Analysis of documents

Cortazzi (2002) refers to analysis of documents as an examination of texts which exist independently of the researcher, allowing individual researchers to construct reality and contribute to subsequent views of it. This explanation is particularly relevant to the current study, given the interpretivist and critical realist approaches, and the nature of the research question.

These issues are elaborated upon below.

Essentially the analysis of documents involves focusing on what is communicated, interpreting and evaluating that communication, as well as considering what is not communicated (Cortazzi, 2002). Based on this analysis, researchers develop and substantiate their view of a particular construct (e.g. strategic entrepreneurship), effectively creating or constructing their perspective of reality with respect to that construct. The conclusions or research findings effectively influence the views of others, subsequently contributing in either a positive or negative manner to future views of that construct. Such was the process adopted for the review of literature on entrepreneurship, strategy, and strategic entrepreneurship, detailed in Chapter 2. Specifically, the literature review involved an evaluation of prior research on these topics to derive a new framework of strategic entrepreneurship. Ultimately the proposed framework represents a personal view of what strategic entrepreneurship is, from the researcher’s perspective. The conclusions drawn from the literature review are reflective of a personal reality created by the researcher, and will arguably influence the views of others who may either agree or disagree with the conclusions presented to form their own, similar or dissimilar, views of strategic entrepreneurship.

Within the context of the case studies, documentary analysis provided a useful starting point for examining strategic entrepreneurship in practice. Specifically, annual reports, financial statements, and general media publications were reviewed in the first instance to gain an understanding of each organisation’s business operations, public perception, and activities recognised as entrepreneurial and strategic in nature. Based on this review, preliminary conclusions were drawn regarding activity suitable to be studied in further detail.

Given the diverse range of documents reviewed, consideration of both the information communicated within these documents, as well as the characteristics of the documents was essential (Birley & Moreland, 1998). In particular, origin and credibility, objectivity and representational nature of the documents were reviewed to consider both the message within the texts, but also the context of that message. This was particularly relevant to media releases and other publications by the relevant organisations, and media reports by newspapers, which often revealed underlying agendas. With respect to NZ Post in particular, the activity examined was, and still is, considered both political and controversial. Thus the purpose, content, and intention of documents relating to this activity were examined accordingly.

Language and social discourse were also evaluated within the context of the documents reviewed (Foucault, 1977). This involved identifying use of terminology, as well as recurring themes and patterns to add a further level of depth to the analysis. This was particularly relevant to the review of interview transcripts prepared immediately after the interviews, which revealed language as a reflection of both the individual and the respective organisation. By way of example, language used by the interviewees such as Robyn Hogg of NZ Post reflected both personal or individual qualities (a relaxed, informal nature, with a genuine concern for people), as well as providing an indication of the characteristics and values embedded within the respective organisations.

With respect to recurring themes and patterns, interview transcripts also provided the opportunity to identify themes presented by the interviewees, and more importantly, the concepts underlying those themes. This was particularly relevant as interviewees openly discussed factors they considered important, but also acknowledged that they did not have a full or complete understanding of how these notions were created to facilitate the success achieved.

Thus, documentary analysis was particularly useful in obtaining background data on research

previously undertaken on the topic of strategic entrepreneurship, and reviewing accounts of strategic entrepreneurship activity in business practice. Evaluation of these documents provided a foundation for the development of knowledge on strategic entrepreneurship. A limitation of this method, however, was that documents were unable to provide further detail beyond the data presented in the text. As noted by Gephart and Pitter (1995), documents are essentially a partial or incomplete representation of a construct or event. Accordingly, to address this limitation, data from documentary analysis was complemented by data from additional sources, such as interviews and personal observation. The design and conduct of the interviews which took place, is considered below.

4.4.2 Interviews

“Often those involved are not in a position to recognise easily the factors that influence their behaviour [or the behaviour of a particular phenomenon]. In such cases observation or detailed questioning over time is the appropriate way in which data can be collected.” (Allan, 1991, p. 179).

Patton (1990) suggests the value of interviews lies in gaining an understanding of, and potentially entering into, the experience of others. Thus the opportunity to access the perspective of the interviewee through direct interaction and inquiry is a fundamental benefit of interviews. This is particularly relevant to the case studies within this research as interviewees recalled experiences of international expansion (MetService), retold the process undertaken to establish a bank (NZ Post), and explained the historical and strategic background to the business’ current operations (Quotable Value).

Both Patton (1990) and Wragg (2002) contend interviews are particularly useful when employed as one of multiple research methods. While both documentary analysis and personal observation are useful, documents may not necessarily record adequate or appropriate detail; observation is limited by the opportunity to be in the appropriate place at the appropriate time, for events which have not yet taken place. For this reason, the interview process was considered fundamental to address the void (Patton, 1990) which documentary analysis and observation were unable to fill.

