Analytical Processes

Data analysis, although described here as a linear process, was cyclical. The analysis moved from open, focused, axial and theoretical coding while I simultaneously made constant comparisons between data, searched for

discontinuing evidence and conducted theoretical sampling. Analytical processes, however, were applied flexibly to avoid the procedures dominating the analysis and blocking the analytical flow (Strauss and Corbin, 1998).

3.7.1 Open, Focused and Axial Coding

Several different tactics were used to facilitate open coding. At the beginning of the study, line by line scrutiny of the data ensured that I examined the detail of the data and helped me to avoid jumping to conclusions. During the later stages, analysis of data and coding was conducted paragraph by paragraph. The transition from line by

line to analysis by paragraph was a natural evolution, as I became even more familiar with the data, the node tree and the emerging theory. However, when new or interesting data presented itself, I returned to a line-by-line approach. During focused coding, open codes were collapsed into the codes which made most analytic sense and codes became more conceptual.

Axial coding took place alongside open and focused coding. Axial coding is not coding in the true sense of the word, but the process o f relating categories to their subcategories and linking categories at the level of properties and dimensions (Creswell, 1998). In essence, axial coding involves reassembling data which has been fractured during open coding to form a more complete explanation of the phenomena. For example, having established strong analytical direction through open and focused coding that cleanliness was perceived by respondents to be

important (amongst other factors) in preventing infection. The properties of the data coded as ‘cleanliness’ where were compared with the properties o f data coded as

‘causes of infection’. This comparison demonstrated strong beliefs that dirt and germs were very closely associated; that dirt was perceived as the major causes of infection and hygiene as the key way of preventing infection. Respondents’

emphasis on cleanliness appeared consistent with their beliefs about aetiology.

Axial coding was facilitated by NUD-IST’s capabilities to rapidly retrieval of coded data and cross-reference data between nodes using a number of Boolean searches.

3.7.2 Theoretical Coding

Theoretical codes are conceptualisations of how substantive codes relate to each other. Theoretical coding enables the researcher to “weave the fractured story back together” as theory is developed (Glaser 1978, p72). Theoretical codes evolved into the main conceptual themes presented in the empirical chapters. Having outlined the overreaching theoretical scheme, the theory was refined. It was reviewed for

internal consistency and for gaps in logic by going back and exploring data, codes, categories, memos and mind maps. Categories were reviewed to ensure they were fully developed through theoretical sampling. The theoretical scheme did not initially flow in a logical manner. Memos and mind maps were constantly reviewed and the thesis redrafted numerous times until the emerging theoretical ideas were clearly defined.

3.7.3 Constant Comparison, Memoing and Disconfirming Evidence

Three fundamental processes spanned the entire analysis; making comparisons, memoing, and searching for disconfirming evidence. Simple data counts were also used as a way of surveying the entire data set (Seale 1999).

Constant comparison is a rigorous strategy for producing rich theoretical accounts (Seale, 1999). Constant comparison was undertaken in four stages. Firstly, codes and were compared and grouped together as categories emerged. Categories and their properties were then compared and integrated. The third stage was represented by theoretical saturation (discussed below). The fourth stage was writing the theory.

During this final stage, categories and their interactions were used to develop chapter

headings, properties were used to develop sections headings, and the coded data were used to provide examples (Seal, 1999).

I recorded my analytical ideas as memos. Memo writing was a pivotal intermediate step between data collection and finalising theoretical ideas. Charmaz (2006) describes memos as vital in keeping the researcher involved in analysis of data and helping researchers increase the level of abstraction. Memo writing took three forms. I recorded my analytical thoughts within the NUD-IST project as annotations attached to documents (in interview transcripts), or attached to nodes. I also made hand written analytical notes, in what I called my ‘analytical diary’. This diary was essentially a portable notebook, which accompanied me during data collection and during meetings. I also created mind maps, (also known as spider diagrams) (Appendix 8) which where used to visualize the properties and conditions of codes and categories which were linked to and arranged around a category, concept or idea.

