, Rivers, Brecht, Gardner, Pulupa, & Robinson, 2017). Despite these many benefits, and the demands and opportunities posed by international
1 corresponding author (Email: [email protected])
commerce, travel, and security initiatives, all students around the world are not equally interested in learning another language, due in part to their differing motivational profiles (Bernat, 2004; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999; Rueda
& Chen, 2005). Kouritzin, Piquemal, and Renaud (2009, p. 288) for example, investigated the beliefs and attitudes of post-secondary foreign language learners in Canada, France, and Japan and argued that learners develop
“socially constructed attitudes toward and beliefs about foreign language learning, which predisposes individuals to learn – or not to learn – foreign languages.” Rueda and Chen pointed out that understanding these social and cultural influences has the potential to guide and shape curriculum in a way that meets student needs and interests (2005) and Zubairi and Sarudin (2009, p. 75) added that “knowing the beliefs and attitudes students have with regard to learning a foreign language is important for teachers, curriculum designers, and policymakers.” To better understand how language learning motivation varies internationally, the researchers compared the motivational profiles of adolescent students who were learning a foreign language in the United States, Germany, China, and New Zealand.
2. Background
2.1. Theoretical framework
In his early work, Gardner placed emphasis on learner attitudes toward the target language community and learners’ reasons for language study (Gardner & Lambert, 1959). According to Gardner’s Socioeducational Model (1985), individuals choose to study a foreign language for integrative or instrumental reasons. Integratively-oriented students choose to study a language in order to get to know its culture and people while instrumentally- oriented students are more interested in the practical reasons for learning the language, for example, to fulfill an admission or graduation requirement or to improve job prospects. However, Gardner’s dichotomy, particularly his definition of an integrative orientation, has drawn criticism. Do rnyei (1994) argued that Gardner’s definition lacks relevance for foreign language students who have little opportunity to interact with speakers of the target language and cited the strong integrative orientation among English language learners in China who had no contact with English-speaking people (Do rnyei, 2003).
Do rnyei and Csize r (2002) proposed that an integrative orientation may not relate to a desire to integrate with the target language community, but rather to identify with attributes associated with that community. Oxford and Shearin (1994), argued that Gardner places too much attention on societal factors and does not give adequate attention to other influential classroom factors.
In response to such concerns, Gardner has revised his model multiple times.
While maintaining the integrative/instrumental dichotomy, Gardner noted that, in addition to possessing an integrative or an instrumental orientation, the learner must also be motivated (1996). In other words, the learner must have the desire to learn the language, put forth the required effort (motivational intensity) and have positive attitudes toward that language.
Gardner’s model now also incorporates classroom-related factors, such as course and teacher evaluations and classroom anxiety, and it remains highly influential (Kouritzin et al., 2009).
2.2. Motivational profiles
Previous research supports the claim that many of the above-mentioned motivational factors may vary across nations. For example, while studies conducted in the UK (Bartram, 2006), Germany (Finkbeiner, Olson, &
Friedrich, 2013), and Canada (Kouritzin, et al., 2009) have emphasized the value of an instrumental orientation, other studies in the United States (Kissau & Salas, 2013), and Hungary (Nikolov, 1999) have suggested that the classroom experience and student-teacher relationship are most influential.
In his study examining the motivation to learn English of Indonesian adolescents, Lamb (2012) reported that, while seeing the relevance or usefulness of the language (instrumental orientation) was beneficial, what made the 13- and 14-year-old students in his study invest effort in the language learning process was how they felt about the classroom experience.
In their study investigating the reasons why a group of American teenage boys decided to pursue learning French throughout high school, Kissau and Salas (2013) also emphasized the motivational influence of the classroom experience over other motivational factors. While the boys in the study appreciated the interactive and engaging teaching strategies used in their classroom, they were most motivated by the strong relationship they had developed with their teacher.
Other comparative studies investigating the motivation of foreign language learners from different countries have also suggested interesting differences.
While acknowledging that the 150 students studying French in Canada and Scotland in their study shared many motivational traits (Diffey et al., 2001), the researchers found the 64 Canadians to be more instrumentally oriented than their Scottish peers. The researchers also found that the Canadian students were more likely to attribute their successes or failures to the teacher. Adding support to these findings, Kouritzin et al. (2009) also found evidence of a strong instrumental orientation in Canadian students. In their study comparing the language learning motivation of more than 6,000 post- secondary students in Canada, Japan, and France, the Canadians were more instrumentally oriented than their peers to learn another language. The French students, on the other hand, were more integratively oriented than
students from the other two nations: They were interested in learning about the target language culture and in getting to know native-speakers of that language.
