equity of access to higher education

viii. Equity of access policies should be mainstreamed into the everyday life of higher education institutions to enhance the quality of the learning experience and progression outcomes for students While students from the target groups may access higher education, there has been an increase in non-progression rates – in particular among those undertaking level 6 and level 7 courses, where in 2010/11 almost 30% of new entrants did not progress to second year, up from 26% three years earlier. 26 The National Forum for Teaching and learning has been established to research and develop policy and practice on teaching and learning in higher education. This work will enhance the quality of the learning experience for all students and contribute to increased progression rates. The National Forum on Teaching and learning is currently supporting research into the reasons for student non-completion and will develop solutions and interventions that can be adopted across the sector. 27

As stated above, the 1998 Declaration of the World Conference on Higher Education provides a strong basis for a conception of equity of access with its emphasis on protecting against discrimination on the basis of background characteristics, entry to university at any point in life and affirmative action for specific groups. Nevertheless, there are some further areas needing attention. First, as in international law, the question of availability is not fully addressed -- the existence of sufficient places is a primary characteristic of an equitable system. Second, the focus on merit is problematic as it suggests selection of ‘the best’ rather than of all who are capable of higher education study. Instead, as stated above, what is required is criterion-based rather than norm-based admission. Third, attention is needed to stratification between institutions -- occurring primarily through fee levels and entrance exams -- and to guarding against the relegation of disadvantaged students to lower quality/prestige institutions. These problems are exacerbated in a situation of variable fees: in this case the dimension of horizontality is severely challenged, with wealthier students able to purchase diplomas of a higher value. This phenomenon is seen particularly in the private sector in Brazil, in which fees can vary from as little as US$300 to as much as US$3000 per month.

By any reckoning, Ireland has made significant strides in achieving peace and prosperity for its citizens since independence. Over the past fifteen years in particular, we have enjoyed considerable economic success and improvement in the quality of life for many. Notwithstanding this achievement, we cannot afford to be complacent about our progress to date. We claim to be a democracy with a central ideal of equality for all members of society; so far, we have had mixed results in our efforts to eliminate social exclusion and inequality, in particular in our education system. An equitable education system is a well-established and essential means of achieving social inclusion and equity and is a cornerstone of a democratic country. Since the introduction of free second level education in the late 1960s we have had significant expansion in participation in education, including higher education. That participation has not, however, been shared equally by all sections of our society. A range of surveys and reports over the past two decades show us that inequity of access and participation remain as unacceptable and anti-democratic features of our education system. Each year over 4, 000 eleven–to–fifteen year–olds drop out of school before reaching the Junior Certificate. Over 750,000 adults in Ireland between 25–64 years of age have little or no formal educational

National Plan for Equity of Access to Higher Education 18 Reflections on the Irish education system Ireland compares relatively well in overall terms with other countries in the degree of equity in our educational outcomes. 18 The growing body of international literature points to the importance of the structure and organisation of school systems in contributing to educational outcomes. 19 Children from low income backgrounds who live in safe estates and learn in schools with a healthy social mix do remarkably well in school and have benefited greatly from the expansion of educational opportunities. 20 Harsh lessons have been learned in the suburbs of American and French cities about the consequences of ghettoisation. Ireland has been shown to have less social stratification between schools in general than is typical of many other developed countries. 21 It will be important to preserve and enhance this strength of the Irish school system into the future. Insights from the research literature and developments in enrolment patterns highlight the importance of ensuring that the structure of the education system does not exacerbate inequalities in education. 22

viii.Equity of access policies should be mainstreamed into the everyday life of higher education institutions to enhance the quality of the learning experience and progression outcomes for students While students from the target groups may access higher education, there has been an increase in non-progression rates – in particular among those undertaking level 6 and level 7 courses, where in 2010/11 almost 30% of new entrants did not progress to second year, up from 26% three years earlier. 26 The National Forum for Teaching and learning has been established to research and develop policy and practice on teaching and learning in higher education. This work will enhance the quality of the learning experience for all students and contribute to increased progression rates. The National Forum on Teaching and learning is currently supporting research into the reasons for student non-completion and will develop solutions and interventions that can be adopted across the sector. 27

High level objective: Use available funding in a manner that best supports equity of access to higher education by disadvantaged groups Overall, the National Plan for Equity of Access in Higher Education should focus on both access to and supports within higher education institutions. In recent years the focus on access programmes has increased entry to college for disadvantaged groups but it is important that academic, as well as personal and wellness supports, enable a person to sustain education. Some people may encounter difficulties while in college such as mental health difficulties and without necessary supports may drop-out of education thus impacting on their ability to gain employment throughout their lives. In the case of disability, funding for students should focus on meeting individual need rather than on funding supports on the basis of the general needs of a specific diagnosis. A Universal Design Approach would recognise that all students may need support at some stage during their studies and when it is needed help should be available.