Essentially, qualitative interviewing assumes the perspectives of others are meaningful, and can be made explicit (Patton, 1990). In the context of this research, in person (face to face) interviews were arranged with individuals at the management level within each organisation to

obtain their individual perspective. Interviewees were selected on the basis of their knowledge of and involvement with the activity being examined within their organisation. As such, the data obtained from the interview process provided significant insight into strategic entrepreneurship in a practical business context, and a basis for the evaluation of theoretical frameworks of this construct.

In order to balance consistency and flexibility, the interviews were designed as focused or semi-structured (Patton, 1990) discussions. This design was considered important for two reasons.

Firstly, it provided systematic direction on the specific topics to be addressed. Secondly, it provided an element of flexibility to both interviewees and the interviewer, such that questions could be tailored, background research could be incorporated and verified, and interviewees had the opportunity to raise additional points which they considered relevant (Wragg, 2002). A copy of the interview protocols is detailed in Appendix A.

Essentially the protocols served as a framework, such that (interviewer directed) variation within the interviews was minimised, but allowed the opportunity to probe and uncover additional details where relevant. To the extent that variation within the interviews arose at the direction of the interviewees, such variation was accommodated and later considered during the analysis phase, as a reflection of the individual interviewee. By way of example, interviews with the first two participants went beyond the allocated time, due to these participants volunteering a significant amount of detail, as well as additional time to provide such detail. During discussions with the third interview, however, the participant ensured the time limit was adhered to. Despite such variations, the researcher ensured all topics within the protocol were addressed.

The initial phase of the interview process involved identifying appropriate individuals within each organisation, with sufficient knowledge of the activity being reviewed at both an operational and strategic level. This was achieved by contacting the public relations department in the first instance, providing a brief overview of the proposed research, and requesting details of the most appropriate person within the organisation to contact as a potential participant. In the case of MetService and Quotable Value, the Chief Executive was identified. Within NZ Post, the Organisational Development Leader was nominated. Each of these participants had an extensive history with the organisation, and was very familiar with the activity being examined. Contact was subsequently made with these individuals, and preliminary discussions undertaken to introduce the researcher and the proposed research, as well as confirm the person identified within the

organisation was appropriate. Once written consent was obtained from each individual, interviews were arranged at the convenience of the participant. Initial interviews were designed to gain an understanding of the activity or opportunity recognised as both strategic and entrepreneurial within the respective organisation. Such activity was identified by the researcher prior to the interview through documentary analysis, and participants were given the opportunity to discuss that activity or suggest an alternative activity which they considered to be both entrepreneurial and strategic.

Essentially the interview process aimed to identify the dimensions, themes, and elements relevant to the activity being reviewed (Patton, 1990). To achieve this aim, a range of questions was included in each interview protocol; both direct and indirect, general and specific, factual and opinion orientated (Tuckman, 1972). With respect to the first interview, these questions were structured into five main categories: introduction and overview of the interview focus; background and general details of the activity recognised as both strategic and entrepreneurial; details of the activity specific to the proposed framework of strategic entrepreneurship; scope of strategic entrepreneurship in the context of that activity; and other matters considered relevant by the interviewee.

In the case of MetService and NZ Post, these questions loosely guided the interviews as the interviewees regularly volunteered information they considered relevant, and often pre-empted topics to be addressed. This was particularly useful for inductive analysis, and also served to guide the third interview with Quotable Value. With respect to the third interviewee, they relied primarily on the interview questions to guide the discussion, such that dialogue consisted mainly of direct responses to the questions posed. As such, topics not specifically included in the interview questions, but which had surfaced from the previous two interviews, were also raised by the researcher during the latter half of the discussion. This facilitated an element of consistency among the interviews, and provided a more complete understanding of the activity examined within Quotable Value.

In order to establish a longitudinal dimension within the study a second phase of interviews was conducted with participants approximately six months after the initial interviews, focusing primarily on changes and developments relating to the activity previously examined. Given that sound relationships with participants had been established during the initial interview, subsequent interviews were conducted by phone. Owing to the level of familiarity established between the

researcher and each participant from the initial interview, subsequent correspondence, and exchange on issues relating to the study both directly and indirectly (e.g. advising participants of subsequent publications by the researcher based on the study); phone interviews were considered viable, and effectively facilitated open and constructive discussion. Interview questions were sufficiently broad to accommodate the different situations relevant to each activity being examined, but also appropriately specific to establish consistency and cross-case comparison. These questions were classified into four categories, being general developments in the activity or project over the past six months, developments with respect to wealth creation directly related to the activity, changes in competitive advantage for the business as a result of the project, and discussion of any other matters considered relevant by the interviewee.