Other portraits of language learners from various nations have suggested differences in regard to other motivational factors. For example, multiple studies have indicated that adolescent students, and particularly adolescent boys, in the UK have little confidence, or self-efficacy, in their ability to learn a foreign language and that this lack of confidence is a major factor in their decision to discontinue language learning (Fisher, 2001; Graham, 2004). Goal setting and anxiety represent other motivational factors where interesting cultural differences may exist among language learners. Rueda and Chen (2005) found that the Asian students in their study set higher goals for themselves than non-Asian students, and that Asian students were more anxious than their peers.
An overview of the above-mentioned research provides evidence of differences in the factors that influence one’s motivation to learn another language among learners from different countries. However, Kouritzin et al.
(2009) added that there is little existing research that compares the beliefs and attitudes of language learners in international contexts, particularly since previous studies often considered only a small number of individual factors and compared learners from only two or three nations. Because second language motivation is a broad construct that involves multiple factors and may also offer implications for curriculum design and instruction, Rueda and Chen (2005, p. 244) concluded that “the role of motivational factors in foreign language acquisition needs to be further examined among learners from different ethnic groups.” To respond to this need, this study investigated the extent to which the motivational profile of adolescent foreign language learners differs across nations.
3. Method
The researchers used a mixed methodology to investigate the motivational profile of foreign language learners across nations (United States, Germany, New Zealand, and China). The quantitative data allowed for the analysis of scores reported by a large number of participants in multiple countries. The qualitative data, on the other hand, afforded deeper insights and perspectives on the topics that emerged from the quantitative analysis.
3.1. Participants
U.S sample. A total of 132 American students studying Spanish completed the survey. Among them, 65 (49%) were boys and 67 (51%) were girls. Most (74%) started learning the foreign language at elementary school
(Kindergarten thru Grade 5), and approximately one quarter started in middle school (Grades 6-8). The majority (n = 124, 94%) were not native speakers of Spanish. Twelve students (9%) indicated that they would not continue studying Spanish throughout secondary school, 34 (26%) were not sure, and 86 (65%) said they would continue studying Spanish throughout secondary school. Their teachers were predominantly female (n = 88, 67%).
German sample. Two hundred and twenty-five German students studying English completed the survey. One hundred (45%) were boys and 120 (55%) were girls. Most (n = 215, 98%) started learning English in primary school (Kindergarten thru Grade 8) and many (n = 152, 70%) reported having visited an English-speaking country. Only four students claimed to be native-speakers of English (2%). Four students (2%) indicated that they would not continue studying English throughout secondary school, 25 (11%) were unsure of their plans, and 191 (87%) said that they would continue studying English throughout high school.
Chinese sample. There were 184 students who completed the survey (106 boys and 78 girls). All were studying English, and nearly all (n = 178, 97%) started to learn the language in primary school. None of them was a native speaker of English, and most (n = 163, 89%) had never visited an English–
speaking country. All reported that they were planning to continue studying the language in secondary school.
New Zealand sample. Thirty-eight students studying German in New Zealand completed the survey, including 15 boys and 23 girls (40% and 60%).
Most (n = 33, 87%) started learning German in middle school (Grades 6-8) whereas five (13%) started in primary school (Kindergarten thru Grade 5).
No one self-identified as a native speaker of German, and many (84%) had visited a German-speaking country. One student (3%) indicated that he/she would not continue studying German throughout secondary school, four (10%) students were not sure, and 33 (87%) confirmed that they would study the language throughout high school.
3.2. Instruments
Survey. The Attitude Motivational Test Battery (AMTB), developed by Gardner (1985), provided the framework for the online survey. Section I of the survey solicited student background information (see Appendix A). In Section II, participants were asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with 43 items, using a 5-point Likert scale (1=strong disagreement, 2=disagreement, 3=neutral, 4=agreement, 5=strong agreement). Thirty-eight of the 43 items were drawn directly from the AMTB (Gardner, 1985) and addressed eight motivational variables, or subscales, including Motivation Intensity (M1-M5), Desire (D1–D5), Attitudes toward the
Language (A1-A5), Integrative Orientation (I1-I4), Instrumental Orientation (In1-In4), Teacher Evaluation (T1-T5), Course Evaluation (C1-C5), and Anxiety (An1-An5). Five items (S1-S5) measuring self-efficacy (Netten, Riggs,
& Hewlett, 1999) were also included.
