Nissaya
The Dhamma and Vinaya impinge in such detail on so many areas of one's life that no new bhikkhu can be expected to master them in a short time. For this reason, the Buddha arranged for a period of apprenticeship — called nissaya, or dependence — in which every newly ordained bhikkhu must train under the guidance of an experienced bhikkhu for at least five years before he can be considered competent to look after himself.
This apprenticeship has formed the human context in which the practice of the Buddha's teachings has been passed down for the past 2,600 years. To overlook it is to miss one of the basic parameters of the life of the Dhamma and Vinaya. Thus we will discuss it here first, before going on to the individual training rules of the Pāṭimokkha.
Dependence is of two sorts: dependence on one's preceptor (upajjhāya) and dependence on a teacher (ācariya). The relationships are similar — and in many details, identical — so the following discussion will use the word mentor to cover both preceptor and teacher wherever the pattern applies to both, and will distinguish them only where the patterns differ.
Choosing a mentor. Before ordination, one must choose a bhikkhu to act as one's preceptor. The Mahāvagga (I.36-37) gives a long list of qualifications a bhikkhu must meet before he can act as a preceptor, while the Commentary divides the list into two levels: ideal and minimal qualifications. A bhikkhu who lacks the minimal qualifications incurs a dukkaṭa if he acts as a preceptor; a bhikkhu who meets the minimal but lacks the ideal qualifications is not an ideal person to give guidance, but he incurs no penalty in doing so.
The ideal qualifications: The preceptor should have an arahant's virtue, concentration, discernment, release, and knowledge and vision of release; and should be able to train another person to the same level of attainment. He should have faith, a sense of shame, a sense of compunction (in the American sense of the term, i.e., an reluctance to do wrong for fear of its consequences), persistence in the practice, and quick mindfulness (according to the Sub-commentary, this means that he is constantly mindful of whatever mental object is before the mind).
He should be free of heavy and light offenses, and be possessed of right view.
(This last point, the Commentary says, means that he does not adhere to the extremes of eternalism or annihilationism.) He should be competent to tend to a sick pupil or to find someone who will tend to him, and to dispel dissatisfaction in a pupil who wants to leave the celibate life.
The Mahāvagga does not say outright that these are ideal, as opposed to minimal, qualifications, but the Commentary offers as proof the fact that one of a pupil's duties is to try to allay any dissatisfaction that may arise in his preceptor. If all
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preceptors were arahants, no case of this sort would ever arise and there would be no need to mention it. Thus the Commentary concludes that arahantship, although ideal in a preceptor, is not necessary.
The minimal qualifications: The preceptor must be learned and competent.
According to the Commentary, this means that he knows enough of the Dhamma and Vinaya to govern a following and is competent enough to know what is and is not an offense. He must also be competent enough to allay, in line with the Dhamma, any anxiety that has arisen in his pupil; must know what is and is not an offense, what is a light offense, what is a heavy offense, and how an offense may be removed. He must have detailed knowledge of both Pāṭimokkhas (the one for the bhikkhus and the one for the bhikkhunīs) and be able to train the pupil in the bhikkhus' customs (Com.: this means that he knows the Khandhakas), in the basic rules of the chaste life (Sub-com.: he knows both Vibhaṅgas), the higher Dhamma, and the higher Vinaya. He must be able, in line with the Dhamma, to pry his pupil away from a wrong view, or to find someone who will help pry him away. And — the most basic requirement — he must have been ordained as a bhikkhu for ten years or more.
If, for some reason, the new bhikkhu lives in a separate monastery from his preceptor, he must take dependence under a teacher, whose qualifications are precisely the same as those for a preceptor. Because the Mahāvagga (I.72.1) gives a dukkaṭa for taking dependence under an unconscientious bhikkhu, the new bhikkhu is allowed four to five days to observe his potential teacher's conduct before taking dependence under him (Mv.I.72.2).
Taking dependence. Prior to his ordination — and usually, as part of the ceremony itself — the candidate must make a formal request for dependence from his preceptor. The procedure is as follows:
Arranging his upper robe over his left shoulder, leaving his right shoulder bare, he bows down to the preceptor and then, kneeling with his hands palm-to-palm in front of his heart, repeats the following passage three times:
"Upajjhāyo me bhante hohi,"
which means, "Venerable sir, be my preceptor."
If the preceptor responds with any of these words — sāhu (very well), lahu (certainly), opāyikaṃ (all right), paṭirūpaṃ (it is proper), or pāsādikena sampādehi (attain consummation (in the practice) in an amicable way) — the dependence has taken hold. Mv.I.25.7 adds that if the preceptor indicates any of these meanings by gesture, that also counts; and according to the Commentary, the same holds true if he makes any equivalent statement.
If, after his ordination, the new bhikkhu needs to request dependence from a teacher, the procedure is the same, except that the request he makes three times is this:
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"Ācariyo me bhante hohi; āyasmato nissāya vacchāmi,"
which means, "Venerable sir, be my teacher; I will live in dependence on you."
