Adaptive theory

A method was required that allowed the integration of shared understandings and experience in the field of sustainable food and fibre systems and new attitudinal and empirical data to be collected. The adaptive theory method was selected because this study does not test a hypothesis but is rather an exploratory investigation seeking a model, or theory, drawn from the participants’ experiences situated within the wider social context. This methodology also welcomes the use of the researcher’s prior knowledge and understandings of the subject matter as a key element in theory generation.

Layder’s (1993, 1998) adaptive theory provided a basis for this combination of deductive and inductive procedures. Adaptive theory ‘is about the generation of theoretical models of the social reality that is the subject of the research’ (Layder 1998:152). As Layder (1998:135) states:

Adaptive theory tries to steer clear of this incompatibility (between deductive and inductive) by avoiding extreme, rigid or dogmatic definitions of induction and deduction and by conceiving of them as potentially ‘open’ discourses.

The form of adaptive theory chosen for this research project leans heavily on grounded theory as one of the core influences of adaptive theory (Layder 1993). Grounded theory has its origins in symbolic interactionism, using the perspective that reality is negotiated between people, always changing and constantly evolving (Morse and Richards 2002). As for grounded theory, the adaptive theory method of collecting and analysing data reflects a commitment to understanding the ways in which reality is socially constructed.

Grounded theory is based on the concepts of theoretical sensitivity (Glaser 1978) and techniques for creating grounded theory in data (Strauss 1987; Strauss and Corbin 1998). The key goal is the creation of new theoretical concepts from the data and the seeking of core concepts and the underlying ‘basic social process’ (BSP) or ‘basic social psychological process’ (BSPP) (Glaser, 1978). Charmaz (2006:6) summarises the defining components of grounded theory according to Glaser (1978) and Strauss (1987) as:

 Simultaneous involvement in data collection and analysis

 Constructing analytic codes and categories from data, not from preconceived logically deduced hypotheses

 Using the constant comparative method which involves making comparisons during each stage of the analysis

 Advancing theory development during each step of data collection and analysis

 Memo-writing to elaborate categories, specify their properties, define relationships between categories and identify gaps

 Sampling aimed toward theory construction not for population representativeness

 Conducting the literature review after developing an independent analysis.

Adaptive theory embraces the ‘organic’ nature of grounded theory, allowing theory to emerge through engagement with the ‘real world’, but it rejects the narrowly defined parameters of what is permissible using grounded theory, extending its terms of reference (Layder 1998:147).

Adaptive theory ‘... preserves the core of grounded theory but strips it of its empirical limitations’ (Layder 1998:150). Layder (1998:136) states that in adaptive theory:

Both forms of theory generation, construction or elaboration are permissible within the same frame of reference and particularly within the same research project and timeframe… Thus it is not only a matter of allowing their dual influence on theory- construction but also of allowing their mutual influence on each other

A key purpose of the enquiry into food and fibre systems emerging from the South West was to form a better picture of the wider social network implicated in food and fibre systems beyond the farmers and regional participants. Using Layder’s (1998) terms, the objective was ‘to produce an enhanced or more accurate rendering of the nature of (the) social reality under scrutiny’ than currently existed and to develop knowledge towards the ‘formulation and presentation of ever more powerful explanations of social phenomena’ involved (1998:142).

Also given that the research topic was concerned with the social construction of food and fibre production-consumption systems, the primary focus of adaptive theory on social relations and ‘agency-system linkages’ (Layder 1998:148) was entirely appropriate.

Adaptive theory is concerned with ‘systemic and structural forces, mechanisms and generative processes’ as well as the forces that ‘subsume these diverse elements and which represent the “ligatures” which bind lifeworld and systems elements together’ (Layder 1998:143).

Given the existing interest in relationships and interconnections within the topic material, adaptive theory with its focus on interconnections is pertinent to this study, as Layder (1998:144) points out,:

… adaptive theory is most pertinent to research which attends to the interweaving of system elements (settings and contexts of activity) with the micro-features (interpersonal encounters) of social life

Adaptive theory also supports the use of theoretically useful cases (Strauss & Corbin 1998). The case studies selected were chosen to help develop concepts that are useful in explaining features of sustainable supply chains. Importantly, a method was required that was in accordance with my own practice. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), grounded theory methodology suits researchers who ‘hope that their work has potential for both academic and non-academic audiences’ and have a ‘sense of absorption to the work process’ (Strauss & Corbin 1998:6). These qualities very much describe my own ambitions for my practice in the field of sustainable food and fibre systems.

The process of adaptive theory used in this study follows the grounded theory procedures outlined by Strauss (1987) as well as the interaction between extant theory and emergent theory used in adaptive theory. Grounded theory procedures used included development of a concept- indicator model which directs the coding, data collection, coding, development of core categories, theoretical sampling, comparisons, theoretical memos and theoretical sorting (Strauss, 1987:23).

Layder (1998) adds that in adaptive theory, ‘the creative use of sampling and sampling techniques, the generation of codes and concept indicator links, and the writing of theoretical memos’ are used as continuous features of the overall process rather than being discretely marked out as defined stages of research (1998:174).

In summary, the exploratory intent of this study of sustainability in food and fibre supply chains is suited to adaptive theory because of the focus on social relations and ‘agency-system linkages’, because it permits the incorporation of prior theory which was an important context of this study and because it is useful for making use of the wide range of data sources available in the strongly emergent theme area considered in this study. The use of adaptive theory in theory generation is discussed at the end of this chapter. The next section considers the other two theoretical approaches that were used in this study, Soft Systems Methodology and narrative.