Interviews. Following completion of the survey, a total of 34 randomly selected students participated in an individual, semi-structured interview. Of the 34 participants, seven were American, nine were German, 12 were Chinese, and six were from New Zealand. The participants ranged in age from 13 to 16, 19 were male and 15 were female, and all had prior experience learning their chosen language of study in either elementary or middle school.
Interviews lasted approximately ten minutes and asked students to describe their motivation to learn the target language, the factors in their foreign language classroom that influenced their level of motivation, the classroom activities they found to be most motivating, and steps that could possibly be taken to further their motivation to continue learning the language.
3.3. Procedure
Sampling and data collection. Convenience sampling was used in this study.
The researchers approached schools where they had personal connections in the United States, Germany, China, and New Zealand, respectively. Given that motivation can vary according to the language of study, even among individuals from the same nation (Carr & Pauwels, 2009; Williams, Burden, &
Lanvers, 2002), the researchers decided to focus on just one commonly studied foreign language in each of the participating countries. In other words, they investigated the motivational profile of English language learners in Germany and China, students studying Spanish in the United States, and students of German in New Zealand. The researchers decided to investigate student motivation toward these languages since they are commonly offered in their native lands and they had access to students who were studying them.
Once all survey data were collected, interviews were conducted individually by one researcher in each of the participating countries. All student participants were between 13 and 16 years old and were drawn from multiple high schools in their respective country.
Data analytical procedures. Internal consistency of the participants’ survey responses was examined by Cronbach’s alpha. Pearson correlation coefficients were used as evidence of aspects of construct validity of the responses to the survey. Means and standard deviations were reported as descriptive statistics. Multivariate analysis of variance was employed to examine mean differences between the samples. Partial eta squared (η2) were reported as effect size in addition to statistically significant or insignificant differences. According to Cohen (1988), an effect size is small (.06 > η2>= .01),
medium (.15> η2 >=.06), or large (η2 >= .15).
A grounded theory approach (Glaser, 1992) was used when collecting and analyzing the interview data to detect emerging themes. Following Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw (1995), once all interviews had been transcribed, the researchers individually read each transcription and coded the data using the comment function in Microsoft Word. The researchers then compared notes and agreed upon a set of common broad themes.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are reported in Table 1. The construct aspect of validity was examined by correlating students’ responses to anxiety and self-efficacy.
The negative relationship between the mean of participants’ responses to anxiety and self-efficacy items confirms Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (1986):
students who had higher scores for self-efficacy tended to report lower scores for anxiety.
Table 1
Motivational Profile
Motivation Factor USA
(n=132) Germany
(n=220) China
(n=184) New Zealand
(n=38)
M(SD) Alpha M(SD) Alpha M(SD) Alpha M(SD) Alpha
Motivation Intensity 3.74 (0.60)
.75 3.46 (0.58)
.58 3.91 (0.88)
.88 3.86 (0.67)
.76
Desire 3.82
(0.69) .74 3.65
(0.64) .55 3.98
(0.88) .82 4.16
(0.69) .76
Attitude 3.66
(0.76) .89 3.85
(0.73) .85 4.04
(0.93) .93 4.21
(0.68) .85
Integrative
Orientation 3.95
(0.84) .89 4.09
(0.59) .59 4.21
(1.01) .95 4.28
(0.66) .86
Instrumental
Orientation 3.48
(0.78) .78 3.62
(0.64) .51 3.91
(0.89) .83 3.39
(0.70) .70
Teacher Evaluation 4.41
(0.59) .91 3.86
(0.92) .88 4.37
(1.10) .97 4.61
(0.76) .95
Course Evaluation 3.61
(0.75) .91 3.78
(0.87) .90 4.12
(1.02) .95 4.11
(0.78) .92
Anxiety 3.84
(0.60) .82 4.31
(0.60) .83 2.27
(1.06) .91 3.74
(0.68) .87
Self-Efficacy 2.80
(1.01) .90 2.21
(1.03) .90 3.70
(0.83) .88 2.77
(0.99) .89
4.2. Profiles for Each Country
USA. American students reported significantly lower scores than their peers in regard to multiple factors found to influence motivation to learn another language. As demonstrated in Table 1, the American students reported less positive attitudes toward the target language (Spanish) when compared to the
Chinese students’ attitudes toward English and the New Zealand students’
attitudes toward German, F (3, 554) = 8.82, p < .001, partial η2 = .05 (small effect). American students were also found to be significantly less integratively-oriented than their Chinese peers. In other words, they reported to be less interested in getting to know the people and culture of the target language than were the students from China, F (3, 554) = 4.30, p = .01, partial η2 = .02 (small effect). Significant differences were also noted involving American students with respect to self-efficacy and anxiety (see Table 1).
