Age Differences

In the adult population, it is well established that PA participation decreases significantly as age increases (Butt et al., 2011; Guthold, Ono, Strong, & Chaterrji, 2008; Institute of Public Health, 2011). Motivation for PA may also vary with age, and research within the sport and exercise domain reflects age-related differences in motives (Butt et al., 2011; Iannotti et al., 2013; Pero et al., 2010).

Studies on young athletes have shown evidence that intrinsic motives like enjoyment, fun, skill, and challenge are important for youth (Biddle, Wang, Chatzisarantis, &

Spray, 2003; Bryan & Solmon, 2012; Buonamano et al., 1995; Caglar et al., 2009; Gill et al., 1983; Morris et al., 1996; Murcia, de San Román Blanco, Galindo, Villodre, &

Coll, 2007; Ryska, 2004; Smith, Ullrich-French, Walker Ii, & Hurley, 2006; Whitehead, 1995; Zan et al., 2012). Research with young and middle-aged adults, however, indicates that a more diverse set of motives, including health outcomes, drives these older sport and exercise participants (De Andrade Bastos, Salguero, Gonzalez-Boto, &

Marquez, 2006; Gallagher et al., 2012; Morris & Han, 1991; Morris et al., 1993;

Trujillo, Brougham, & Walsh, 2004).

Trujillo, Brougham, and Walsh (2004) tested the hypothesis that there are age-related differences in reasons for exercising. Participants included 212 people aged 18 to 34 years, 107 individuals aged 35 to 51 years, 79 people aged 52 to 68 years, and 59

individuals aged 69 to 86 years. Results provided mixed support for the hypotheses that younger individuals exhibit greater concern for interpersonal attraction outcomes, whereas older individuals exhibit greater concern for health outcomes. This result is consistent with research indicating that active older adults were motivated to exercise from the recognition they received from important others (Duda & Tappe, 1988).

Morris et al. (1995) investigated differences in activity type on participation motives in 2,601 participants (1,164 males and 1, 437 females) aged 6 to above 80 years. They found that the biggest discriminators were status and skills/movements, both of which were ranked higher by the 6 to 14 year-olds than the rest of sample. Multiple factors discriminated 15 to 18 year-olds from the overall sample. This group was discriminated from the other participants by challenge and status. Six crucial factors, including fun and health, discriminated the 19 to 22 year-old age group from the participants in other age groups. Within the 23 to 39 year-old age group, six factors discriminated between this group and the rest of the sample, including higher scores on the skills, status, and health sub-scales. Those aged 40 to 59 years were discriminated by challenge, status, and skills from the rest of the sample. In this case the mid-life adults rated these motives lower than the rest of the sample and rated physical health as a more important motive for participation. The motives that most clearly discriminated the 60 to 80 year-old age group from the rest of the sample were physical health and aesthetics/relaxation. Like the mid-life group, they also rated challenge, status, and skills lower than all the younger participant groups.

Koslow (1988) examined the effect of age on PA involvement among adults. There were three age categories: 18 to 30 years old, 31 to 40 years old and 41 to 50 years old.

Each category comprised 50 females and 50 males. Those aged 18 to 30 years rated aesthetic benefits significantly higher than health benefits. Also, the benefits pertaining

to health and aesthetic enhancement were rated as significantly more important than social and emotional benefits and training benefits by participants aged 31 to 50 years.

Koslow (1988) concluded that, regardless of age, participants were equally or more interested in aesthetic benefits compared to health benefits resulting from fitness-related activities.

Brodkin and Weiss (1990) used a lifespan method in their descriptive research on motives for PA involvement. Studying 6 to 74 year-old swimmers, they found social and health motives were among the most important factors selected by young children whereas older children and adolescents were attracted by the motives of skill development and health. Fitness and health were the most important factors for adults.

Additionally, with regard to the youngest swimmers, fun was the topmost reason for PA participation (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990). Also, Brodkin and Weiss reported that competition was not as important to the sport motivation of older adults compared to younger participants.

Egli et al. (2011) investigated differences in PA motivation between age, gender, and race with 2,199 students adults (1,081 males and 1,118 females) who engaged in exercise. The results revealed a significant difference in health pressure, affiliation, and ill-health avoidance between the under 20 and over 20 year olds. Affiliation was more important for the over 20 year old group, whereas health pressure and ill-health avoidance were more important for the under 20 year old group. This result is at odds with previous studies (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Trujillo et al., 2004). In most research examining age differences in motives for participation in PA, concerned with physical and mental health have become more prominent as age increased.

To summarize, there has been substantial research on the motives associated with

young adults were more motivated by mastery (skill learning/improvement) and challenge, whereas older participants exhibited more concern for consequences related to physical and psychological health than younger adults. Findings highlight the importance of considering age when studying PA motivation, because the strength of the associations between the motivational regulations and PA behaviour varied across age groups. Findings highlight the importance of considering age when studying PA motivation because identifying factors that influence motivation for PA at different ages is necessary to develop interventions to increase PA behaviour across the lifespan (Brunet & Sabiston, 2011).