Mind maps were particularly valuable when making comparisons. Multiple mind maps were constructed and early versions were compared to more recent ones. The benefits of visual methods lie in their ability to support imagination and creativity in analysis (Clarke, 2005). However, the use of mind maps represented my personal mode of working and was not an attempt to undertake Situational Analysis as described by Clarke (2005) (see Table 3.1).

3.7 4 Disconfirming Evidence: Scrutinising unusual cases

Data were scrutinised for disconfirming evidence in the form of unusual (also known as deviant or negative) cases (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Charmaz 2006). Unusual cases were defined as those cases which possessed features common to many of the

cases but also demonstrated new features or the absence of features previously recognised. The aim o f searching for unusual cases within data was to provide alternative explanations and modify developing theoretical ideas. Seale calls this

“an active fallibilistic approach" (Seale, 1999, p75). It involves testing the

provisional hypotheses by scrutiny and comparison with unusual cases until all the data can be incorporated into the emerging theory (Silverman, 2005). The scrutiny of unusual cases is believed to be advantageous in demonstrating that the data has been treated comprehensibly, that is, that every element o f the data collected was incorporated into the developing theory. The identification and analysis of unusual cases can strengthen the trustworthiness of the research, but discriminating between incidents that marked new categories and those which where unusual cases was difficult. Methodological literature acknowledges this problem but gives little guidance about how to resolve the situation (Stem, 1994). In reality, I relied on the emerging picture to decide such questions.

3.7.5 Delayed Theoretical Sampling and Theoretical Saturation

Some grounded theorists recommend that theoretical sampling should be used from the start of a study (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Others warn that this approach has the potential to bring about premature closure to analysis (Charmaz, 2006). In this study theoretical sampling was delayed until 21 interviews had been conducted selected on the basis of maximum variation (described previously). During theoretical sampling, respondents were selected on the basis of their potential to facilitate the development of categories. Following analysis of initial interviews, recruitment activities were targeted towards groups most likely to contain

individuals possessing the characteristics of interest. The process of data collection was, therefore, controlled by the emerging theory. For example, early analysis suggested that young adults from areas of high deprivation possessed different views to middle class parents and that men may have different views to women. To further develop the categories emerging in the data, recruitment efforts targeted young adults and men.

Delayed theoretical sampling had two pragmatic advantages; firstly, I was able to conduct the initial interviews rapidly because I did not need to transcribe and analyse each interview immediately after each episode of data collection. Initial recruitment was successful in some areas; several interviews were conducted a week and

occasionally several during a single day. I felt it was important not to delay data collection once recruitment had begun because I feared that the respondents who had responded positively during my intensive initial recruitment efforts might lose interest in taking part. Secondly, Charmaz (2006) recommends delayed theoretical sampling because it enables the researcher to have a clear picture o f the developing theory before additional data is collected. Delayed theoretical sampling facilitated a very focused approached to both recruitment and data collection in the later stages of the study.

From the outset of the study it was impossible to say exactly how many individuals would be needed to develop the emerging theory. After 46 interviews theoretical saturation had been reached and the decision to stop sampling was taken.

Theoretical saturation refers to the point at which gathering more data about a particular theoretical category “no longer spark new theoretical neither insight nor

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revels new properties o f core theoretical categories” (Charmaz, 2006, p i 13). In this study when similar instances were seen time and time again and no new insights revealed categories were considered saturated.

3.7.6 The Use o f Literature

Early writing on grounded theory suggests that researchers should avoid gaining too much prior knowledge o f the issues being studied. Conducting a literature review prior to data collection is believed to increase the risk of the researcher making premature assumptions about data (Charmaz, 1983). However, later work has recognised that this is impossible and in some ways undesirable. In order to write a proposal and protocol or the study and to develop a suitable research question, exposure to the body of scientific evidence surrounding the topic is essential (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Glaser, 1992; Charmaz, 2006). A limited literature review was, therefore, conducted prior to data collection. After this, literature was not explored until ideas, categories and questions began to emerge from the data. The literature used in this study was then specifically selected to aid in the exploration of the data, to sensitise the researcher to it and to place the emerging theories within the context of the wider scientific knowledge, that is, to act as a comparison and to stimulate questions. Charmaz (1983) refers to this as a ‘delayed literature review’.