American students reported being less confident in their abilities to use the target language than the Chinese students. They were, however, found to be more confident and less anxious than their German counterparts.
While the American students may have expressed less positive attitudes toward the target language than their peers from China and New Zealand, the qualitative data consistently indicated that the American students had positive attitudes toward Spanish that they developed in elementary or middle school and carried forward. A 14-year-old male stated, “because at a young age I liked learning Spanish in school and stuff, and it made me want to continue.” Five of the seven Americans who participated in the interviews mentioned that Spanish is an important language spoken in numerous countries around the world. For example, a 13-year-old American student reported, “If I had to pick any language to study, I would definitely pick Spanish because it is like a general language and a lot of people speak it.”
With respect to their reasons for studying Spanish, the majority of the American interviewees (4 of 7) cited instrumental, as opposed to integrative, reasons. For example, a 14-year-old male reported that he wanted to become a doctor, and that learning Spanish will help him better communicate with his patients. In support of the survey data, only two of the seven Americans (29%) specifically referenced their desire to interact with native speakers or learn about Spanish culture. The Americans seemed less interested in communicating with native speakers of the target language, yet all but one of the seven Americans commented that they enjoyed interacting with their peers in the target language, and recommended greater opportunities for peer-to-peer interaction to further enhance their motivation. For example, one student stated: “I like the interpersonal speaking. That’s fun! What we do is we speak to other people in class. So one person talks to us, and we have to respond to them like a conversation. That is really fun.”
In addition to participating in activities that provided opportunities to interact in the target language with classmates, when asked what motivated them in their Spanish classroom, all of the Americans emphasized engaging activities. Four of the seven (57%) mentioned being motivated by playing games that help to make language learning both fun and easy. Take for
example the following words of a 13-year-old American male: “We do a lot of games, which is fun. And it is an easy way to learn it too. I love it when we play Quizlet.” Another 12-year-old American male confirmed: “We play a couple games like Quizlet and DuoLingo where it’s like competing against our classmates to win doing Spanish vocabulary and stuff. That’s fun.” A 13-year old female commented, “if I have a fun teacher, then it like motivates me a lot more.” A 14-year-old American added, “My teacher really works to do a lot of different things. I feel with her playing games, and doing things that keep us excited about learning, it makes it a little easier for me, and a lot more fun.”
Germany. As demonstrated in Table 1, German scores were also significantly lower in regard to multiple influential factors than their peers from other countries. For example, they reported statistically significantly lower levels of motivational intensity (effort), F (3, 554) = 16.81, p < .001, partial η2 = .08 (medium effect), and significantly lower levels of teacher evaluation, F (3, 554) = 16.79, p < .001, partial η2 = .08 (medium effect), than the students from all three other countries. The German students also reported higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-efficacy in comparison to students from the other three countries, but similar mean scores for Desire, Attitudes, Integrative and Instrumental Orientations, and Course Evaluation.
The qualitative data collected from the nine German participants confirm the survey data. All nine of the Germans stated that they wanted to learn English and expressed very positive attitudes that focused on English as a “world language.” A 15-year-old German elaborated: “It’s important to have English skills, because it’s quite important nowadays and everybody learns English, basically, almost everybody in Germany.” Three others also commented that previous English instruction in primary school influenced their positive attitudes. A 14-year-old male explained, “Since I studied English from the beginning, now at the Gymnasium, when French was added to the schedule, it was somehow difficult, and I didn’t want to start from scratch. I wanted to progress with English.”
In further support of the survey data, the German interviewees also expressed both integrative and instrumental orientations for learning the language. Six of the nine (67%) emphasized the career-related benefits of learning English, whereas only four (44%) also expressed integrative reasons that focused primarily on interest in the culture of English-speaking countries, and in particular, the United States. A 16-year-old German explained: “Yeah, it’s interesting to me in a particular way, because it’s just, that the culture, the English and especially the American one, they’re pretty interesting for us teenagers.”
