Analysis of Research Questions

The data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, version 18. Assumptions for parametric analyses were met, excepting the Formal Help Seeking Symptom Thresholds variable. Therefore

85 research questions using this variable used non parametric analyses. Scatter plots were used to explore the relationships between variables as specified in the research questions, prior to correlations being carried out. This enabled a visual exploration of the associations between variables and further identified any extreme outliers.

3.3.1 Research question 1: What is the relationship between stigma and help seeking symptom thresholds amongst depressed individuals?

The results relating to this research question have been displayed in Table 6. For research question 1a, one tailed Pearson Correlations indicated that the relationships between BIAT mental illness D scores, the total help seeking symptom thresholds score, and informal help seeking symptom thresholds were not significant.

Furthermore, a one tailed Spearman’s Rho correlation revealed that the relationship between BIAT mental illness D scores, and formal help seeking symptom thresholds was not significant. For research question 1b, one tailed Pearson Correlations

indicated significant positive correlations between explicit internalised stigma, the help seeking symptom thresholds total score, and informal help seeking symptom thresholds. Additionally, a one tailed Spearman’s Rho analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between explicit internalised stigma and formal help seeking symptom thresholds. Therefore, BIAT mental illness D scores were not related to any of the help seeking variables. Explicit (self-reported) internalised stigma was significantly related to all help seeking variables.

86 Table 6

Correlations between Implicit and Explicit Stigma with Help Seeking Symptom Thresholds

**Spearman’s Rho analysis used for correlations with this variable

3.3.2 Research question 2: What is the relationship between stigma and depression severity?

Relating to research question 2a, two tailed Pearson Correlations indicated that BIAT mental illness D scores were not significantly related to depression severity (r = .13, p = .443). However, for research question 2b, explicit internalised stigma was significantly positively related to depression severity (r = .50, p <.01).

For the second part of the analysis for this research question, partial correlations revealed that the correlation between explicit internalised stigma and depression severity reduced from r = .50 to r = .27 when anxiety was controlled for. This correlation no longer remained significant (p = .12). The correlation between BIAT

87 mental illness D scores and depression severity remained insignificant when anxiety was controlled for. Therefore, there was no relationship between depression severity and the D scores found in the BIAT mental illness task. There was a significant relationship between explicit internalised stigma and depression severity, but these variables were not associated when anxiety was controlled for.

3.3.3 Research question 3: What is the relationship between depression severity and help seeking symptom thresholds?

Correlations relating to research question 3 have been summarised in Table 7. Regarding the relationship between depression severity and help seeking symptom thresholds, two tailed Pearson Correlations revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between depression severity as measured by the CES-D and the total help seeking symptom thresholds score (r = .42, p <.05), in addition to informal help seeking symptom thresholds (r = .52, p = <.01). A two tailed Spearman’s Rho analysis established a further significant positive relationship between depression severity and formal help seeking symptom thresholds (r = .38, p

<.05). This indicates that as severity of depression increases, the symptom thresholds required to seek various sources of help also increase.

88 Table 7

Correlations between Depression Severity and Help Seeking Symptom Thresholds Depression Severity (CES-D) Help Seeking Symptom Thresholds Total

Score

*** Spearman’s Rho analysis used for correlations with this variable

Partial correlations were further carried out to control for the impact of anxiety in the relationship between depression severity and help seeking symptom thresholds. This seemed particularly pertinent given the high overall levels of anxiety reported by the sample. The correlation between depression severity and the total help seeking symptom thresholds score reduced to r = .40, p = <.01 when anxiety was controlled for. Regarding the relationship between depression severity and informal help seeking symptom thresholds, the correlation reduced to r = .46, p <.01 when anxiety was controlled for. Therefore, although each of these correlations reduced, they remained significant. This indicates that depression severity was significantly related to total and informal help seeking symptom thresholds, even when anxiety was taken into account. A non-parametric Kendall’s Tau partial correlation was carried out to ascertain the association between depression severity and formal help seeking symptom thresholds with anxiety controlled for. As SPSS

89 does not support Kendall’s Tau partial correlation, a formula outlined by (Siegel, 1988) was used. Significance levels were obtained from a paper by (Maghsoodloo, 1981). With anxiety controlled for, the correlation between depression severity and formal help seeking symptom thresholds was r = .24 (p = .03). Therefore, depression severity was significantly related to formal help seeking symptom thresholds when anxiety was taken into account.

3.3.4 Research question 4: What is the relationship between stigma and self-esteem?

Table 8 has summarised the correlations between the variables relating to stigma and self-esteem. A two tailed Pearson Correlation revealed that explicit (self-reported) self-esteem was significantly negatively related to explicit internalised stigma, therefore greater internalised stigma is associated with lower self-reported self-esteem (Research Question 4a). The same analysis indicated that the relationship between BIAT mental illness D scores and BIAT self-esteem D scores was not significant (Research Question 4b).

Table 8

Correlations between Stigma and Self-esteem

BIAT Mental Illness Explicit Internalised Stigma (ISMII)

BIAT Self-esteem -.10

Explicit Self-esteem (RSES)

-.48**

P <.01

90 3.3.5 Research question 5: What is the relationship between implicit and explicit stigma measures?

Table 9 has summarised the correlations relating to research questions 5a and 5b. Two-tailed Pearson Correlations indicated that the association between BIAT mental illness D scores and explicit internalised stigma was not significant

(Hypothesis 5a). Furthermore, there was no significant relationship between implicit and explicit (self-reported) self-esteem (Hypothesis 5b). Therefore, implicit and explicit measures were unrelated.

Table 9

Correlations between Explicit and Implicit Measures

BIAT Mental Illness BIAT Self-esteem Explicit Internalised

Stigma

.04

Explicit Self-esteem

-.21