An analysis of the postcolonial theory.

political, ethical, and philosophical questions that recognize the salience of the colonial experience and its persisting aftermath” in the formerly colonized territories (Jack et al. 2011: 277). A number of scholarships that have pinpointed this discourse show that the emergence of the postcolonial theory is located towards the end of 20th century (Gayatri Spivak 1987; Ashcroft 1989; Homi Bhabha 1990). However this is not to argue that the subject matter against which postcolonial theory emerged is itself recent. Among the theorists from whom postcolonial theory draws its major influence are Edward Said and Michel Foucault. These writers show how the “other” becomes estranged or monstrous in discourses of power which draw lines of demarcation between “we” and “they,” between “normal” and “abnormal,” between “Westerner” and “Oriental.” (Zaidi 2011:204).

Postcolonial theory recognizes that the colonized was affected by the process of colonialism. The process of colonialism is understood as that which guaranteed control, subordination, authoritative administration and religious instructions against the wishes of the colonized. Through such processes, postcolonial theory postulates that the colonized was compelled to desist from his or her cultural, religious, political and social life/organization. Instead they should embrace the new cultural, religious, political and social life of the colonizer. According to postcolonial theory, the process was characterized by unequal exercise of power and influence (Ashcroft et al. 1989). While the colonized appeared before the colonizer as inferior and less powerful to resist colonialism, the colonizer appeared to the colonized as powerful and far more informed in ways of life (Bentley 2015).

Jack et al. contends the effects of colonialism and how formerly colonized societies react to the aftermath of colonialism. This is the subject matter of the postcolonial theory (Jack et al. 2011). One of the key central ideas suggested by postcolonial theorists is the argument that formerly colonized societies still have to deal with the effects of colonialism. Postcolonial theory therefore would be used as a vehicle which “investigates the complex and deeply fraught dynamics of modern Western colonialism and anticolonial resistance” experienced in non- Western societies (Prasad 2003:5). Therefore it can be stated that colonialism is affected when certain powers rule or dominate others. For instance, in terms of the formerly colonized countries such as Uganda, Britain was a power that sought to control and dominate the Ugandan societies during the Western era of colonization. In this case, after the Ugandan independence, the decolonized Uganda would be described as a ‘postcolonial’ country. In loose terms ‘postcolonial’ would mean the end of colonialization, thus the beginning of postcolonialism.

meaning. McClintock (1994) suggests that the term postcolonialism attempts to portray a moment of ‘change’, ‘development’, ‘improvement’ or a transition from oppression to self- governance. If used metaphorically it would, as well, describe that period “between old and new, end and beginning” (1994:254). It is agreed upon by many postcolonial theorists as an easily assumed misleading concept in relation to its meaning. Critics point out the uncertainty imbued in the term postcolonial when thought of, or used in literature (Brians 1998). One of the major points of contention associated with the term is its literal assumption of “the national culture after the departure of the imperial power[s]” (Ashcroft et al. 1989:1). In this case, the term may be literally taken to consider the experiences or literatures written by individuals who happen to live in the geographical locations that were once colonized. The question here has been for instance: where does postcolonialism locate other literatures on the subject of colonial experience which happen to be written from societies besides those colonized by imperial powers such as Britain, France, German or Portugal? Could the reflections on the subject of colonialism other than those that were colonized be postcolonial? Is the postcolonial limited to geographical terms or does it go beyond geographical and existential limitations?

Critics further point out what seems to be an exclusive literal reference to colonization when the term postcolonial is employed. Colonization which in most cases is interpreted as political dominance is seen as an inadequate term especially in the context where societies consider further reflections on cases such as economic, religious, ideological and cultural dominance (Dube 2000:128). These cases have come to be seen as channels through which colonies were colonized, exploited and to some extent continue to experience the effects of colonialism. Aware of these limitations the study uses the expression of colonialism consciously. It uses it not only to refer to the past experiences of imperial control but to include the multiple dimensions of present domination and struggles which can be traced back to the time of imperial control.