While only two Germans (22%) expressed a desire to communicate with native-speakers of English, seven (78%) mentioned that they enjoyed
interacting with their peers in English, and five (56%) reported partner or group work to be motivating. A 15-year-old female stated, “It’s really good, when we have dialogs with a partner, or work in groups to get into these real life situations and try to have a conversation.” Further emphasizing the motivational influence of group work on German students, and perhaps explaining the significantly lower German ratings for Teacher Evaluation, three of the Germans (33%) wished that their teachers provided more frequent opportunities for group and partner work and were more critical of their teachers than were their peers from the other three countries. In particular, they noted that unprepared and unenthusiastic teachers had, at times, been detrimental to their motivation to learn English, explained as follows by a 16-year-old male: “The lessons are thought-through and structured much more poorly, and it seems as if the teacher didn’t prepare, and I think it plays a huge role, since somehow I’m less motivated during English class than I was before.”
China. The Chinese students reported the most positive mean scores for five of the nine subscales (see Table 1). In regard to three of the five, the differences were statistically significant. Chinese students reported statistically significantly higher levels of instrumental orientation than the students from all three other countries, F (3, 554) = 11.34, p < .001, partial η2
= .06 (medium effect). In other words, they reported to be more motivated by the practical reasons for studying the target language (i.e, career-related) than their counterparts from the US, New Zealand, and Germany. Keeping in mind the negative effects of anxiety and the positive influence of confidence (self- efficacy) on motivation to learn another language, it is noteworthy that the Chinese students reported significantly lower levels of anxiety, F (3, 554) = 232.65, p < .001, partial η2 = .56 (large effect), and higher levels of self- efficacy, F (3, 554) = 80.56, p < .001, partial η2 = .31 (large effect), in comparison to students from all three other countries.
Once again, the qualitative data from the interviews confirmed the quantitative findings, particularly with respect to Instrumental Orientation.
Reflecting the survey results, the 12 Chinese students stressed the practical, often career- or academic-related reasons for studying English. When asked why he was studying English, a 14-year-old male student stated, “I learn English for passing exams, such as the High School Entrance Examination and the College Entrance Examination.” Four of his peers also mentioned passing exams and getting into foreign universities as their primary reason for studying English. The importance of English in securing employment was also mentioned multiple times. A 14-year-old female concurred, “English is a universal language in the world. I learn it for passing examinations and finding a good job in the future”. Even the few Chinese students (3 of 12) who did not report being highly motivated made reference to instrumental reasons
behind their lack of motivation: “I am not motivated because, I cannot see the profits of learning English and get a good return in a short run.”
While emphasizing instrumental motives, several Chinese students also expressed integrative reasons for studying English. Similar to their German peers, the interview data suggested that they were motivated to learn English, not necessarily to interact with native-speakers, but rather to satisfy their interest in the culture of English-speaking countries. A 13-year-old male explained, “I learn English because I want to read English books and watch English movies.” Another adolescent male added, “I am learning English because there are many interesting stories in English.” Similar to their peers from other countries, the data suggested that these positive attitudes toward the target language appeared to be developed in their early coursework. One Chinese student commented, “My interest and motivation in learning English was cultivated in elementary school.”
In addition to having different reasons for studying the target language, the Chinese students reported their motivation to be influenced by different factors than those expressed by their counterparts from other countries.
While the Americans reported being motivated by opportunities for interaction among peers and engaging activities, and the Germans reported enjoying group work and opportunities to learn about American culture, the Chinese emphasized more logistical factors: A 14-year-old male student stated: “My motivation is likely to be influenced by the factors such as being fatigued and tight schedule.” Another student added, “The teacher’s pronunciation, teaching materials and amount of homework are factors influencing my motivation.” While the Americans reported wanting more engaging and fun activities, and the Germans hoped for more opportunities to interact in groups, the Chinese students wanted a more rigorous and challenging curriculum. When asked what could further motivate him to learn English, a Chinese student reported, “The count of English tests in the High School Entrance Examination and the National College Entrance Examination should be raised.” Another mentioned that English textbooks “should be more challenging;” a third called for more challenging materials, and a fourth added, “Rigorous and brisk atmosphere in classroom would make me motivated. Besides, difficulty in exercises would influence my motivation.”
The Chinese students were also unique in that they were the only group to mention parental expectations as a motivating factor. Four of the 12 (33%) stated that their parents expected them to do well in English, and three (25%) mentioned that their parents compared their results with others, and that motivated them to do well: “Besides, my parents often compare my learning outcomes with others, which influence my motivation as well.”