(Mv.I.32.2)
Duties. The Mahāvagga (I.25.6; 32.1) states that a pupil should regard his mentor as a father; and the mentor, the pupil as his son. It then goes on to delineate this relationship as a set of reciprocal duties.
The pupil's duties to his mentor fall into the following five categories:
1. Attending to the mentor's personal needs. The Mahāvagga goes into great detail on this topic, giving precise instructions dealing with every conceivable way a pupil can be of service to his mentor. The Vinaya-mukha tries to reduce these duties to a few general principles, but this misses much of what the Mahāvagga has to offer, for the details are what show fine examples of mindfulness in action — the best way to fold a robe, clean a dwelling, and so forth — as well as indications of how one can use this aspect of one's training to develop sensitivity to the needs of others. Still, the detailed instructions are so extensive that they would overburden the discussion in this chapter, so I have saved them for Appendix X. Here I will simply give them in outline form. The pupil should:
o a. Arrange his mentor's toiletries for his morning wash-up.
o b. Arrange his seat and food for his morning conjey (if he has any) and clean up after he is finished.
o c. Arrange his robes and bowl for his alms round.
o d. Follow him on his alms round, if the mentor so desires, and take his robes and bowl when he returns.
o e. Arrange his seat and food for his alms meal and clean up afterwards.
o f. Prepare his bath. If he goes to the sauna, go with him and attend to his needs.
o g. Study the Dhamma and Vinaya from him when he is prepared to teach. (The Mahāvagga describes this as "recitation" and
"interrogation." Recitation, according to the Commentary, means learning to memorize passages; interrogation, learning to investigate their meaning.)
o h. Clean his dwelling and other parts of his dwelling complex, such as the restroom and storage rooms, when they get dirty.
2. Assisting the mentor in any problems he may have with regard to the Dhamma and Vinaya. The Mahāvagga lists the following examples:
o a. If the preceptor begins to feel dissatisfaction with the celibate life, the pupil should try to allay that dissatisfaction or find someone else who can, or give him a Dhamma talk.
o b. If the preceptor begins to feel anxiety over his conduct with regard to the rules, the pupil should try to dispel that anxiety or find someone else who can, or give him a Dhamma talk.
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o c. If the preceptor begins to hold to wrong views, the pupil should try to pry him away from those views or find someone else who can, or give him a Dhamma talk.
o d. If the preceptor has committed a saṅghādisesa offense, the pupil should — to the best of his ability — help with the arrangements for penance, probation, and rehabilitation, or find someone else who can.
o e. If the Community is going to carry out a transaction against the mentor, the pupil should try to dissuade them from it. According to the Commentary, this means that he should go to the various members of the Community individually before the meeting and try to dissuade them from going through with the transaction. If he can't dissuade them, he should try to get them to lessen its severity (say, from banishment to censure). If they are justified in carrying out the transaction, though, he should not object while the meeting is in progress. Once they have carried out the transaction, he should concentrate on helping his mentor behave so that they will rescind the transaction as quickly as possible.
3. Washing, making, and dyeing the mentor's robes.
4. Showing loyalty and respect for the mentor.
o a. The pupil should neither give nor receive gifts, nor give or receive services to/from others without first obtaining the mentor's permission. According to the Commentary, others here means people who are on bad terms with the mentor.
o b. The pupil should obtain his mentor's permission before entering a village, going to a cemetery (to meditate, says, the Commentary), or leaving the district in which they live. The Commentary notes, though, that if the mentor refuses one's request the first time, one should ask up to two more times, presenting one's reasons as best one can.
If the mentor still refuses, the pupil should reflect on his situation. If staying with the mentor is not helping his education and meditation, and if the mentor seems to want him to stay simply to have someone to look after his (the mentor's) needs, the pupil is justified in leaving and taking dependence with a new mentor in his new residence.
5. Caring for the mentor when he falls ill, not leaving him until he either recovers or passes away (Mv.I.25).
According to the Commentary, a pupil is freed from these duties when he is ill.
Otherwise, he should observe all the above duties to his preceptor as long as he is in dependence on him. It adds that the duties in sections 1-3 are incumbent on the pupil even after he is released from dependence, as long as both he and the preceptor are alive and still ordained, although not every Community follows the Commentary on this point.
As for the duties to one's teacher, the Commentary lists four types of teachers: the going-forth teacher (the one who gives one the ten precepts during one's ordination ceremony); the acceptance teacher (the one who chants the motion and announcements during the ceremony); the Dhamma teacher (the one who teaches one the Pali language and Canon); and the dependence teacher (the one with
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whom one lives in dependence). With the dependence teacher and Dhamma teacher, one must observe all the above duties only as long as one is living in dependence on him. As for the other two, the Commentary adds that one should observe sections 1-3 as long as both parties are alive and still ordained — although, again, not all Communities follow the Commentary on this point.