The study therefore concurs with a position that current discourses of religious, cultural, political, and economic struggles in Uganda are postcolonial issues through which the colonized societies assert their experiences of imperialism.13 From this perspective, we cannot underestimate how religion may continue to influence society including in the formation of policies. The situation becomes even more complex in formerly colonized societies such as Uganda when the power of religion is expressed along with foreign actors who may be regarded

13 _{The concept imperialism is defined by Said to mean the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating}

as superior, more educated and informed. The AAEs presence in Uganda was a combination of these factors. Besides being religious leaders, they were foreign white visitors from the United States of America, a country regarded politically and economically superior to Uganda. Therefore it could be held that the presence of AAEs in Uganda would make great use of colonial tools of influence such as the expertise on knowledge and religious discourse on homosexuality to convince their listeners.

2.6.1.1. Postcolonialism.

“Postcolonialism (or often post-colonialism) deals with the effects of colonization on cultures and societies” (Ashcroft et al 2007:168). It is a concept that attempts to study, and reflect on how colonization influenced the ways of life of the colonized societies. But of recent, the term postcolonialism has gained a wider perspective. Shands contends that “[w]hile postcolonialism is a term that has been used primarily in discussions of the geographical areas of the former colonies of the British, French, German, and Portuguese empires, today, the term has turned out to have relevance in a much wider context” (Shands 2008:8). It would be important to note that critical reflections on the effects of colonialism has widened the spectrum of postcolonialism to include not only the formerly colonised societies but also those affected by colonialism even indirectly (Shands 2008). In respect to formerly colonized societies but more specifically, Uganda, the discourse of postcolonialism would attempt to reflect on questions such as: What effects did colonialism have on the people of Uganda as far as their cultural, religious, economic, political and social organizational structures are concerned? How does colonialism continue to influence the Ugandan society in contemporary time? And how do the people interpret and respond to it?

The topic of the 2014 homosexuality criminalization cannot be held outside these lenses. In many African societies homosexuality is still debated as to whether it is an imposed phenomena that came along with forces such as colonialism or it is a long suppressed sexual expression that has nothing to do with colonial domination. In respect to Uganda, postcolonial theory would therefore offer a discursive framework to investigate whether homosexuality criminalization was actually a response to the re-reading of past experiences of colonialism. It is important to note that postcolonialism attempts to read contemporary experiences of the formerly colonized societies through the lens of past colonial experiences. Through Mbembe’s framework, as explained by Mongin et al., postcolonialism “derives [its experiences] both from

anti-colonial and anti-imperialist struggles on the one hand, and from the heritage of Western philosophy and of the disciplines that constitute the European humanities on the other” (Mongin et al. 2016:33). The term postcolonialism is not easily understood as it may seem to be. It is a controversial term given the diverse area of enquiry that inform its relevancy to particular contexts. In postcolonial literature, reflections on postcolonialism have prompted positions that either take an optimistic or a pessimistic view within the postcolonial theory.

2.6.1.2. Pessimistic Approach.

The Ugandan context presents various views on homosexuality and its criminalization. In the context of 2014 AHL, there exists voices who view pro-homosexuality activism as colonialist. As such, the 2014 AHL is presented as defiant response against feelings of domination, demonstrating that colonialism is still an active force in contemporary Uganda. While such experiences can expose the agency of the Ugandan society to act towards the ‘felt’ colonialism, they also demonstrate that colonialism still has the ability to influence action in Uganda. Such experiences inspire a pessimistic view on postcolonialism. It arises from experiences that seem to reveal new forms of colonialism and their confirmation in ex- colonized societies. Supporters of this approach view postcolonialism as illusive to what it is supposedly meant to imply (Gikandi 1996). From the critics’ point of view, postcolonialism ought to imply no-more colonialism- an experience they deny as a false tale. Ghanaian novelist Ama Ata Aidoo claims, “colonialism has not been ‘post’-ed anywhere…[That] applied to Africa, India, and some other parts of the world, ‘postcolonial’ is not only a fiction, but a pernicious fiction, a cover-up of a dangerous period in our people’s lives. For unlike ‘neocolonial,’ for instance, ‘postcolonial’ posits a notion of something finished” (Ama Ata Aidoo 1991:152).