New Zealand. The students studying German in New Zealand reported the
highest mean score for four of the nine subscales. Their desire to learn the target language was statistically significantly higher than that of the Germans who were learning English, F (3, 554) = 10.53, p < .001, partial η2 = .05 (small effect), and their attitude toward learning the target language was more positive than that of the Americans. They also reported significantly more positive course evaluations than the German and American students, and significantly higher levels of self-efficacy, and significantly lower levels of anxiety than the German students.
The interview responses from New Zealanders most closely resembled those of the Americans. They too expressed very positive attitudes about their chosen language of study, and reported that these positive feelings were initially developed in elementary or middle school language instruction. Like their American counterparts, the New Zealanders also mentioned the motivational benefits of a great teacher, enjoyed a variety of engaging activities, including activities that made use of technology, and were motivated by opportunities to apply what they had learned in interactive activities. A 14-year-old female commented, “Sometimes when we are learning words and phrases, we’ll stand up and be forced to interact with each other and that works really well because it allows you to again put them into practice, but in an actual conversation.”
Differing from their peers from Germany and China, the New Zealanders placed less emphasis on the importance of the target language, and stressed an interest in learning about different cultures and personal connections to the language. When asked why she was studying the target language, a 15- year-old female explained, “Because you get more opportunities to talk to people and learn about another culture, a whole other place that is completely different from where you grew up. It’s always been one of my favorite things about the language.” Only one of the six New Zealanders mentioned a career- related benefit, yet four (67%) mentioned their desire to travel abroad and learn about different cultures and people. Unlike their peers from the other three countries, three of the six (50%) interviewees from New Zealand commented on their personal connection to the target language and how that motivated them. One had European ancestry; another’s father once lived in Germany, and another had friends who spoke German.
5. Discussion
While the motivational profile of the learners varied across countries, corroborating earlier work by Diffey et al., (2001), more commonalities were noted than differences. Overall, the students across the four countries expressed positive attitudes toward their chosen language of study and were aware of and intrigued by the career-related and cultural/integrative benefits
of language study. They also reported common motivating factors. Students from all four countries expressed interest in having opportunities to interact using the target language for relevant purposes. Similarities also surfaced with respect to what they did not find motivating. A dislike of repetitive, rote learning activities as well as poorly-prepared or unenthusiastic teachers was mentioned multiple times by students from all four countries. Interestingly, of the 34 students who were interviewed, only one student from China and another from Germany mentioned that they enjoyed completing activities that focused on grammar.
Also corroborating previous research, some interesting differences emerged across the groups. Although all of the languages studied by the students were reported to be important to them, the status of English as a “world” language seemed to influence the motivation of students from both China and Germany.
Aware of the value attached to the English language and its widespread use around the world, students from these two countries routinely emphasized instrumental reasons for learning the language: Chinese students wanted a more rigorous curriculum to better prepare them for their English exams and the Germans craved more opportunities to interact in groups and learn about American culture. Students from the United States and New Zealand, on the other hand, were motivated to study a language that might be perceived as less influential on the world stage because of the fun and engaging activities that were orchestrated by an excellent teacher.
The study also suggests the possible consequences of not addressing students’ motivational profiles. While the German students routinely reported in the interviews that they were motivated by opportunities to work in groups, the qualitative data also suggested that they were given limited opportunities to do so. When asked what could be done to enhance their motivation to learn English, three of the nine (33%) Germans interviewed mentioned the need for more partner and group work activities. This suggested misalignment between students’ desires and their teachers’
instructional practices may help to explain the significantly lower German ratings for Teacher Evaluation and the criticism of their English teachers during the interviews.
Finally, the study furthers the debate over the influential nature of Gardner’s model of second language motivation. While the study’s results support the broad nature of the model, and the influential nature of both integrative and instrumental reasons for language study, they also shed light on some limitations, particularly with respect to Gardner’s definition of integrative orientation. According to Gardner (1985), the extent to which individuals are interested in interacting with people from the target language community and getting to know their culture will influence their motivation to learn the
language. Do rnyei (1994) argued that this definition does not apply to students who have little opportunity to interact with speakers of the target language. In support of this argument, the Chinese students reported a strong integrative orientation, yet only one of the 12 Chinese students interviewed had any experience in an English-speaking country. Further, more recently Do rnyei and Csize r (2002) added that an integrative orientation may not relate to a desire to integrate with the target language community, but rather to identify with attributes associated with that community. While the survey results suggested that students from all four countries possessed an integrative orientation to study their target language, the qualitative data suggested that this orientation pertained less to a desire to interact with native speakers of that language, and more to an interest in interacting with peers in that language and learning more about the target language culture.
