Behavioural difficulties and learning difficulties

The term ‘behavioural difficulties’ is used to refer to a wide range of inappropriate behaviours such as: bullying, sexual behaviour and aggression. These problems can be observed in children with LDs at the preschool stage, where the different aspects of development are at a high rate. Moreover, the importance of addressing these behaviours and the connection with LDs is that inexperienced teachers (especially classroom teachers) depend on obvious indicators of behavioural difficulties to refer those children to the resource room for various reasons which may lead to overcrowding in the resource room and tension between the SEN teacher and classroom teachers. Importantly, behavioural difficulties can affect parents, teachers and peers and their attitudes and it is critical for reporting LDs cases in schools.

Two kinds of behavioural problems can be observed in children: internalising problems such as anxiety, and depressed mood. These problems are hard to observe directly, and, most of the time, observation depends on the experience of the teachers or observers (Hammarberg

& Hagekull, 2002). Externalising behavioural problems are more likely to be observed by teachers, parents, peers and siblings. These problems include a wide variety of behaviours,

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including aggression, talking out of time and social withdrawal (Hammarberg & Hagekull, 2002).

It appears to be difficult to estimate the rate of behavioural difficulties in any society;

estimated rates rely on the way these problems are seen, the kind of observation (direct observation, observation by peers, teachers or parents), the method of assessing, the sample (large or small, representative) and gender (Roberts et al., 2003). Some studies have shown that males with LDs tend to demonstrate more externalising behavioural problems, while females tend to show internalising behavioural problems, such as anxiety and signs of indirect aggression (Hammarberg & Hagekull, 2002; O’Brien, 2003; Masse & Tremblay, 1999). Surveys by McMichael (1979), McGee et al. (1984) and Schachter et al. (1991) have shown that the rates of behavioural problems in children diagnosed with LDs vary between 24-54%. Moreover, several studies indicated that children with general LDs are three to four times more at risk than their non-disabled peers in developing emotional, behavioural problems or psychiatric disorders (see Douma, 2006). Alloway et al. (2009) pointed out that the rates of children with ADHD are higher amongst boys than is the case with girls, and they explain this in terms of the fact that boys are more likely to show externalising behavioural problems.

Quine in 1986 found that 45% of children with severe developmental disabilities had mild to severe behavioural problems (Roberts et al., 2003). In their study on children with moderate to severe ID aged 1-8 in Britain, Saxby and Morgan (1993) found that 30% of the parents involved in the study reported behaviours, such as throwing things and hyperactivity.

In early studies dealing with the behavioural problems of preschool students living in central London (705 families), Richman and her colleagues (cited in Douglas, 1989) found that 15%

had mild, 6.2% had moderate and 1.1% had severe behavioural problems. McDermott et al.

(2002) estimated the rate of behavioural problems amongst children with developmental disabilities ranged from 20-60%, while it was 30-80% with children with cerebral palsy. It can be seen that those rates vary, but it gives a clear indicator of the problem.

Early intervention with behavioural problems brings benefits for the children, teachers, parents and siblings. Chadwick et al., (2005) found that early intervention with children with general LDs decreases behavioural problems and also parental stress. Alloway et al. (2009) established a link between working memory, behavioural problems and ADHD, and pointed

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out that children with ADHD are likely to remain behind their colleagues without proper intervention.

I stated earlier that children with LDs in Jordan are unlikely to be discovered during the early stages of their academic career, if their disabilities are not visible. I concur with the fact that academic failure leads to problems with conduct (Leung et al., 2007). In other words, there are strong links between LDs and behavioural problems and both affect each other (Prior, 1998). This led me here and in first round of data collection to investigate the link between general LDs and behavioural problems, taking into account limited number of studies on LDs and behavioural problems in Jordan.

Many studies indicate the link between LDs and behavioural problems at the preschool stage (Roberts et al., 2003; Koskentausta & Almqvist, 2004; Brandau & Pretis, 2004; Masse

& Tremblay, 1999; Heiervang et al., 2001). Children with general LDs show different patterns of behavioural problems, such as aggression, tantrums, self-injury, non-compliance and stealing. These problems interfere with different aspects of development, such as social, cognitive and emotional, and therefore create extra family stress (Roberts et al., 2003;

Cuskelly et al., 1998).

In the UK, Rutter et al. (1976) studied behavioural problems in children with LDs in the Isle of Wight. They found that behavioural problems, poor concentration, hyperactivity and restlessness were seen at high rates among children with reading disabilities in middle childhood. Specifically, Prior (1998) tried to explain the association between LDs and behavioural problems, and presents some basics of correlation between LDs and behavioural problems. She points out that children who fail at school are likely to develop lower self-esteem and confidence, even feelings of hopelessness, and they react by internalising behaviours such as social withdrawal or externalising behaviours such aggression towards peers and family. Children who enter KG or school with behavioural problems such as poor attention, high level of anxiety and aggression will be at risk of developing LDs because of their limited ability to adapt to the classroom’s demands.