But a pessimistic view is not all that is demonstrable by the Ugandan context when it comes to homosexuality criminalization. The debate on homosexuality criminalization has also given rise to reflections on whether Uganda is a sovereign country that can enact its own laws. The enactment of the 2014 AHL is seen not only as a desperate response to colonial domination but as a demonstration of independence. The demonstration of independence is not only expressed in political circles but also in religious circles. In this case, some Christian local religious leaders in Uganda view themselves well placed to interpret and apply biblical teachings on homosexuality without interference from their foreign counterparts. This directs an optimistic approach to postcolonialism.

2.6.1.3. The Optimistic Approach.

Rukundwa and Van Aarde contend that “[f]rom an optimistic point of view, postcolonial theory is a means of defiance by which any exploitative and discriminative practices, regardless of time and space, can be challenged.” (2007:1171). Drawing from an optimistic framework, postcolonial studies are identified with the credit of outlining the ex-colonizers’ legacies believed to be effective even in postcolonial era. Voices that seem to read contemporary experiences as expressions of colonial legacies are not silenced but given a chance for a close analysis. For instance, if a Ugandan national would argue that “we criminalize homosexuality because it was imposed on us by our colonial masters” and that it is not part of our culture, the implication of this argument would be given a chance to assert itself in the discourse of postcolonialism. Similarly if the AAEs would be argued to have influenced the Ugandan society to come up with the 2014 AHL, the significance and extent of this influence would equally be subject to a postcolonial enquiry. The inquiry would not only be interested in how the AAEs influenced but also how the Ugandan community responded. In fact, both parties would be participative.

One of the dangers of reading the 2014 AHL in Uganda as influenced by the AAEs, would be to offer a simplistic analysis. This analysis would suppose that while the AAEs ‘influenced’ the Ugandan public on the 2014 AHL, the local people in their context were inactive participants. Although it would be equally absurd to deny how the experiences of colonialism attempted to silence the colonized societies, it is important to recognize that the colonized societies did not run out of the agency to resist effects of colonialism in the future (Ashcroft et al. 2006). Moreover, even within the postcolonial society such as Uganda, it would be difficult to deny the presence of political, religious or cultural elites who would happily cooperate with the AAEs in selling out their vision of “exposing the homosexuality agenda”. Apart from insisting on the cooperation that may be present between the AAEs and the local elites, the activeness of the local context can be analyzed as an internal revivalism. This could be either a concern for cultural, political, social or economic transformation. Therefore, this view is valuable for the study since it advocates and recognizes that postcolonial societies within Uganda can assert their voices on contemporary discourses using their knowledge which is informed by pre-colonial experiences. Further, the critique also endorses the fact that postcolonial societies through their pre-colonial “knowledges” can still represent themselves

as different from the new experiences brought about by modernity and globalisation.

Stuart Hall explores postcolonialism by illustrating it using the concept ‘postcolonial’. Hall declares:

So, postcolonial is not the end of colonization. It is after a certain kind of colonialism, after a certain moment of high imperialism and colonial occupation—in the wake of it, in the shadow of it, inflected by it—it is what it is because something else has happened before, but it is also something new.” (Hall 1999:230).

Following Hall’s point of view, postcolonialism would be an experience that finds its presence in the wake of colonial occupation. It seems to describe that moment or feeling that emerges as a result of imperialism. Can we then speak of postcolonialism as distinct from imperialism or colonialism? In some instances one could, while in another may not. It is possible to speak of postcolonialism as distinct from imperialism since according to Hall postcolonialism is not merely a synonymous term with imperialism or colonialism. On the other hand one could not categorically provide a distinction between the two. This is because there exists a cordial causer-effect relationship. While postcolonialism would be explained as having been effected by the dawn of imperial powers over the people of other nations, imperialism would, on the other hand, be understood as the founding parent of postcolonialism. This raises an interesting view for the relationship between the AAEs coming to Uganda and the legislation of the 2014 AHL. It would imply that if we view the AAEs as an imperial power, then this would be a new manifestation of imperialism in the changing space and time. It would further imply that the AAEs have something in common with colonial powers as experienced during colonialism. It would further imply that the process that led to the legislation of Uganda’s 2014 AHL must have tangible evidence that leads to the AAEs since it would be supposed to carry something of its founding parent.