language learning strategies

This study aims to examine language learning strategies as important factors that affect students’ learning. The study sample consists of 34 male students in Royal Guard Secondary School in Riyadh city. In order to examine the English language learning strategy, use among Saudi secondary-school EFL students, they provided their responses to Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford 1990, Version 7.0). The results showed that the students used direct strategies more than indirect strategies. The most frequently used strategies among students were compensation strategies, whereas the least frequently used strategies were social strategies. In addition, the study results show that the general pattern of language learning strategy used by the students includes compensation, affective, metacognitive, cognitive, memory, and finally social strategy. It can be concluded that teachers in secondary-schools are recommended to pay due attention to the use of language learning strategies among students and support them in employing the strategies that are beneficial for them based on the differences and styles. This can help teachers greatly in achieving satisfactory teaching results. Keywords: Learning Strategies, Memory Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Compensation Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Affective Strategies, Social Strategies.

knowledge, which include all that individuals understand about themselves as learners and thinkers, including their goals and needs (Flavell, 1987; as cited in Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Barcelos (2000; as cited in Aragao, 2011) suggested that language teachers should take account of their students’ beliefs as the tools students use in understanding their learning context and in dealing with it. Horwitz (1999) also insisted that it is important to understand learner beliefs in order to better understand learner approaches to language learning, and learner’s use of learning strategies to better plan language instruction. So far, studies on belief have mainly concentrated on English language learners’ beliefs using Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) as the instrument in different ESL and EFL contexts. These studies have investigated the link between beliefs and gender (Bernat & Lloyd, 2007; Siebert, 2003; Tercanlioglu, 2005), language proficiency (Abedini, Rahimi & Zare-ee, 2011), language learning strategies (Yang, 1999), the effect of culture on beliefs (Horwitz, 1999), and the dimensions underlying language learners’ beliefs (Sakui & Gaines, 1999).

Conversely, the third theme revealed that there were students who claimed that language learning strategies did not always develop language competency. These students hold a very different perspective as they tend to believe that cer- tain internal as well as external factors play an important role in developing language competency. The fourth theme suggested that some of the respond- ents clearly acknowledged that language learning strategies are cognitive skills that require conscious effort. The respondents’ perceptions reflected that they were in agreement to the idea that learning strategies constitute active and con- scious learning. All these beliefs are consistent with findings from other re- searchers such as Chamot (2004) and Dornyei (2005) who also reinforce the role of conscious thoughts and action in regard to language learning strategies. Therefore, this shows that some English majors have the appropriate beliefs and perceptions when it comes to language learning.

The purpose of the present study is to investigate effective English language learning strategies (LLSs) employed by successful language learners. The participants in this study were 20 student interpreters enrolled in the graduate school of interpretation and translation in Korea. Data on LLSs were collected through unstructured essay writing, a method employed to encourage participants to freely reflect on their language learning experiences and report what strategies and study methods helped them develop a high level of English proficiency. Qualitative data analysis produced several findings related to the use of learning strategies. Specifically, metacognitive strategies, such as disciplined approach to language learning and monitoring of progress, and cognitive strategies, such as reading- aloud and text analysis, were frequently mentioned as effective strategies. In addition, a number of participants emphasized the importance of conscious attention to language input during language learning activities. Testimonies of advanced English language learners in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context suggest that learner autonomy manifested in self-regulated learning activities may be crucial for successful foreign language learning. These and other findings are discussed with respect to their pedagogical implications for strategy-based instruction in English education.

2.3 Lecturers’ strategies and students’ various language learning strategies Learning strategies is very important for students. It can improve their autonomy as learners. Moreover, it benefits university students because the generation, who will lead the future of one nation, they have to be independent not only in obtaining information but also in managing information they’ve got. As part of Asian and world community, Indonesian university students should prepare, manage or control and evaluate their learning process. Thus, learning strategies is one of crucial things to recognize, use and improve in order to reach high achievement theoretically and practically (in all four language skills). To have those ideal conditions, lecturers should play their roles effectively in the process of developing students’ awareness and improving the learning strategies they have already been using. Considering the need of teaching learning strategies, followings are several stages that can be implemented to help students aware of and utilize their own strategies optimally to learn English.

