Gender Difference

The discrepancy between female and male speech is often discussed, attention has been put on the gender difference of intonation application. Women use more varied intonation patterns, and they are characterized by exclamatory and interrogative intonation, which is practiced by a rising tone (Orazebova, Shyngyssova, el., 2015). Additionally, when using the so-called interrogative intonation, the rise of male intonation is much smaller than that of female intonation (Jiang, 2012). From the perspective of sociolinguistics, the special fondness for using specific intonation patterns is established and internalized in the unconscious (Jiang, 2012). Society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or appropriate behavior for a person of that specific sex (Michaol, 2018). Because of the social status and some other cultural elements, female intonation is relatively more emotional and friendlier so as to avoid the conflict with others and push forward the communication smoothly. However, Jiang (2012) has substantiated that the rising tone is the intonation pattern used to embody non-power discourse or compliance of speakers. Besides, more frequently use of rising intonation substantiates that women subconsciously admit that their social status is lower than men’s. 2. Research methodology

The study examined impact of gender difference on Crop productivity in Decha woreda of south west Kafa zone, located at 23 Km from Bonga Town, and 473 km south west of Addis Ababa. The specific objectives were to assess the extent to which the agricultural production system is gender oriented; to examine access and control over productive resources; and to examine which households are disadvantageous in control over productive resources. Cross-sectional data collected from a total of 140 respondents were used in this study whereby 65 were female headed and 75 were male headed households. The data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean, percentage, pie chart, bar graph, t-test and chi-square were used to summarize and compare the information between the two groups. Moreover, Cobb- Douglas (CD) production function was used to estimate the productivity difference in agriculture between male and female headed households. Results of the study showed that male headed households (MHH) own more of productive resources such as land, livestock, labor and other agricultural inputs as compared to female headed households (FHH). Moreover, the estimate of CD production function shows that livestock, herbicide use, land size and male labor were statistically significant for MHH while livestock, land size, herbicides use and female labor were significant variables for FHH. However, if FHH had equal access to the inputs as MHH, gross value of the output would be higher by 23.58% for FHH. This may suggest that FHH would be more productive than MHH if they had equal access to inputs as MHH. Additionally, accessing of FHH inputs that increase the productivity of agriculture such as herbicides, livestock and male labor; increasing the productivity of land; and introducing technologies that reduce the time and energy of women especially for enset processing.

Data show that the concentration of circulating neutrophils is higher in female than in male COPD patients with malnourishment. This difference is not explained by differ- ences in smoking habits, use of nicotine, or inhalation ste- roids. The results are compatible with, but do not prove, the idea that concentrations of circulating IL-6 and IL-8 relate to the observed difference in neutrophils, and this clearly deserves to be evaluated in better-powered studies in the future. This type of gender difference in circulating markers of inflammation may prove important to understanding the link between disease progression and systemic complications in COPD and may lead to new therapeutic targets as well.

Several limitations must be considered when discuss- ing the present results. First, the number of participants (12 males and 10 females) was smaller than previous studies of gender difference in N170 (14 males and 14 females [4]; 20 males and 20 females [5]; 25 males and 25 females [6]). Second, target faces were emotional faces and non-target faces were emotionally neutral faces in the present study. The possibility must be considered that increased attention to targets in females might be affected by not only the effect of target but also the effect of emotion. Further research is warranted to clarify this issue.

A BSTRACT : This work aims to investigate the influence of patients’ gender on the repartition of cancer types and on death according to cancer types. It consists in a retrospective study based on 3915 cases of males and females common cancers, diagnosed and treated in Al Azhar oncology centre of Rabat between 1994 and 2004. Results showed that males display a significantly higher risk for cancer of larynx, lung and bladder, with relative risks of 5.5, 4.5 and 2.3 respectively, whereas females have a significantly higher risk for thyroid cancer, with a relative risk of 6.3, and cancers of gall bladder, liver, bone, colon-rectum, Hodgkin lymphoma, soft tissue and non Hodgkin lymphoma. As far as death is concerned, gall bladder cancer displays a death risk 4 times higher in men. Also, non Hodgkin lymphoma and larynx cancer in men are significantly associated with death, then they constitute risk factors of death in men. On the other hand, cutaneous cancers and bone cancers show higher death risk in women, with relative risks of 2.5 and 2.4 respectively. Nevertheless, we found no significant association between cancer type and death in females. In conclusion, anti-cancer strategies in Morocco and elsewhere should take into consideration the gender difference in cancer risk and death risk for common cancers, and fit their priorities to the gender of target population.