Furthermore, Masse and Tremblay (1999) stated that children who face school failure are more likely to have weak social relationships with others. Additionally, children who do poorly at school are more likely to dislike school and this may contribute to the development of delinquent behaviours (Masse and Tremblay, 1999). Moreover, Roberts et al. (2003) indicate that children with general LDs also have other psychological problems and

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disruptive behavioural problems. The link between LDs and behavioural problems is clear from these studies, and it has also been supported in new studies.

Further evidence of this correlation was presented by Hirisave and Shanti (2002) who found a strong correlation between behavioural problems and LDs through their assessment of the pre-academic skills of a 5-8 years group. They found that 40% of their study group had difficulties in many pre-academic skills such as recognition, colour identification and discrimination. Alloway et al. (2009) pointed out that the limited capacity of working memory of children with ADHD is also closely associated with LDs. Additionally, Merrell and Stein, (1992) compared the behavioural problems of elementary-age boys with LDs, low achievement and average achievement using Conners Teacher Rating Scale-28. In order to carry out the study, teachers were asked to select three students from their class lists and to complete the Conners Teachers Rating Scale. Children with LDs were rated by their teachers as having poor interpersonal behaviour adjustment, inadequate classroom behaviour adjustment and often exhibiting inattentive, off task behaviour in instructional settings. Thus, the researchers found that children with LDs are at risk of developing behavioural problems.

In an earlier study using the Conners' Short Parent-Teacher Questionnaire, Holborow and Berry (1986) surveyed 1,593 (807 males) children in seven elementary schools to measure behavioural and learning difficulties. 27% of these children were found to be hyperactive and to have LDs, while only 5% of non-hyperactive group had LDs. The behaviours that were most closely correlated with LDs were a failure to finish tasks already started (short attention span), and being inattentive and distractible, uncoordinated, clumsy and ‘fidgeting’.

However, in their study aimed at creating a Finnish version of the Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC), Koskentausta and Almqvist (2004) found that the DBC is an appropriate tool for distinguishing between children with ID and without emotional or psychiatric disturbance, and link behavioural problems to ID. The importance of this study is that it gives clear experimental evidence of the association between general LDs and behavioural problems.

In a relatively recent study, Morgan et al. (2008) tried to explore the connections between reading difficulties and behavioural problems in 1^st and 3^rd grades in the US. They used the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class (ECLS-K) to collect the data. They found that students with reading problems at the 1^st grade level are more likely to demonstrate poor performance in terms of self control and task management, and are more

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likely to display internalising and externalising behavioural problems in the 3^rd grade. They also indicate that students who display poor task management in the 1^st grade are more likely to have reading problems at the 3^rd grade level. These findings represent clear evidence of the association between behavioural problems and LDs, and the possibility of predicting them.

Development aspects in children overlap and influence each other. This has been supported by many studies. Vallance et al. (1998) studied the underlying risk of having behavioural problems in children with language learning difficulties (LLDs). They examined the influences of social skills and social discourse on behavioural problems in experimental and control groups (N=50 each) in children with language LDs aged 8-12 years. They found that those children who experience impaired social interactional skills were more likely to develop behavioural problems. They argue that the weak communicative competence of some children with LLDs might lead to poor social skills, which ultimately show themselves as internal or external behavioural problems.

General LDs are also strongly linked in the literature to ADHD (Alloway et al., 2009;

Brandau & Pretis, 2004). Children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to have LDs (Deutscher & Fewell, 2005). Children with ADHD have many behavioural problems which indicate symptoms of LDs. Over-activity, impulsivity and inattention are likely to be seen in children with LDs as well as ADHD, and they also show poor attention, impulsivity and find it hard to remember or follow instructions. Deutscher and Fewell (2005) assessed the capacity to observe low birth weight children as part of predicting diagnoses of ADHD and or LDs at a later stage (8 years old). They found that ‘high scores on the Inattentiveness factor of the ADHD when children were 30 months of age predicted a physician’s diagnosis and school difficulties when the child was 8 years of age’ (p.76). This finding leads to the fact that professional observers (i.e. teachers) can identify ADHD symptoms at an early age and prevent child from developing LDs or behavioural problems where the lower birth weight children from poorer backgrounds are more likely to experience difficulties in next stages.

Behar and Stringfield (1974) developed the Behaviour Rating Scale for the preschool child with a view to taking assessment procedures for the KG phase one step further. One of the main goals in developing this tool was for it to be used by teachers at KGs. The new scale was standardised on a sample of 496 KG children (102 enrolled in SEN programmes). The importance of this scale is that it is a reliable and valid warning instrument and has the ability

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to discriminate between normal children and those with SEN and can be used as a screening tool for teachers.

