The 'crucial trio' (Hall, 1959), represents the internal structure/decomposition of an individual’s perception, but states that beliefs are derived from what the individual has learned from their family and/or culture. From external influence an individual develops an informal individual adaptation, which proves or disproves formal beliefs. Technical props are subsequently developed to support the formal beliefs, such as governmental laws, which the individual is expected to obey and follow, such as legal requirements. Technical props are often, however, easier for people to accept than formal rules, and become formalised if repeatedly used over time (Hall, 1959).
In 1973, Stamper incorporated Hall’s “crucial trio” into his work (Stamper, 1973) – see figure 2.13. Stamper determined that three types of rule exist when considering adjustment of individual rationale, which are: rules that are operationally verifiable but not always formalised (i.e. I - informal rules); rules that are based on belief that must be taken on trust (i.e. II - formal rules); and rules that are formally documented and can repeatedly applied (i.e. III - technical rules). Although Stamper’s individual rationalisation model expresses Hall’s crucial trio concept, the flow of dependency between layers is very different from Hall’s crucial trio concept (Hall, 1959).
Figure 2.13: Stampers discussion concerning how a rational individual adjusts his opinion - adapted from Stamper (1973)
Later in his career, Stamper (1993) seemingly redeveloped the above model, in context of organisational decomposition, to form the ‘organisational onion’. The organisational onion is concerned with the degree of social information that is distorted when the focal system considers the technical system solution. The outer layer of the onion represents the whole social system, called the informal layer; the middle layer relates to rules and instructions that are repeatable, and is called the formal layer; and finally, the central technical core can be automated, by the use computer systems for repetitive tasks that do not require individual or group involvement (Stamper, 1993).
We observe, from the research of Stamper (1993) and Hall (1959), that individual based models assume a high level of interaction; due to Hall’s positioning of the technical layer as the interface (outer layer) between the organisation and society (Hall, 1959; Hofstede et al., 2010).
In Hall’s model, changes in the technical layer, as a result of interaction between individuals, can influence PMS dimensions without a need to change an individual’s formal belief. This assumes technology can be used by an individual to help them express general formal rules, which may change over time to better supports the inflexible formal belief of the individuals.
In comparison, Stamper’s organisational based model is more context orientated, as he proposed that the technical outcome exists within the core layer of the model. The technical outcome in Stamper’s model is dependent on the informal and formal layers; with this formal layer sitting on the interface between the organisation and the society. Such a structure implies that the formal structures in the organisation can be influenced by the cultural and societal context of use (Stamper, 1973; Stamper et al., 2000). Accordingly, Stamper assumes a more
rigid formalisation of rules, with change in technology only possible if appropriate changes are managed within formal and informal organisational layers. Table 2.7 shows the alignment of the two models. There are some interesting differences in the dependency flow of each model:
in Halls model technology innovation is the (outer) changeable expression of formal and informal layers (with dependency flowing out towards society), whilst Stamper proposed technology innovation as a final (core) outcome of informal and formal structures (with dependency flowing toward core technology development). The formal layer in Hall’s model refers to beliefs, which is not the same as the formal layer in Stamper’s model which refer to written rules and processes. The technical layer in Hall’s model refer to logic, rules and/or processes, whilst Stamper refers to technology or software systems. The informal layer in both models seems to be the same, since it refers to behaviour, action, intention.
Table 2.7: Comparison of Crucial Trio and Organisational Onion Hall’s crucial trio Stamper’s onion
Layer 1 (core) formal (f) - beliefs Technical (T)– technology, software systems Layer 2 informal (i) – behaviour, action Formal (F) – written rules, processes Layer 3 (outer) technical (t) – logics, rules, processes Informal (I) – meanings, intentions, beliefs
Although Ronald Stamper’s organisational “onion” used the terms Informal, Formal and Technical, the semantics and order are significantly different to that defined by Edward Hall.
Stamper’s use of the term Informal (I), relates to representing the informal behaviour and systems defined in an organisational system. Stamper’s use of the term Formal (F) represents formalised rules, processes, and procedures controlled by defined rules - to make it repeatable / consistent. Stamper’s use of the term technical (T) relates to use of a computer, i.e. a technical system, which replaces human activity to improve efficiency within the organisational system.
Although ‘informal’ represents largely the same concepts, the scope of ‘technical’ is very different, and the use of ‘formal’ within Stamper's work seemingly changes form and order.
Hall’s (1959) formal layer (f) represents an individual's concepts and beliefs, where the rules are derived from individual cultural and societal norms. Hall describes a set of concepts, such as the concept of fun, which forms the centre of Hall’s model and influences the formation of semi-structured informal rules.
Stamper’s Formal (F) layer, facilitates the formalisation of structured rules, processes, and procedures, which are controlled by defined and repeatable rules. In addition to changes in the
use of the meaning of ‘Formal’, Stamper (1993) argued that an organisational system should have the technical layer as a model core, which exists as the central concentric circle because it is an automated organisational system.
In Stamper’s model the technical layer is surrounded by the formal layer, which relates to the formal processes being applied by the technical solution. Stamper (1993) placed the informal layer, which includes informal interactions within an organisation, as the periphery (interface) layer; and defined it as including informal actions or behaviours that are not captured at either formal or technical layers.
A significant conflict with hall's (1959) model, is that the informal activity is regularly formalised, documented, which in turn leads to the development of technical solutions to support activity; implying the influence of dependence moves from the periphery to the core.
Stamper’s (1993) change in layer order and meaning, could be argued to be the result of the change in context; for example, working with organisational systems instead of individuals.
This claim can be disputed, as the order and meaning defined in Stamper's paper (“A Semiotic Theory of Information and Information Systems”) concerning the 'Semiotic Onion' (Stamper, 1993) closely reflected the order and meaning of the three types of rule that were first defined in his 1973 book (Stamper, 1973), which relates specifically to individual rationalisation (see figure 2.13).