The current research was focused to explore the gender difference in self-concept among homeless individuals. Total participants (N=50) among which men (n=25) and women (n=25) participants were elected from protection homes of diverse cities of Punjab, Pakistan. Urdu Adjective Check List (Ansari, Farooqi, Khan, & Yasmin, 1982) was used to evaluate the variable of Self-Concept. Independent sample t-test was used for the statistical investigation of data. Results indicated a noteworthy discrepancy in Self-Concept amongst homeless men and women as p< 0.05. Mean of homeless men was 1.99 and homeless women 1.89. Implications of these conclusions and suggestions for upcoming researches are in addition discussed.

JULY-AUGUST, 2014. VOL. II/XIII www.srjis.com Page 1602 because of societal expectations women are more passive and less inclined to participate in organizational decision making. Similarly, Belasco and Alutto in Riley (1984) have pointed out that females participate less than males and desire lower level of participation. Women are also reported as better planners than men (Shakeshaft, 1989). Shakeshaft (1989) further has revealed that women had perceived as more democratic and participatory than men in their styles of making decisions.According to Walker (1993), women in management and managerial positions are subject to pressures and experiences which are not experienced by men and they share some of the same work-related activities as their male counterparts. Emeneke (2004) found that women are marginalized in decision making process. Review of these studies pointed out that there was scarcity of researches related to participation of teachers in school administration. Still some researchers attempted to find out the differences in decision-making of teachers and teacher participation. But no research has been found on gender difference in school administration participation of teachers on these dimensions. So this research will definitely fill the existing research gap in the field of teachers‟ participation in school administration.

Salovey and Mayer (1990) studies Emotional Intelligence and its relation with daily behavior among 330 students by using Emotional Intelligence ability test and five factor personality scale and life space scales. The personality and life space scales assess self-care behavior, educational activities, spare time and interpersonal communications on an arrayed basis. The findings suggested that females got higher scores of Emotional Intelligence than male students. The study also found out that the Emotional Intelligence plays a distinguished predictor men’s life. Sutarso (1996) examined the effect of gender and grade point average (GPA) on Emotional Intelligence (EQ) by using the Emotional Intelligence Inventory. The inventory was completed by 138 college students, and data were analyzed using a multivariate factorial model with three factors of EQ as dependent variables via compassion, self- awareness, and attunement and two independent variables, gender and GPA. The result confirmed that Female students had higher scores on the compassion and self-awareness factors than male counterparts. There was no gender difference on the attunement factor and no overall significant multivariate GPA effect on the three factors of EQ.

Another possibility for lack of gender difference in children is the recently discovered age-dependent skew- ing of X chromosome inactivation [25]. While in general young females have a mosaic of cells with either the ma- ternal or the paternal X chromosome inactivated with a 50:50 distribution, a deviation from this balanced ex- pression may occur with ageing [25]. This may clinically manifest as late-onset X-linked disorders. The AVPR2 gene has known gain and loss of function mutations, leading to syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI), respectively [26]. A case of transient NDI associated with decreased V2 receptor expression has been reported in a 55-year-old woman following surgery [27]. However, it remains to be shown if the AVPR2 gene located at xq-28 is subject to late-onset skewing of inactivation, how common such skewing might be and whether other mutations may con- tribute to V2 receptor expression differences.

Career maturity is reflected by an individual’s mature behavior in coping with the tasks of career development, compared with that of others dealing with the same tasks (Super & Bohn, 1970). It is generally accepted as comprising both cognitive and affective components. The cognitive component is consisted of decision-making skills; the affective component includes attitudes toward the career decision-making process. This study examined the gender difference in career maturity of rural and urban students. Sample consisted of 640 10 th class students [320 Boys: 160 rural (80 Muslim and 80 non-Muslim) & 160 urban (80 Muslim and 80 non-Muslim) and 320 Girls: 160 rural (80 Muslim and 80 non-Muslim) & 160 urban (80 Muslim and 80 non-Muslim)] selected from government high schools of Darbhanga City. Tool for collecting the data included Crites’ Career Maturity Inventory. Statistical analyses were performed using descriptive and inferential statistics to study the gender difference between students (boys & girls; rural & urban and Muslim & Non-Muslim) on the measure of career maturity. The findings of the study revealed that hypotheses H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 7 and H 9 are fully

Although Reilly et al. [10] examined the effect of gender differences, it was not strongly related to QTc prolonga- tion as age and psychotropic drugs. To our knowledge, there were no specific studies on related factors to QTc prolongation by gender. We hypothesized that female gender in people with mental disorders could be a risk fac- tor of QTc prolongation. In this research, we focused on gender difference in QTc interval distribution and exam- ined related factors of the QTc prolongation of people with mental disorders.

