Age differences and age as moderator

Previous research indicates that older students are more likely to attend university because of being internally motivated (Klein, 1990; Nunn, 1994), whereas younger students are more likely to display external motivations (Jacobson, 2000). In a study with 566

undergraduate students Isiksal (2010) reported that older students were more intrinsically motivated than younger students. Similarly, Jeffrey et al. (2009) studied 1 811 students in New Zeeland and also found that older students were more intrinsically motivated than younger students. Studies by Justice and Dornan (2001) and Bye, Pushkar and Conway (2007) however, reported that younger and older age college students did not differ in their motivations to achieve at university. It is thus hypothesized that older students will display higher levels of intrinsic motivation whereas younger students will display higher levels of extrinsic motivation.

Malefo (2000) indicated that student stress decreases with decreasing age. First year students reported higher levels of stress than second year students, and third and fourth year students had lower levels of stress than first or second year students. Similarly, Michie et al. (2001) in a study with 112 undergraduate psychology students reported higher levels of academic stress for younger students. Therefore, younger students are hypothesized to show higher levels of perceived stress than older students.

Results on age differences in test-anxiety at university are inconsistent. Older university students have been found to display lower levels of anxiety related to their

97 academic performance (Mueller et al., 2000; Nunn, 1994; Yarbrough & Schaffer, 1990). Other findings of age differences in test anxiety reported that younger students have lower test anxiety compared to older students (Baloğlu, 2003; Sansgiry & Sail, 2006). The studies of Justice and Dornan (2001) and Rasor and Rasor (1998), in contrast, reported no age difference. As a result of previous inconsistent findings, no prediction is made for the variable of test-anxiety.

Age differences in terms of academic self-efficacy have been less reported in the literature. In a study at the Queensland University of Technology in Australia with 1 193 first year undergraduate students McKenzie and Gow (2004) found that older students displayed higher levels of self-efficacy than younger students. As with previous variables related to academic performance, some of the research showed no significant age differences in relation to academic self-efficacy (Justice & Dornan, 2001). It is therefore hypothesized that older students will display higher levels of self-efficacy than younger students at university.

In assessing possible age differences in the level of perceived social support students receive at university, Lyons et al. (1988) found that in a class of 92 undergraduate students, no age differences existed in the measure of perceived social support from friends or family. Hence, it is hypothesized that students do not differ in terms of perceived social support.

Graham and Donaldson (1999) indicated that younger college students were

predominantly involved with similarly aged students on campus and in peer-related activities, whereas older college students participated less in campus activities and tended to devote more time for family members. Hence older students might display less (social) adjustment to university. However, Ramsay et al. (2007) reported no significant difference between young and older students‟ level of adjustment to university in their sample of 280 first year

undergraduate students at an Australian university. Additionally, no differences in students‟ academic and social adjustment to university were reported amongst a sample of 289 first

98 year students in North Jordan (Jdaitawi et al., 2011). Contrary to the findings mentioned above, Clifton et al. (2008) reported that older students were better adjusted to university than younger students in their sample of 854 undergraduate students at a Canadian university. Following the major trends of findings, it is hypothesized that younger students will be better adjusted socially at university than older students; and that younger and older students do not differ in terms of academic adjustment to university.

In terms of academic performance, older students have been found to perform as well academically as younger students and to earn higher grades than younger students (e.g., Baker, 2003; Cantwell, Archer, & Bourke, 2001; Clifton et al., 2008; Etcheverry, Clifton, & Roberts, 2001; Graham & Donaldson, 1996; Kasworm, 1990; Malefo, 2000; Richardson, 1995; Richardson & King, 1998; Sheehan, McMenamin, & McDevitt, 1992; Spitzer, 2000). For example, Carney-Crompton and Tan (2002) found that older students performed better academically than younger students. Similarly, Kember and Harper (1987) indicated that older students perform better academically than younger students. In contrast, there are also studies which have found no significant differences in academic performance due to age (e.g., Farsides & Woodfield, 2007; Justice & Dornan, 2001; Ting & Robinson, 1998), whereas other studies have found that younger students are more successful (i.e., Clark, 1993). Considering the trends of findings, it is hypothesized that older students will perform as well academically at university as younger students.

In summary, younger students are expected to display higher levels of extrinsic motivation, to have higher levels of perceived stress and to be better adjusted socially to university than older students. Older students are hypothesized to have higher levels of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy than younger students; and to perform as well academically as younger students. Additionally, it is predicted that younger and older

99 of social support they receive from friends and family members. As previous findings for test-anxiety have been contradicting, no prediction is made for the present study.

Multon et al‟s. (1991) meta-analysis investigated the moderator effect of age for the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance. However, the influence of self- efficacy on academic performance was compared between older students (high school and college students) and younger students (elementary school children); and not between younger and older university students as in the present study. Their findings may therefore not apply to university students. Nonetheless, results showed that the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance was more important (higher) for older students. Older students might therefore benefit more from programs improving their self-efficacy which will help them perform better academically. Multon et al. (1991) argues that older students have more experience and know their relative academic strengths and weaknesses and therefore better estimate their level of self-efficacy. Based on previous research by Multon et al. (1991) it is hypothesized that self-efficacy is an important predictor for academic performance for older students. No further research was identified which previously tested the moderator effect of age for the relationships between psychosocial variables (variables included in the present study) and adjustment or academic performance. This gap was addressed in the present study.