In order to create effective discussion particularly in the initial interview, brief prefatory statements or background details were presented at the beginning of each category, to provide interviewees with an understanding of why such questions were being raised, and make the purpose of each category sufficiently clear (Patton, 1990). These statements were followed by questions consciously structured as neutral and open-ended. By way of example, a brief overview of innovation within the academic literature (e.g. the notions of incremental, continuous, and radical innovation) was provided before enquiring about the innovative aspects of the relevant activity within each organisation. In addition, feedback (both verbal and non-verbal) was given during the course of the interview, to assure interviewees that their responses were both relevant and useful to the research, where appropriate. The use of these interview tools aimed to assist in establishing a relaxed and open environment, such that interviewees were comfortable to openly and fully respond to the questions raised (Tuckman, 1972). Essentially this was achieved, and is reflected in both the content and nature of the responses, evidenced by interviewees’ informal language, open displays of emotion, disclosure of confidential details, at times blunt accounts of difficulties faced by the respective organisations, and honest responses regarding aspects within the respective organisations which interviewees acknowledged they didn’t fully understand.

Given the rich and significant amount of data gathered during the initial interview process, interviews were recorded to ensure all relevant data were captured. The recording of each interview provided the opportunity for transcripts to be prepared (some more than 20 pages in length), reviewed, and confirmed by the individual interviewees. Once confirmed, the transcripts were then examined as part of the documentary analysis noted in the previous section, and discussed in Section 4.5 headed “Data Analysis”. As noted by Patton (1990), full transcriptions

are particularly useful for both analysis and replication. Thus, on completion of each interview data was analysed and compared to identify any similarities, recurring themes, and patterns.

The notion of subjectivity and bias as inherent in interviews is often identified as a limitation of this research procedure. As noted by Cohen et al. (2000), however, acknowledgement of such bias facilitates both an awareness of its existence, and the opportunity to control it. As such, a conscious effort was made to eliminate such bias, by ensuring analysis of interview data was an iterative process, and using a number of data analysis techniques, as detailed in the Section 4.5.

On the basis that interviews were conducted with a variety of individuals in different organisational environments, observations made during the course of the interviews were recorded by way of note-taking during and directly after the interview process. Thus, observation of data constitutes the third source of data collection within the case studies. The use of observation and interpretation inherent to those observations is outlined below.

4.4.3 Observation

“At the heart of every case study lies a method of observation,” (Cohen et al., 2000, p. 185).

Observation is referred to by Moyles (2002) as a powerful, flexible and real means of data collection; a method of contextualising data from other sources. In the context of interviews, details expressly discussed are available for interpretation and analysis; however it is the process of observing the environment and context in which the dialogue occurs, which allows researchers to consider the unspoken aspects of the interview, to gain a more complete picture, and thus more effectively evaluate the data collected. For this reason (and for the convenience of the individual participants) initial interviews were arranged at each participant’s office. As such, two of the initial interviews were conducted in Wellington, and one in Auckland.

While Hycner (1985) suggests interview transcripts should record both verbal and non-verbal data, ultimately use of, or reliance on a tape-recorder during an interview will only capture verbal data. Thus, comprehensive records of verbal and non-verbal data are essentially two separate tasks. The second of these two tasks is central to observation.

Essentially the scope of observations made within this research was limited, and related primarily to the individual interviews and brief communication with interviewees in the lead up to those interviews. Despite the limited opportunity for data collection of this nature, however, certainly the observations made offer a further depth of understanding with respect to the organisational context of the activity examined. Further, they provided the opportunity for cross-verification of data obtained from other sources with the observations made to identify any inconsistencies. As such, observations regarding the reactions and responses of participants (interviewees) were evaluated to consider the reflection on the individual interviewee, the respective organisation, and the activity of interest within that organisation.

With respect to the first interviewee, for example, enthusiasm towards the study was clearly evident. The explanation for this enthusiasm was referred to as free consultancy; an opportunity to learn more and further improve the business. Observations made during contact with the second interviewee reinforced the genuine concern for people at both an individual and organisational level. In the case of the third interviewee, observations of willing but cautious participation were viewed as reflective of the individual and organisational management style.

Thus, observations of the manner and approach in which each participant engaged in the study provided further insight into the nature of the individuals, their approach to business, and the character and values within the respective organisations.

During the interview, the researcher assumed the role of observer. As such, interviewees were fully informed regarding the interview process, however the method of observation during the interview was implied rather than expressed. Thus, the process of observation assisted in assessing the consistency of each individual’s statements and behaviour (Waddington, 1994).

Whilst observation data are recognised as rich and valuable (Cohen et al., 2000), there are also recognised limitations. Pettigrew (1979) notes the act of observation affects the very behaviour being observed. Waddington (1994) raises the issue of bias in what researchers see, and how they interpret such observations. For these reasons, observation data was not considered in isolation, but rather in conjunction with data from interviews and documentary analysis.

Thus, individually, each of the three data sources provides different benefits and addresses specific purposes. Collectively, however, the three data sources complement each other such that the strengths and limitations of each research method are balanced to achieve significantly

greater benefit from data collection.