The use of simulations in learning has received significant attention in the literature, with its original use in professions such as the military, aviation and more recently healthcare industries and business education (Mawdesley et al. 2011, Goedert et al. 2011, DeshPande and Huang 2009, Farrell 2005, Murphy et al. 2011, Sinclair and Ferguson 2009, McCaughey and Traynor 2010, Piercy et al. 2012). In their discussion of the origins of simulations, Pasin and Giroux (2011) trace the origins of simulations back to war games that were used in ancient China and subsequently in the training of military strategists in
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Germany in World War I and II. In a much related field, flight simulators were also widely used to train fighter pilots during World War II (Pasin and Giroux, 2011, Moroney and Moroney, 1999), and then more recently, simulators that reproduce the cockpits of commercial flights are extensively used for training pilots.In the healthcare industry, on the other hand, models and simulations have long been used in the study of anatomy, in order to complement traditional training tools (McCaughey and Traynor 2010, Pasin and Giroux, 2011). In recent times, full scale integrated simulators combine life-like, anatomically correct manikins with computer programmes, permitting physiological and pharmacological responses such as respiratory and cardiovascular functions (McCaughey and Traynor 2010). These simulations can be pre-programmed with a scenario to elicit a response, displayed on a clinical monitor, according to student intervention (McCaughey and Traynor 2010). In their study aimed to evaluate the role of such simulations in students’ preparation for clinical practice, McCaughey and Traynor (2010) report several other examples from the medical and nursing literature where simulated learning has been applied as well as identify claims for and against the usefulness of simulations in enhancing learning. What is more, McCaughey and Traynor’s (2010) study found increased competence and safe practice of participating practitioners following exposure to simulations, with indications that the skills acquired during simulations would be transferred to the clinical setting. Furthermore, the participants considered simulations to be enjoyable and an effective learning mechanism (McCaughey and Traynor, 2010). Thus, McCaughey and Traynor (2010) concluded their study with the claim that simulations are a valuable method of learning, which provides the link between theory and practice as well as the prospect for learner-centred, contextualised, risk free learning. Another of the application fields that has attracted the attention of researchers and practitioners is business and management education. Ezz et al. (2012) and Siddiqui et al. (2008) report several examples of simulation tools in the context of business and management education, which show various efforts to develop innovative courses, which ultimately assist learners to understand the dynamics behind the choices people make when running businesses. For example, in Li et al. (2007), a computer-based simulation, called Marketplace, which was used in an MBA marketing curriculum, is presented. The program allows learners to simulate the inception of a global industry and its development through growth to early maturity (Li et al. 2007). Within the virtual world, the students establish their own companies, assume the role of executives, and make strategic decisions in new product development, customer and competitor analysis, market entry, advertising and sales management (Li et al. 2007). Overall, Li et al. (2007) report that the
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simulation course was advantageous in helping students make career preparations as well as in providing high levels of involvement and satisfaction.In a separate study, the perceived effectiveness of simulations in teaching operations management modules is discussed in Piercy et al. (2012). Similar to Li et al.’s findings, this study presents a number of strengths of the experiential teaching method including the active engagement of students in their own learning, the stimulation of interest in the subject, the opportunity to learn how to work in often diverse groups, the acquisition of high order skills (teamwork, communication, conflict resolution, presentation, etc.), the application of theory to practice and the chance to try out ideas in a safe environment (Piercy et al. 2012).
In addition, Siddiqui et al. (2008) present a supply chain simulator that tries to emulate an international supply chain network, where goods such as electronic equipment or machinery are delivered. The performance of these supply chains is ultimately judged by parameters such as inventory holding cost, backorder cost and transportation cost (Siddiqui et al. 2008). From their study, Siddiqui et al. (2008) specifically indicate that such simulations increase the students’ motivation to learn, their learning performances as well as provide opportunities for them to interact with other learners. These suggestions are also supported by Pasin and Giroux’s (2011) empirical study of the impact of a simulation game on operations management education. In fact, Pasin and Giroux (2011) discuss the benefits of simulations in an extensive way. As they mention, simulations offer the benefits of experiential learning, by providing rich environments that are conducive to deep learning (Pasin and Giroux, 2011).
Even so, Siddiqui et al. (2008) note that although simulation-based educational tools offer diverse benefits, there is still great room available to increase their application and incorporation in learning, particularly to complement traditional educational tools. The following section explores examples of simulation tools in construction education.