Abstract A body of research has shown that self-regulation and language learning strategies are important variables influencing learning. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between students' self-regulations and their language learning strategies. For research purposes, the correlations between self-regulations and language learning strategies and the changes according to achievement and grade level were examined. The participants comprised 860 higher education students attending various departments in a state university in Turkey. The Scale on Self-Regulation in Learning (SSRL) and Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was used to gather data. Descriptive statistics, one-way MANOVA and correlation statistics were used during data analyses. The findings indicated medium positive correlations between the two main constructs and further provided evidence for changes in both student self-regulations and their language learning strategies based on achievement and grade level. Conclusions are drawn and suggestions for further practice and research are made in the end.

Scaffolding is an instructional strategy which significantly contributes to learning processes. Learning strategies, as well, have often been noticed as being important in helping EFL learners acquiring a new language. The study is an attempt to find out the effect of using scaffolding strategies on EFL learners' use of different language learning strategies. To achieve the aim of the current study, a fifteen-week experiment was conducted. A sample of 100 Iraqi EFL university students participated in the study. The participants were divided into two groups: an experimental group, receiving conversation instruction through different scaffolding strategies, and a control group, being taught according to routine lecture method based on a teacher-centered approach, dominating in Iraqi university contexts. In both groups, the students' use of learning strategies was pre- and posttested. A paired samples t-test, an independent t-test and a multivariate ANOVA were used for statistical analysis of the data obtained. It was found that there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups in favor of the experimental group. This indicates that using scaffolding strategies throughout the teaching process is more effective than the routine lecture method within the teacher-centered approach framework.

English language teaching curriculum developers now turn to the heavy use of technology in classrooms. Computer technology, specifically, has brought about many changes in the strategies of language leaning. One of the new computer programs which has recently attracted the attention of language teachers is called Moodle. It is an open- source Course Management System (CMS) which delivers online courses as well as supplement traditional face-to-face language courses. Since there is little information about the feasibility of such a program, this study is an effort to examine it through its adaptability to Language Learning Strategies (LLSs). The data is gathered from 60 Moodle-based EAP users as a purposeful sample of the EAP population through a questionnaire. The participants were also observed and interviewed (6 participants). It was found out that there were no relationships between LLSs and language achievement at Moodle-based distance language learning contexts. The findings imply that learning language through Moodle-based teaching materials impede the process of being autonomous language learners, which is a prerequisite for language learning at distance contexts.

The Japanese language is very popular among many youths as it is viewed as a means to secure better employment, in addition to understanding popular Japanese culture. Language learning strategies and learner autonomy are two key dimensions in learning Japanese as a foreign language. This study aims to identify language learning strategies used and perceived extent of learner autonomy among tertiary students in a Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) preparatory class. It also attempts to find the relationship between language learning strategies and learner autonomy in the context of learning Japanese in Malaysia. The results of the quantitative method show that the students are medium users of language learning strategies and possess learner autonomy extent at an average level. In addition, it is found that there is a high significant correlation between language learning strategies and learner autonomy in learning Japanese. It is hoped that this study could contribute towards more efficient and effective language learning process of Japanese language specifically and other foreign languages.

In qualitative analysis, the researcher used think aloud to know students’ learning strategies in which the researcher asked the students to write paragraphs about their learning strategies in four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) based on their learning experience (Appendix 2). The result showed that the learning strategies used by the students in listening skill were mastering vocabularies, memorizing, repeating, consulting dictionary, listening music, watching English movies, listening radio, practicing with English test, taking note, asking friend, paying attention, utilizing time for practicing, self- evaluating, practicing with native speaker, listening to the native speaker, understanding the conversation and finding the effective ways in listening. The most dominant language learning strategy used by students in listening was listening music. Based on the Oxfords’ theory about language learning strategies, listening music refers to the cognitive strategies where these strategies involve resources (English books, dictionaries, tapes, television, videocassettes and radio) to find out the meaning of what is heard or read in the new language, or to produce messages in the new language.

language learning strategies in medium use in both English and Indonesian language. This result supported some of previous research such as Suwanarak (2012) that had reported that Thai students use six categories in medium use. However, the use of LLS in English language is lower than the use of LLS in Indonesian. The result also shows that there are significantly differences in language strategies used by the Thai students in learning English and Indonesian in both overall strategies and every specific strategy. One of possible reasons of the higher strategies use in learning Indonesian than in English is that Indonesian is being used in daily conversation while English is only used in formal classes. Moreover, they can easily access the available source of learning such as environment, partners, movies, books, songs, and so on in Indonesian language, while they can only access limited resources in English.