The Department of Education and Skills has specified the overall objectives and indicators for equity of access to higher education outlined in the Performance Framework. The National Access Plan will set out the specific objectives, actions and national targets for achieving equity of access to higher education over the lifetime of the Plan. The implementation of the National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030 is also supporting the full integration of access initiatives in core higher education institutional activities and strategies. Performance outcomes, priorities and targets addressing equity of access and lifelong learning are an intrinsic component of strategic dialogue discussions and of the compacts that are agreed between HEIs and the HEA. These compacts will form the basis for performance funding allocations to HEIs. The first report to the Minister on higher education system performance has been published. 7 Among the main findings of this report are that equity of access and improving pathways to higher education are essential to meeting requirements for skills. The system has made progress on increasing flexibility of provision and supporting access by students with disabilities but has fallen short on targets for under-represented socio-economic groups and full-time mature entrants. The report recommends these groups should be the particular focus of the next National Access Plan and work by regional clusters to develop more coherent pathways to higher education.

International context In a January 2010 submission to the group working on a new national strategy for higher education, it was noted that we need to continue looking outwards for encouragement and ideas on what other countries are doing to advance equality of access. A preliminary survey of policy and practice in a range of countries in the EU and internationally produced interesting findings. On an EU-wide basis, performance-based funding to promote equity of access and efficiency is being encouraged on the basis that student support schemes (including those in countries with free access to higher education) are insufficient to ensure equal access and chances of success for all students. Member States have been encouraged to examine their mix of student fees and support schemes in the light of their efficiency and equity. Innovative curricula, teaching methods and programmes are also being promoted, including broader employment-related skills for those not coming through the traditional routes of entry into higher education.

In the last decade in Kenya, a great transformation has been witnessed in terms of access to opportunities for higher education. This is evidenced by the rapidly growing number of colleges and universities offering degrees, diplomas and certificate courses. Enrolment levels in institutions of higher learning have increased. There is competition between colleges in setting up campuses away from the capital city to far flung districts. All parts of the country have been catered for. Accessibility has cut across all ages. Fifty year olds graduating are no longer a strange phenomenon. Gender parity has also been catered for. More women can now get access to higher education than any other time in our history. Access is likely to increase even further with the shifting trend towards distant learning through the Internet and virtual learning centres. In spite of the increase in accessibility, equity is still a challenge. While each of the above issues serves to address equity, pertinent issues still need to be addressed. Pertinent issues include: high costs of tuition and other fees – which continues to lock out a large number of potential students who are still grappling with “unga” 1 issues. The opportunities also lock out a large proportion of Kenyans who dropped out of school at primary level since KCSE certificate is an entry requirement. Most colleges have located their campuses in urban areas locking out the rural folk. The number of Kenyans pursuing higher education in neighbouring Uganda is also of great concern. It is a case of missed opportunity, loss in revenue as well as possibility of brain drain. The Government needs to address these issues urgently in a bid to achieve Vision 2030.

3. Previous studies on equity of and access to higher education in Vietnam This topic has not been well examined in Vietnam. Linh et. al. [2] is the only study focusing on the issue of accessibility and affordability of tertiary education. The authors used national survey data from 2006 to calculate accessibility indices to tertiary education in Vietnam and compare with similar indices in other countries. They found that while the access to tertiary education has been expanding steadily, many groups of people in Vietnam, particularly ethnic minority and low- income groups, have been unable to catch up with the expanding access. While this study is quite interesting, it was quite outdated now.

Higher education promotes National growth and development, defines the quality of the society we live in, the ability of the society to react to change and equips man for adaptation to various environments. The concern for equity (or equality of opportunity) access and social class bias has been and continues to be a strong motivating factor underlying governments` intervention in the education sector. The Government has demonstrated its commitment to addressing these through various policy documents. The principal objective of these government policy documents has been to provide an effective and efficient education system that serves well the wider interests of society. That is, an education system that aims at removing social injustices and disparities between regions, sexes, social and economic groups and that equalizes economic opportunities among all the citizens. Equity issues and equality of educational access and participation considerations have also en the over-riding objectives of Kenya’s educational reforms since it attained its political independence from Britain forty-three years ago.Despite these efforts higher education is still characterized by disparities arising out of inequality of opportunity, access and social class bias. This paper therefore examines the distributive impact of higher education in particular issues relating to access, equity and social class bias, and recommends policy options to address these challenges.