Purpose: The gender difference of neurally mediated syncope is not well defined in a large patient population. The aim of this study was to evaluate the gender difference of clinical manifestations in patients with neurally mediated syncope who underwent head-up tilt test. Materials and Methods: The medical records of 1,051 consecutive patients with two or more episodes of syncope, who were diagnosed as having neurally mediated syncope by head-up tilt test, were retrospectively reviewed. Results: Of 1,051 patients, 497 (47.3%) patients were male and 554 (52.7%) patients were female. Female patients were experiencing syncopal episodes for longer periods of their lives (8.2 ± 9.5 years vs. 6.8 ± 9.2 years, p = 0.002) and more episodes of syncope prior to head-up tilt test (HUT) (7.2 ± 9.4 vs. 5.0 ± 6.4, p = 0.001) than male patients. Micturition syncope (20.0 % vs. 5.2%, p < 0.001) was observed more frequently in male patients than in female patients. To the contrary, however, defecation syncope (16.3% vs. 9.3%, p < 0.001) was observed more frequently in female patients than in male patients. Conclusion: Female patients were experiencing syncopal episodes for longer periods of their lives and more episodes of syncope than male patients. Gender difference was also noted with regard to frequency of situational syncope.

about the financial security of their families, as they planned for the years ahead. The economic crisis of 2008 compelled more people to turn to family members, relatives, friends and community members for financial and caregiving support as they confronted long-term health concerns for themselves and their loved ones. In Malaysia, although an older female shared some similarities with an older male in terms of personal finance matters, they were more likely to be relegated because of a lower education, a less net worth compared to older men and a less attachment to the labour force, thereby making it a challenge to promote the financial well-being of older women (28). Researchers the world over had observed gender differences in a number of different domains. However, studies on gender difference in understanding ageing had been few. The situations facing males and females could be very different (29) and how they experienced the world around them carried various social and cultural implications (30). Demographic ageing in Malaysia just as elsewhere seemed to skew towards more females, suggesting a feminisation of ageing in the future, with concomitant challenges to family care and costs (29). Adapting from the Genworth National Study (2010), this research investigated the difference between men and women in their perception of ageing and their preparedness in going through the ageing process. In particular, this research studied the life expectancy, most feared disabling diseases and long-term illness, confidence in post-retirement financial adequacy and comfort, and their opinions on various dimensions of ageing and retirement.

The results of this study indicate a close relationship between serum leptin and BMI or percent body fat in overweight chil- dren and adolescents as well as a clear cut gender difference, particularly at PH stage V, thereby confirming two recent re- ports in children (11, 17). These data are also in agreement with studies on leptin concentrations in lean and obese adults (9, 10, 15, 16, 18). However, discrepant findings were reported when leptin levels were corrected for body fat mass. In the first reports, the gender difference was no longer significant when body fat mass was accounted for (9, 10), whereas it remained detectable in some more recent studies (15, 16, 18). In our study, a small but significant gender difference was observed in the children at PH stages I and II in accordance with recently published data (11). At PH stage V, leptin concentrations in girls were . 50% higher than those in boys at the same degree of body fat mass.

While the implications of our findings for the literature on gender differences in competitiveness are more provocative than conclusive (until replicated by others and in other countries), a gender difference in the value of winning would seem important in explaining why women only enter tournaments in which they either have higher odds of winning, e.g., as incumbents in political contests (Fulton et al., 2006), or they are traditionally stronger, e.g., in verbal reasoning (Niederle and Vesterlund, 2011), or when women can through higher effort or “grit” ( Duckworth and Seligman, 2006) prepare more to increase their odds of success, e.g., in educational settings (Angrist et al., 2009).

Gender differences in shopping behavior is well researched area and important segment for the marketers(Carpenter,Wayne &Connolly, 2005 ).According to Darley and Smith (1995), women spend more time in shopping than men. Men mostly shop for specialty products such as camping gear electronics (Fischer & Arnold, 1994). Consumption patterns and habbits of males and females are different forexample gender difference is evident in smoking behavior (Carpenter,Wayne & Connolly, 2005) and brand sensitivity (Nelson and McLeod, 2005).

Over the last few years, there has been a sea change in the growth of research studies on the gender difference of entrepreneurs. Studies on gender differences in entrepreneurship have indicated that while post-venture creation (retrospective) studies find little or no differences between men and women entrepreneurs, pre-venture (prospective) studies and theories suggest that there may indeed be significant differences between men and women in terms of their motivations, inclinations, and intentions to start a business. Furthermore, this gap in entrepreneurial activity varied significantly from country to country ranging from a 5 to 1 ratio in Japan to a 1.04 to 1 ratio in Thailand (Reynolds et al., 2002). Scherer, Brodzinski, & Wiebe (1990) also found that males have a higher preference for entrepreneurship than females. As women entered into the entrepreneurial scenario later than men, Females tend to have less business experience (Fischer et al., 1993) and their businesses are usually undercapitalized (Carter, 2000; Marlow & Patton, 2005). Lesser capital invested by female could also be an indication of some researchers note that women entrepreneurs have less confidence in their own capabilities (Verheul & Thurik, 2001).

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