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) developed by Gardner, proposes at least nine different human intelligences that are distinct and relatively autonomous human intelligences through which people learn. It has been theorized that knowing our MI profile assists us to learn and use this awareness to obtain necessary information and knowledge from a lesson. Characterizing learners’ personal MI profiles thus may enhance learning. Language learners’ learning process, on the other hand, can be facilitated through the use of language learning strategies, particularly if the strategies have been explicitly developed by instructors who possess knowledge about individuals’ learning styles. This paper presents data from an exploratory study to investigate any possible relationship between ESL students’ MI profiles and their use of language learning strategies and hence their proficiency level, as measured by the MUET (Malaysian University English Test).

In Green and Oxford’s (1995) study on Puerto Rican students, they suggested a causal ascending spiral relationship between proficiency levels and language learning strategies. They reported that the more successful students used language learning strategies more frequently than less successful students. In Park’s (1997) study, Oxford’s (1990a) SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) was used to measure language learning strategies, while the TOEFL score was used as the indicator of the Korean students' proficiency. Park also reported a linear relationship between language learning strategies and L2 proficiency. All the six categories of language learning strategies in SILL were significantly correlated with the TOEFL scores, with cognitive and social strategies as the most predictive of these Korean university students' TOEFL scores. In his study of language learning strategies and proficiency factor, Bremner (1999) involved 149 students who were primary lecturers. The results of the study reported significant relationships between proficiency factor and strategy use, especially compensation strategies, social strategies and mostly cognitive strategies. Bremner pointed out that the link between proficiency and strategy use might be that strategies are simply features of proficiency, which means that only by reaching a certain level will a student be likely to use a given strategy. Another related study by Rahimi (2004) attempted to investigate the factors influencing LLS use of post secondary level Persian EFL learners. The results of his study pointed to proficiency and motivation as major predictors of LLS use of the participants. Similarly, Khalil (2005) also concluded that proficiency has a main effect on the overall strategy use of his Palestinian EFL participants while the effect on each of the six strategy categories is variable. Another pertinent study was conducted by Yang (2007) whose results indicated that there are significant differences between low, intermediate and advanced proficiency groups of Taiwanese EFL learners in using cognitive, compensation and social categories of strategies as well as in using the overall SILL. Finally a study by Yang (2010) on 288 Korean university students proved that language proficiency levels had significant effects on the learners’ use of the overall SILL, the six categories of strategy included in SILL, and the individual strategy items listed in SILL.

Abstract: Recently, the result of previous studies on the issue of acquiring target language, using different strategies, based on the different individuals inspired many scholars and linguists; and has mushroomed over the last decade since some very valuable studies have been conducted. Additionally, achieving foreign or second language, unlike mother tongue, is very difficult and needs different techniques to be taken in to consideration for a better result. In this regard, the present article aspires at accenting the importance of language learning strategies and highlights the consequence of different learners in achieving target language. It summarizes the concept by giving a brief definition from different point of views; in which first it was believed that it belonged to behaviourist theories, but later it was combined to psychology of different individuals. Later, in another section, various types of strategies were outlined that was proposed by several researchers. Moreover, whether to teach less successful learners successful LLS or teach various types of strategies to every kind of learners were also discussed by different writers` point of views on choosing an appropriate strategy for a particular student. Finally, each of motivation, self-efficiency, proficiency level, meta-cognitive awareness, gender differences, learning style, types of strategy training and anxiety have been discussed on teaching LLS. Furthermore, some types of activities were given to make easier for individuals to practice their target/second language and acquire the assigned language easily.

As for learning strategies, various learners’ factors have been identified as factors related to language learning strategies, including language being learned, level of language learning, proficiency, degree of metacognitive awareness, gender, affective variables such as attitudes, motivation, and language learning goals, specific personality traits, overall personality type, learning style, career orientation or field of specialization, national origin, aptitude, language teaching methods, task requirements, and type of strategy training (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989). In terms of gender and language learning strategies, Kamarul et al. (2009) show that females report using language learning strategies more often than males and there are significant differences between genders in the use of affective and metaphysic strategies. Females tend to use them more often than males. According to the aforementioned issue, it can be seen that gender is one of the factors that can influence both language learning styles and strategies. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the gender differences in language learning styles and language strategies that Thai learners prefer. The objectives of the present study are to identify language learning styles and strategies used by first year university students in Thailand, and to examine gender differences in those two variables.

