Adherence to multimedia design principles

The multimedia design principles highlighted in (Table 1.1) [87] are briefly discussed and how each principle has been considered and applied to the Open and Laparoscopic Anterior resection multimedia tools.

Coherence principle

Coherence principle states that extraneous pictures, sounds and words should be excluded [43, 75, 81]. In both tools, essential text was displayed in the information panels. To exclude use of extraneous words, text has been summarised (in abbreviated format) in all instances to ensure only key text information is displayed. No

background music or extra sounds were used in either tool. Synchronised voiceover is directly related to each video clip (subtask video) and the narration highlights the key points required to complete each subtask. Extraneous pictures have been excluded to display only the key corresponding pictures for each video icon on the open interface map. Opening the video icon will display one picture or video display at any one time. On the laparoscopic interface map, no pictures are displayed on the interface map. Additionally all open and laparoscopic subtasks containing video footage has been succinctly edited, excluding extraneous material to adhere to the coherence principle. Signalling principle

Signalling principle provides ‘cues’ on how to select and organise material and also refers to highlighting essential information [79, 81, 134]. Only essential graphics have been included to direct users to relevant information. Arrows guide users through

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subtasks, particularly in situations when presented with optional boxes (decision making). Pathways are also programmed to follow in a consistent manner i.e. the linear left-to-right pathway in the laparoscopic tool or vertical pathway in open tool. Redundancy principle

The voiceover has been synchronised with video footage and the text information displayed provides a summary of the subtask, instrumentation and team position. The text acts as a reference for the user and intentionally avoids using “identical streams” of printed and spoken words, thereby adhering to the redundancy principle [76]. Spatial contiguity principle

Spatial contiguity states printed words should be placed near corresponding parts of graphics to reduce need for visual scanning [43, 69]. In the context of video and animation playback, anatomical structures have been highlighted by placing arrows and/ or text directly on or adjacent to the structures. Visual scanning is also reduced by placing all subtask information in close proximity to the video screen (discussed

above). The rollover option on the open interface map highlights information in the bottom information panel only when the cursor is placed on a particular subtask. Fixed placement of the menu toolbar and information panel (in the open tool) also ensure that users know how and where to access text information in a consistent and deliberate manner. The laparoscopic interface map displays only the subtask icons in the chosen pathway; each icon is titled with text corresponding to the subtask, again minimising visual scanning. Once the icon is opened, the subtask video and text information displayed is contained on a single screen.

Temporal contiguity principle

Synchronising voiceover (narration) for all video or animation sequences conforms to the temporal contiguity principle which states that corresponding animation and narration are presented simultaneously rather than successively [75, 79].

106 Segmenting principle

Segmenting principle states that information should be presented in “bite-size” learner-controlled segments rather than as a continuous unit [43, 81]. Creating multimedia tools based on cognitive task analysis is particularly effective at segmenting information.

Modality principle

The modality principle instructs presentation of words as narration rather than as on- screen text due to the visual channel being overloaded. Therefore text information should be presented to the auditory channel, freeing the visual channel for

complementary content [43, 81, 134].

The modality principle was not strictly adhered to. For both tools, all educational material (annotation, animation, video, text, and voiceover) required for each subtask is presented on the same screen. This enables users to focus on the subtask without needing to search for additional information elsewhere on the interface map. This was a situation in which it was difficult to combine interface map construction and design principles. After detailed consideration, it was felt that interface map construction and functionality would have been compromised if, for instance, links were created to minimise screen text. There is also evidence that some learners prefer reading text to hearing it [135] and this is potentially thought to result in better retention of

knowledge [91]. Pre-training principle

Pre-training principle requires users to be pre-trained in advance [43, 75, 134] to become accustomed to the characteristics of the multimedia tools. Due to the

educational study design, users in this study were not instructed on the characteristics or behaviour of the multimedia tool. However introductory videos were included to provide a broad overview of key multimedia functions and navigation of each interface map.

107 Multimedia principle

This principle states that words (text) and pictures are presented as opposed to words alone [76, 79]. All video icon subtask “picture” information on the open interface is related to text on the information panels. In both tools, text is presented with corresponding video in all instances (subtask information panels below video space) once the video icon has been opened (discussed above).

Personalisation principle

This principle states that a conversational style should be used to present words instead of “formal dry” style [43, 134]. During voiceover recording, attempts were made to impart an informal, conversational style to the voiceover for both tools; however due to succinct editing of each video narration was always kept concise and to the point.

Overall the majority of Mayer’s principles on multimedia design have been

incorporated into the development of both educational tools, despite design variations between each tool.

The effects identified by Sweller [66, 72, 136] with regards to design techniques are now discussed briefly:

Worked example effect

By introducing various decision making steps at key stages (i.e. is sufficient colonic length available?) in both tools and following the pathway to solve particular problems (i.e. further colonic mobilisation steps), the multimedia tools adhere to the worked example effect.

Split attention effect

Text was integrated on designated spaces below videos or within the toolbars (open tool), to complement the graphical components. All other graphical components, such as subtask “elements” or “icons” were clearly labelled with text.

108 Redundancy effect

As described in the “redundancy principle”, efforts were made not to repeat words or terms in the voiceover and text. In this way redundant information was avoided. However the text information would often give a quick summary to the visual and auditory information provided in the videos.

Modality effect

This effect adheres to the dual channel assumption of cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Therefore media is presented with both words and pictures. However efforts were made not to “overload” this memory bank. Videos were all succinct in timing and annotation/ animation was only utilised to complement and enhance media.