The purpose of this study is to understand and present multiple perspectives on the trends and developments on access to higher education in India. It particularly aims to contribute to the ongoing debate on access, equity and social justice as part of social justice demand for higher education. Higher education institutions in India use three approaches to admit students, namely; classical – merit/elite door, social responsive – reservation door and economic responsive – financial interest door or the combination of the three, depending on their status and background such as public, private aided, private unaided. The study consulted relevant documents and literature to understand the problem, gathered empirical data through semi-closed qualitative interviews and used critical reflection and social constructivism approach to analyse and discuss the results. The findings indicate that some of the respondents support merit/elite door, some favour reservation door, some demand fair and square reservation system, some others seem to accept financial interest door, while some others support the combination of the two or the three approaches. The findings confirmed the initial assumption of the study that privatisation of higher education and the emergence of self-financing programmes and institutions have slowed down and posed new challenges to the social justice agenda. The study argues that it is important that higher educational institutions to uphold social responsiveness by embracing equity and social justice. Moreover, it is important to raise conscious about the social responsiveness of higher education among various stakeholders and accounting divergent perspectives contribute to engineer fair and just society.

Gunawardena (1990) studied whether the higher education system in Srinlanka provide equal access. Gunawardena concludes that despite Srinlanka has been able to provide the equal access, it does not represent total equity based on students SES background. The other evidence of a failure of supply side government policy to increase the greater access for low SES come from Honduras Ziderman and Albrecht (1994). In the end of 1980s the Honduras Government with through the National Autonomous University of Honduras (UNAH) guaranty admissions to all students who complete the secondary school. Government spends between 3 and 6 percents of its budget to finance this program as the student who enroll only has to pay US$17 per year. The Honduras Government believes that the open access program will increase the access of student from low SES background as they do not have to compete with the other student from high income families who have better coaching in secondary school. However, the open access program has not increased access from low SES students as most of them lack of basic education.

Access to higher education in Brazil is to a large extent restricted to the higher socio- economic groups. Public universities have limited places and entry is determined by highly competitive exams, thereby excluding those who have not had a high quality secondary education or attended an expensive preparatory course. There has been considerable growth in the private sector to absorb the excess demand, but the majority of Brazilians cannot afford the fees. This paper develops a concept of equity in higher education in which, firstly, there should be sufficient places in the system as a whole and, secondly, all people should have a fair opportunity of attending the university of their choice regardless of socio- economic background. Recent efforts to expand access are analyzed, including incentives for the growth of private universities, student loans and the new Prouni initiative, in which private institutions provide free places to low-income students in return for tax exemptions. While these initiatives have the potential to increase the total number of places, they will not lead to an equitable expansion, as disadvantaged students will still be confined to courses of lower quality or with lower subsequent value on the employment market. Initiatives aimed at the public sector such as the introduction of quotas and changes to entry examinations are also discussed. Finally, some implications for future policy development are outlined.

Carina Bossu University of Tasmania Julie Willems RMIT University Open educational resources (OER) have already impacted educational systems around the world. In higher education more specifically, it has benefited learners, and has influenced institutional strategic plans and policies. Additionally, the benefits of OER also extend to staff in higher education, such as academic staff. For this group, OER can provide opportunities for collaboration, promote curriculum innovation and student led content development, as well as contribute to university teachers’ much needed continuing professional development. In this paper, we examine the potential of OER to build capacity of academic staff in higher education, in particular to overcome some equity and access issues that they may face. It also examines some existing activities and strategies for professional development in higher educational institutions and provides some recommendations for academics, academic

Carina Bossu University of Tasmania Julie Willems RMIT University Open educational resources (OER) have already impacted educational systems around the world. In higher education more specifically, it has benefited learners, and has influenced institutional strategic plans and policies. Additionally, the benefits of OER also extend to staff in higher education, such as academic staff. For this group, OER can provide opportunities for collaboration, promote curriculum innovation and student led content development, as well as contribute to university teachers’ much needed continuing professional development. In this paper, we examine the potential of OER to build capacity of academic staff in higher education, in particular to overcome some equity and access issues that they may face. It also examines some existing activities and strategies for professional development in higher educational institutions and provides some recommendations for academics, academic