Although different researchers present different definitions of language learning strategies, it can be con- cluded that all definitions have something in common. Strategies are actions, behaviors, thoughts, means, steps, techniques, devices or processes and so on which learners often consciously or subconsciously to acquire know- ledge and to improve their own progress in internalizing, storing, retrieving, and using the second language. Thus, strategies are the primary determinants of learning outcomes since they are the tools taken by learners to facilitate acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information for active, self-directed involvement that is ne- cessary for developing an second language communicative ability.

A set of 55 questions divided into 3 sections was used in order to collect data for the research. There are four different types of question used in the questionnaire such as listing, yes-no, scale and open ended questions. The first section (Section A) comprises the background and attitudes questions. The first three questions in the questionnaire comprise the demographic information while another one question was on the MUET result. Next, the other remaining questions were on the attitudes of learning English either in or outside the university. In order to measure the strategy use, the next section in the questionnaire (Section B) was adapted from Oxford’s (1990), Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The SILL is an instrument for assessing the frequency of use of language learning strategies and is the most useful manuals of learner strategy assessment. The SILL uses a 5 Likert-scale for which the learners are asked to indicate their response (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) to a strategy description such as "I try to find patterns in English”.

Last but not least, a thorough study of language learning strategies was presented by Oxford and Ehrman (1995), already cited above, in which they correlated strategy use with a number of variables: language proficiency, teacher perception, gender, aptitude, learning style, personality type, ego boundaries, motivation, and anxiety. They found significant correlations between these variables and strategy use. They reported that the frequency of language learning strategies directly relates to language performance, measured by means of proficiency, achievement, or self-rating tests. However, their research also showed that the use of cognitive strategies was the only category that had a significantly positive correlation with language proficiency at the end of the training program. In addition, they reported that no correlation had been found between progress and effort but that a significant correlation had been found between progress and aptitude. They also reported findings in relation to affective factors: some degree of anxiety can have a facilitative effect on language performance and strategy use; students who can tolerate ambiguity more easily than their peers are likely to persist in language learning and are more prone to taking risks, which is essential for making progress. They assert (1995, 379) that “we can foster use of language learning strategies by helping students persist in their learning, maintain and enhance their own motivation, and develop skills in systematic planning.” The study included the research of the influence of formal education of the use of learning strategies. It was found (1995, 374) that respondents who had more previous education also displayed a more frequent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Finally, they emphasized the importance of cognitive strategies involving deeper processing and semantic-level connections that enable the anchoring of new knowledge into existing schemata. As a result, the two authors assert that strategy training should focus on cognitive strategies, except with highly specific aspects of language learning, such as the learning of vocabulary (1995, 381).

36 Gomez, Curwood and Hassett (2010:20) highlight the traditional classrooms as a source of problem for the EFL learners and state, “… with an emphasis on taking standardised tests, the learning environment is designed on the view that learning is a transaction that happens solely ‘inside the head’. Unfortunately, this pushes many students to the margins of classroom engagement and participation”. The traditional classroom culture does not provide the learners with the opportunity to generate and develop language learning strategies in the process of communicating in English. This is because the students have very limited opportunity to talk about their learning processes and experiences making them highly passive and dependent on the teacher. Little room is left for the use of communicative functions of the L2, especially important in classrooms where students learn the L2 as a foreign language and have very restricted contact with the target language outside of classroom (Duff & Polio 1990, Polio & Duff 1994).

One framework for understanding the essentials of independent language learning and the critical contribution of language learning strategies comes from the learner-context interface theory (White 2003, 2005) based on a phenomenographic study into how students perceive, experience, and conceptualise their learning in an independent setting (for details see White 1999). Within the reports of learners independent language learning was not defined as a specific setting, or philosophy, or set of learner attributes. Rather, the essence of independent language learning involved constructing and assuming control of a personally meaningful and effective interface between themselves, their attributes and needs, and the features of the learning context. Independent language learning according to this view is based around learners as active agents who evaluate the potential affordances within their environments and then create, select and make use of tasks, experiences, and interlocutors in keeping with their needs, preferences, and goals as learners. The ways in which learners do this, and the composition of each interface is likely to differ between learners and over time. The constructed interface then guides and informs learning and develops with new learning experiences. Establishing an interface requires knowledge of self and of the environments and the skills to establish congruence between those two dimensions. The construction of the interface is also closely related to the use of learning strategies and the development of metacognitive knowledge and this is discussed in the next section.