A strong correlation between LDs and poor social skills has also been shown in literature (Oakland et al., 1990). In their review of literature, Kavale and Forness (1996) pointed out that around three out of four of children with LDs also experience difficulties with social skills. A strong association between social difficulties and behavioural problems could be seen through the behaviour they exhibit. Children with general LDs have poor social skills, a lower level of acceptance by peers, and high rates of emotional problems (Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2002).

Children with LDs who have social problems tend to express these in their behaviour in relation to themselves or others (Drifte, 2001). Howell et al. (2007) studied the predictors of later loneliness in children with ID. They found that children with more externalising behavioural problems are more likely to have feelings of loneliness in the school setting at the age of 10. Vaugh et al. (1993) investigated social skills with children (KG to third class) with LDs in three groups (LDs, low achievement and average/high achievement). Social skills and behavioural problem rating scales were completed by teachers on all students during kindergarten through 3^rd grade. They found that children with LDs and low achievement demonstrated lower levels of social skills and higher levels of behavioural problems than children with average/high achievement.

A clear view of the association between LDs, social skills and behavioural problems was presented by Toro et al. (1990) who compared 86 children with LDs to their peers in three dimensions: social problem-solving skills, teacher-rated school behaviour and competence and family background. Results showed that children with LDs were less able to find alternatives for solving social problems were less accepting of frustration and were less adaptable. More specifically, teachers’ ratings showed that children with LDs had more behavioural problems and less personal and social competence. In the third dimension, children experiencing LDs had more family background difficulties, such as poor economic conditions or less educational stimulation at home.

McKinney (1989) studied the behavioural characteristics of children with LDs in longitudinal studies over three years in 1^st and 2^nd grades, compared to average achievers. He found that children with LDs could be distinguished from average achievers by the many patterns of maladjusted behaviours they exhibit. In trying to study the association between

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academic performance and behavioural problems, he clustered these children into seven different subtypes that represented attention problems, conduct and classroom management problems, withdrawn-dependent behaviour and normal behaviour. He found that children with poor attention and conduct problems had poor academic achievement compared to those with withdrawal problems who did not have significant behavioural problems. It can be concluded from McKinney’s findings that behavioural problems are varied and have strong associations with future academic outcomes.

Evidence of an overlap between social skills, behavioural problems and LDs has been provided by Haager et al. (1995). They studied the social competence of children with LDs, low achievement and average to high achievement from the perspectives of parents, teachers, peers and self. Results indicate that children with LDs and children with low achievement were having more problems than average to high achievement students. Teachers rated children with LDs and low achievement as having poor social skills and higher behavioural problems compared to average to high achievement while peers ratings showed that children with LDs were less liked by their peers. In a similar study by Haager & Vaughan 1995 (cited in Semrud-Clikeman, 2007) children with LDs were rated by their SEN teachers as more socially competent than their non- disabled peers and they rated themselves highly when compared to other groups. The agreement between general education teachers and parents was low to moderate, while it was high between SEN teachers and parents.

The behavioural problems of children with LDs also affect parents, siblings, peers and teachers. Brandau and Pretis (2004) noted that when a child is diagnosed with ADHD, teachers and parents start having low expectations of the child. During their study of 45 families with a child with DS, Cuskelly et al. (1998) found there were significant negative links between performing household tasks and behavioural problems on the fathers’ report.

They also found that parents with a child with DS were more stressed and their stress related to their child’s behaviour. That gives clear evidence that behavioural problems of children with general LDs affect the whole family, especially the parents. Mothers also reported more problems and stress in dealing with a child with DS than fathers (Cuskelly et al., 1998).

Behavioural problems can be used to predict the psychological stress of their parents (Hastings, 2002) and determine the way that the parents develop methods of dealing with their child’s behaviour, which sometimes further increase behavioural problems.

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In their study of stress and sleep problems in children with general LDs and their families, Richdale et al. (2000) studied 52 children with general LDs and their families aged (2-19 years) and 25 children without general LDs in the control group aged 2-17 years. A significant difference was found between the control and experimental groups for experimental. They also found that children with general LDs had a behavioural problems score within a clinical range, which indicated that they needed medical intervention. Parents in the experimental group with sleep problems reported more intense difficulties than those without sleep problems. They concluded that sleep problems in children with LDs were associated with the ‘total behaviour problem score, disruptive and self-absorbed behaviour for the children with an ID, while for the control children, having a sleep problem was only associated with anxiety’ (p.156).

Gender also plays its role. Cuskelly et al. (1998) indicated that sisters of children with DS are more likely to have conduct disorders than brothers. This might be explained by the role of females in society, and parent expectations of sisters in terms of caring for their disabled sibling. Cuskelly and Gunn found that sisters of children with DS who help around the home had fewer problems than those who did less (Cuskelly et al., 1998).

Teachers are often also affected by the behavioural problems of children with LDs.

Variables such as a teacher’s experience and classroom size will influence their impact (Hammarberg & Hagekull, 2002). Teachers develop new strategies to respond to these children, depending on their externalising behaviour or internalising (Hammarberg &

Hagekull, 2002).