None of the 12 Chinese students and only two of the nine Germans who participated in the interviews mentioned they were motivated to speak with Americans, yet five Chinese and four Germans stated that they were motivated to learn more about American culture.
5.1. Implications
Taken together, the results have particular importance for teaching and learning in many countries in which advanced foreign language instruction is optional. Specifically, the data suggested that foreign language teachers of adolescent learners in all four of the participating countries should provide frequent opportunities for students to practice using the language in relevant contexts, and avoid emphasizing rote-learning activities, as well as those that emphasize grammatical analyses. In addition to these broad recommendations that apply to all four countries, a number of suggestions emerged that are specific to the language of study and country of origin. In addition to emphasizing the practical, career-related benefits of learning the language, teachers of languages that may be perceived by some as less influential than English on the world stage, for example teachers of Spanish in the United States, and teachers of German in New Zealand, should provide multiple opportunities for their students to interact in the target language and use a variety of engaging instructional strategies, that include the use of games and technology, and that make language learning fun. Teachers of English in Germany, on the other hand, should provide frequent opportunities for their students to work in groups and use the language for meaningful purposes and should also integrate the culture of English-speaking countries, and in particular that of the United States, into their instruction. Like their German colleagues, teachers of English in China, should also consider ways to further integrate American culture into their instruction to pique student interest and motivation, and should ensure that instruction remains rigorous
and challenging.
Since several students from all four countries mentioned that their positive attitudes and motivation toward their language of study were initially developed in their early foreign language coursework in primary school, the results also support the need to expand early start foreign language programs and ensure thoughtful articulation as students progress in their studies.
Helping students to measure their progress in accomplishing their own learning goals may also be important: Some students commented that they chose to continue learning their chosen language because they had already learned so much in their introductory courses and wanted to continue to hone those skills in more advanced language classes.
5. 2. Limitations and directions for future research
There are limitations to consider when interpreting the study’s results. The study uses a convenience sample to compare the motivation of students studying different languages in different countries without controlling for a number of variables (i.e., socio-economic background, exposure to the language). The elective nature of language study in some of the participating countries, for example, may also have influenced the results: The students from New Zealand and the U.S chose to study German and Spanish, respectively, as opposed to other available language options. The German and Chinese students, on the other hand, were required to study English. Being able to choose one’s language of study could hypothetically, result in more motivated students. It should also be noted that while the participants were drawn from multiple high schools in each of the four countries, the schools were all located within the same geographical region (e.g., the southeastern United States), which prevents the results from being generalized to all adolescent language learners in each country. Future research should involve a larger sample size of students drawn from various regions within each country and should take into consideration a variety of languages and consider the impact of elective or only compulsory study.
6. Conclusion
Despite these limitations, the results of the study are interesting and worthy of consideration. Addressing a gap in the related literature, the study compared the motivational profile of adolescent language learners from four different countries. The comparison revealed both similarities and differences. Regardless of national origin, the participants noted the positive impact of early / primary school language learning and recognized the many benefits of learning another language. They also expressed a common enjoyment in hearing and using the target language in meaningful contexts
and a common dislike for repetitive activities that involved memorization and emphasis on grammatical analyses. The findings also revealed interesting differences among students from the participating nations. Students from the United States and New Zealand emphasized the impact on motivation of fun and varied activities and enthusiastic and engaging teachers. Students learning English in both China and Germany wanted to learn more about American culture. Chinese students reported being motivated by a challenging curriculum and by their parents’ expectations while German students sought more opportunities to work with partners or in groups. Foreign language stakeholders including administrators, teachers, and curriculum designers should consider these findings when deciding when to introduce foreign language instruction and when planning lessons and developing resources to meet the motivational needs of their students.
The Authors
Dr. Scott Kissau (Email: [email protected]) is a Professor and Chair of the Department of Middle, Secondary, and K-12 Education at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Dr. Kissau was the 2016 recipient of the Anthony Papalia Award for Excellence in Teacher Education granted by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. His primary research interests relate to gender and language learning, foreign language teacher education, and online language instruction.