Abstract This paper describes the processes of development of an online educational tool to facilitate equity and access for the diversity of students entering the largely digital context that is higher education today. The Associate Deans (Learning and Teaching) across the five faculties at the University of Southern Queensland (USQ) responded to the issue of student diversity by developing a diagnostic and reflective tool (DART) to assist commencing students in developing their digital literacies according to their individual learning needs. DART was designed to enable and support online (digital) learning for the heterogeneous cohort of students studying at USQ, a regional Australian university. Initially, a range of theoretical perspectives were consulted to determine the knowledge, skills, and aptitudes that constitute digital literacy, including Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. Secondly, from this review, a framework was constructed to map all relevant dimensions of digital literacy, dimensions which encompassed issues related not only to technical experiences but also to students’ prior learning experiences. This stage also involved liaising with academic staff and other student support staff to further identify the threshold digital literacies required by first year students. Thirdly, two large-scale student surveys of students’ digital literacies and prior experiences in engaging with digital learning environments were conducted. These evaluation cycles informed the ongoing development and refinement of DART. The current paper reports on initial findings from these surveys and discusses implications for the future implementation of DART in the University.

9 Goal 2: To put in place coherent pathways from 2 nd level, further education and other routes of access AONTAS believes strongly that strengthened connections between the further education sector and the third level sector can provide alternative routes for students from disadvantaged communities who may not have previously considered a third level education. The establishment of SOLAS and the new Further Education and Training Strategy 19 provides a timely opportunity to strengthen the links between FET and HE. Data from QQI in June 2013 20 shows that there were just under 15,800 QQI-FETAC applicants to the Central Admissions Office (CAO) (up from c. 15,300 in 2012), representing one-fifth of all CAO applicants. While a key objective of the FET strategy is to build a strong identity for FET as a quality, alternative education option for learners, FET can also play a valuable role in supporting the progression of learners into higher education. For learners who encounter difficulties with the formal education system, or who grow up without exposure to third level education, FET may be their first choice, and a first step back into education. ‘I needed the time to try out courses and test my own abilities before I could take on something more serious’ said one learner who participated in an AONTAS roundtable event.

Female-headed households, large households, and households in urban areas are all more likely to be poor. The urbanization of poverty is striking and has been accentuated by migration from rural areas and attributed to urban poverty. Poverty has a direct impact on education attainment of children. Although there are no tuition fees for secondary education, poor households, already short of cash, must bear the burden of other expenditures that come with sending their children to school. Poor families often find it difficult to meet standards for dress, hygiene and supplies for school. For example, children may be excused from wearing the deel, Mongolian traditional clothing and boots used in the herder camps, but other types of clothes and shoes must be purchased with cash, which is always deficit for herders. Many rural children travel long distances to school on horseback and thus are vulnerable to harsh weather conditions. Parents in more remote districts enroll their children in schools at the soum center and therefore must find accommodation for them, either with relatives or in dormitories. Boarding costs used to be paid in approximately 40 kilograms of meat per year, with a discount for siblings as an incentive for herders to send their children to school.

few decades after independence to an enthusiastic acceptance of English today. The “generation gap” between the students and parents who struggled for independence from colonial rule gives the students a different perspective of English. The present study does not bear witness to the “love- hate” relationship to English that Haque (1983) refers to. The Urdu medium students and English medium students from both the public and private sector, as well as from all socio-economic strata of society desire to learn English for its utilitarian value. As far as studies in English are concerned, all the stake-holders in the study do no see English as associated with imperialism (Pennycook, 1994) but rather as an international language having a strong favourable impact on their own growth and that of the country’s economy and business. The findings thus lend support to Kachru’s observations (1986) that “the colonial association of English and the western values are now underemphasized. Instead, what seems to be stressed is the power of English as an instrument of individual and societal transformation”. English is desired by Pakistani students because of its great instrumental value in higher education, international communication, and for economic gains and progress. Language policies, despite trying their utmost to oust English and replace it with Urdu, have failed because of the continued role of English in the official sphere as well as education and the institutional supports, especially from the media. The students want English education and feel cheated if they are deprived of it. The results of our study display that Pakistani students are opting for an instrumental / functional approach to English as opposed to the previous emphasis on cultural transmission. The desire for English is therefore not difficult to understand keeping in view that the global trends in politics, economics and culture show that English as well as regional languages will play a significant role in the twenty first century (Graddol, 1997).