3.3.2 Application in construction education
While a growing body of research explores the value of educational simulations in fields like business education and healthcare, as discussed above, Goedert et al. (2011) and DeshPande and Huang (2008) note that the shift from traditional lecture-based methods towards the use of experience-based simulation tools is evidently slow in the construction domain. Recent literature however, highlights the need to embrace new ways of learning and new ways of actively engaging the learner within the field of construction and engineering education (for example, DeshPande and Huang 2009, Goedert et al. 2011, Mawdesley et al. 2011, Austin and Soetanto, 2010, Abdulwahed and Nagy 2009). These
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authors recognise the shift from didactic lecture-based training towards constructivist pedagogy in which the importance of knowledge gained via experience is emphasised. Goedert et al. (2011) argue that simulation-based learning addresses the fundamental need to reinvigorate instructional methods and approaches in construction education, which “have changed little in over a century”. For DeshPande and Huang (2008), simulations and multimedia technologies can be developed to engage and stimulate learners, to effectively explain and illustrate course topics, as well as to present construction and engineering topics in ways that are not possible within the limitations of the traditional lecture format. Accordingly, Goedert et al. (2011) and DeshPande and Huang (2008), amongst other authors such as Nikolic et al. (2011), Al-Jibouri et al. (2005), Korman and Johnston (2013, 2011), Wallen and Mulloy (2006) and Guo et al. (2012) are some of the few authors who have recently attempted to utilise new technologies such as simulations and visualisation in the industry’s educational effort. Some of this work is presented next.In highlighting the need to improve construction education and training by incorporating advances in simulations, Goedert et al. (2011) point out some of the limitations associated with traditional instructional methods. They argue, for example, that there is an expectation from instructional methods and approaches in construction and engineering education that learners need to adapt to traditional delivery methods instead of delivery adapting to the learners. Goedert et al. (2011) make the claim that this poses a problem particularly with the younger “internet generation” who have grown up surrounded by digital technology, spend hours playing computer games and have difficulty maintaining enthusiasm and attention for traditional learning methods. Likewise, Korman and Johnston (2011) raise a similar point about the current generation of learners, and call for a transition in construction teaching methods towards tools and techniques from the gaming world, that provide opportunities to engage, enjoy and learn.
Consequently, Goedert et al. (2011) develop and present a game-based learning platform, which simulates the construction process of a residential project from its start to its completion. Goedert et al. (2011) state that the simulation provides a rich learning experience by supporting various learning modes as well as facilitating collaborative and competitive project-based learning of a number of construction scenarios. According to Goedert et al. (2011) such a training tool allows participants to learn the construction processes including scheduling, estimating, equipment and manpower selection from a simulated environment that more closely relates to the real world experiences leading to better prepared workers and reduced risk.
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The idea of using a computer-based simulations to help participants learn about the complex construction processes including planning, scheduling and resource allocation is also described in Korman and Johnston’s (2011) Construction Industry Simulation, named COINS, designed to simulate the business environment for construction companies, in an effort to enhance the educational experience for construction engineering and management students. In the simulation, the participants play the role of contractors, competing in a market with variable demand for work (Korman and Johnston, 2011). Furthermore, the simulation immerses participants into the day-to-day operations of their construction company, requiring them to manage specific aspects of the company and make decisions that involve balancing time, cost, quality and selection of equipment, labour and tools (Korman and Johnston, 2011). Based on the assessment of COINS in several construction courses, Korman and Johnston (2011) point out the benefits that resulted from the use of the simulation, including increased involvement in learning or active learning, development of reciprocity and cooperation among participants as well as accommodation of diverse ways of learning.Another widely used simulation learning tool in the construction industry is the game developed by Loughborough University called MERIT (Management, Enterprise, Risk, Innovation and Teamwork). In the simulation game, teams of players are involved in the management of a fictional construction company, and tasked with making key managerial and technical decisions on various business functions including marketing, estimating, tendering, finance and personnel management, that ensure the company’s success (Construction Industry Simulation Ltd, 2016, Wall and Ahmed, 2008). Players in the game can view the impact of their decisions, and they also receive feedback from the game controller (a member of training staff) on their company’s performance. Wall and Ahmed (2008) investigated the role of MERIT in the delivery of lifelong learning opportunities aimed at the construction industry.The participants in their study reported that the game improved team-working, analytical and problem-solving skills, communication and IT skills, and ultimately contributed to a greater understanding of the problems and decisions to be made in the management of a construction company (Wall and Ahmed, 2008). However, Wall and Ahmed (2008) noted that the integration of simulation learning tools into existing programs presents some challenges and requires careful planning and collaboration among users. The work by Al-Jibouri et al. (2005) provides an additional example of recent studies attempting to utilise simulations for learning in the construction domain. They describe a simulation game, which is based on a “realistic” model of a dam construction civil engineering project that reacts in physical and financial terms to the decisions made and actions taken by the participants (Al-Jibouri et al. 2005). It is concluded from their study with
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undergraduate students as well as graduates from a contracting company that the simulation game provided learners with insights into the complex realities of projects which lectures and theories could not provide (Al-Jibouri et al 2005). Thus, Al-Jibouri et al. (2005) make the suggestion that the use of simulations offers the advantage of enabling participants to be put into complex, realistic project situations without incurring the penalties (financial and time), which would accrue if real projects were used.Separate studies by Nikolic et al. (2011) and DeshPande and Huang (2008) also explore the value of simulations in the context of construction education. For example, Nikolic et al. (2011) present the development and implementation of a virtual construction simulator (VCS) that enables participants to simultaneously create and review construction schedules through 3D model interaction. It is reported that the simulator, which was used in construction management courses, fostered collaborative work and greater task focus among the participants (Nikolic et al. 2011). DeshPande and Huang (2008), on the other hand, conduct a review of extant applications of simulations and games in construction engineering education. Their study essentially demonstrates that these educational tools have been developed to meet various learning concepts and processes within construction, including bidding, scheduling, planning, management and control of construction projects. Examples include Chen and Levinson’s (2006) network growth simulator program called SONG, which is used to teach engineering students about traffic planning and Scott et al.’s (2004) web-based simulation game for teaching management and control of construction projects. Furthermore, in DeshPande and Huang (2008), it is concluded that the proper use and further development of simulations promises to uplift construction engineering education and resolve some of the long-standing issues in the field.