Dr. Chuang Wang is a Professor (Email: [email protected]) in the Department of Educational Leadership and the Director of the Ph.D. program in Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He received the Distinguished Research Award from the Academy of Educational Leadership in 2010 and the Leadership and Research Award from Chinese American Educational Research and Development Association in 2011.
Dipl.-Pa d. Marion Rodgers (Email: [email protected]) is a senior lecturer in the field of foreign language methodology at the Ludwigsburg University of Education. She runs the Language Support Center of the English Department, lectures in English as a foreign language, and instructs foreign language student teachers.
Dr. Helga Haudeck (Email: [email protected]) is a senior lecturer in the field of foreign language methodology at the Ludwigsburg University of Education. Besides the instruction of student teachers, her areas of research include the teaching of English to young learners, Content and Language Integrated Learning, and language learning strategies.
Dr. Christine Biebricher (Email: [email protected]) is a Lecturer in
the School of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her research focuses on teaching and learning additional languages/EFL/ESL.
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Appendix A. Foreign Language Motivation Survey
SECTION I: Background Information
1. What is your gender? Male Female
2. What is the gender of your foreign language teacher this year?
Male Female
3. What foreign language are you currently studying in school?
Spanish French German Mandarin English 4. When did you begin studying your chosen foreign language?
Primary School Middle School High School
5. Are you a native or heritage speaker of the foreign language you are studying in school? Yes No
SECTION II: Language Attitudes
Directions: For each of the following statements click the number which best represents your answer.
1=strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5=strongly agree
Motivation Intensity Your Ratings
M1. When I am studying in my foreign language class, I ignore distractions and stay on task
M2. I really work hard to learn the foreign language. M3. When I have a problem understanding something
we are learning in my foreign language class, I always ask the teacher for help.
M4. I try to understand all the foreign language I see and hear.
M5. I keep up to date with my foreign language
instruction by working on it almost every day.
Desire
D1. I wish I had begun studying the foreign language I am learning now at an even earlier age.
D2. I wish I were fluent in the foreign language I am
studying.
D3. I want to learn the foreign language so well that it
comes naturally to me.
D4. I would like to learn as much of the foreign language I am studying as possible.
D5. If it were up to me, I would spend all my time in
school learning my foreign language.
Attitudes toward the Language
A1. Learning my foreign language is really great. A2. I really enjoy learning my foreign language. A3. I plan to learn as much of the foreign language I am
studying as possible.
A4. I love learning the foreign language I am studying. A5. Studying a foreign language is an important part of
the school program.
Integrative Orientation
I1. Studying my foreign language is important to me because it will allow me to be more at ease with people who speak it.
I2. Studying a foreign language is important to me because it will allow me to meet and speak with diverse people.
I3. Studying a foreign language is important to me because I will be able to participate more freely in the activities of other cultural groups.
I4. Studying a foreign language is important to me because it will enable me to understand and better appreciate the art and literature of that language.
Instrumental Orientation
In1. Studying a foreign language is important to me only because I'll need it for my future career.
In2. Studying a foreign language is important to me
because it will make me a more knowledgeable person.
In3. Knowing another foreign language is important because people will respect me more if I have a knowledge of another language.
In4. Studying a foreign language is important to me because it will someday be useful in getting a good job.
Teacher Evaluation
T1. My foreign language teacher is friendly. T2. My foreign language teacher is good at his/her job. T3. My foreign language teacher is considerate of
student feelings.
T4. I think my foreign language teacher is reliable. T5. My foreign language teacher makes the most out of
class-time.
Course Evaluation
C1. My foreign language class is good. C2. I enjoy my foreign language class. C3. My foreign language class is really rewarding. C4. I find my foreign language class to be satisfying. C5. My foreign language class is agreeable to me. Anxiety
An1. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my foreign language class.
An2. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in
the foreign language in class.
An3. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking
in the foreign language that I am studying.
An4. I always feel that the other students speak the
foreign language better than I do.
An5. I am afraid the other students will laugh at me
when I speak the foreign language.
Self-efficacy
S1. I feel that I am able to understand a conversation in the foreign language I am studying.
S2. I feel that I can write well enough in the foreign
language I am studying to describe an event, or a person, or a story.
S3. I expect to do well in my foreign language class. S4. I feel that I can identify the main points in a
conversation or passage in the foreign language that I am studying.
S5. I feel that I can speak well enough in the foreign language that I am studying to make myself understood on certain topics.