The Commentary adds that if the mentor already has a pupil performing these duties for him, he may inform his remaining pupils that they need not take them on. This exempts them from having to observe them. If he neglects to do this, the pupil who is performing the duties may inform his fellows that he will take responsibility for looking after the mentor. This also exempts them. Otherwise, they incur a dukkaṭa for every duty they neglect to perform.
The mentor's duties to his pupil.
1. Furthering the pupil's education, teaching him the Dhamma and Vinaya through recitation, interrogation, exhortation, and instruction.
2. Providing requisites for the pupil. If the pupil lacks any of his basic requisites, and the mentor has any to spare, he should make up the lack.
3. Attending to the pupil's personal needs when he is ill, performing the services mentioned in section 1 under the pupil's duties to his mentor.
4. Assisting the pupil in any problems he may have with regard to the Dhamma and Vinaya, performing the services mentioned in section 2 under the pupil's duties to his mentor.
5. Teaching the pupil how to wash, make, and dye robes. If for some reason the pupil is unable to handle these skills, the mentor should try to find some way to get these tasks done.
6. Caring for the pupil when he falls ill, not leaving him until he either recovers or passes away (Mv.I.26).
According to the Commentary, the preceptor, going-forth teacher, and acceptance teacher must observe these duties toward the pupil as long as both parties are alive and still ordained. As for the Dhamma and dependence teachers, they must observe these duties only as long as the pupil is living with them.
Dismissal. If the pupil does not observe his duties to his mentor, the mentor is empowered to dismiss him. In fact, if the pupil deserves dismissal, the mentor incurs a dukkaṭa if for some reason he does not dismiss him, just as he would for dismissing a pupil who did not deserve it (Mv.I.27.5-8). The grounds for dismissal are any of the following five:
1. The pupil has no affection for his mentor — i.e., he shows him no kindness.
2. He has no faith in his mentor — i.e., he does not regard him as an example to follow.
3. He has no shame in front of his mentor — i.e., he openly disregards the training rules in his mentor's presence.
4. He has no respect for his mentor — i.e., he does not listen to what the mentor has to say and openly disobeys him.
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5. He is not developing under his mentor — the Commentary translates developing here as developing a sense of good will for his mentor, but it could also mean developing in his general education and practice of the Dhamma and Vinaya.
The Vinaya-mukha notes that the mentor should reflect on his own conduct before dismissing such a pupil. If he has done anything that would give the pupil valid reason for losing affection, etc., he should first correct his own conduct. Only after reflecting that there is no longer anything in his own conduct that would give the pupil valid reason to disregard him should he go ahead with the dismissal.
The Mahāvagga mentions each of the following statements as a valid means of dismissal: "I dismiss you." "Don't come back here." "Take away your robes and bowl." "Don't attend to me." It also states that if the mentor makes any of these meanings known by gesture — e.g., he evicts the pupil from his quarters and throws his robes and bowl out after him — that also counts as a valid means of dismissal (Mv.I.27.2). The Commentary to Mv.I.32 adds that any statement conveying the same basic meaning as those above would count as well.
Once a pupil has been dismissed, his duty is to apologize. If he doesn't, he incurs a dukkaṭa (Mv.I.27.3). Once the pupil has apologized, the mentor's duty is to forgive him (Mv.I.27.4). If, however, he sees that the pupil is still unconscientious, he should not take him back, for a mentor who takes on an unconscientious pupil incurs a dukkaṭa (Mv.I.72.1.). Thus the mentor may, if he sees fit, inflict a non-physical punishment on the pupil before taking him back on the original footing, to make sure that he has actually seen the error of his ways. An example of such punishment, mentioned in the Vinaya-mukha, is simply asking to wait to observe the pupil's behavior for a while to test whether his apology is sincere.
The Commentary to Mv.I.32 recommends that if the mentor refuses to forgive the pupil, the latter should try to get other bhikkhus in the monastery to intercede for him. If that doesn't work, he should go stay in another monastery and take dependence under a senior bhikkhu there who is on congenial terms with the mentor, in hopes that the mentor will take this as a sign of the pupil's good intentions and will eventually grant his forgiveness. If for some reason the pupil cannot stay at that other monastery, he may return to his original monastery and take dependence under another teacher.
Dependence lapses. Mv.I.36.1 says that if a pupil is staying in dependence with his preceptor, the dependence lapses in any of the following scenarios:
1. He leaves. According to the Commentary, this means that he moves from the monastery, and that dependence lapses regardless of whether he gives notice of his move. The Sub-commentary adds that "moving" here can mean even spending one night outside the monastery, and that dependence lapses regardless of whether he plans to return.
2. He disrobes.
3. He dies.
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4. He goes over to another side — according to the Commentary, this means that he joins another religion.
In all of the above cases, the commentaries interpret "he" as referring to the preceptor, although it would seem to refer to the pupil as well. This would fit with the passages from the Mahāvagga, to be mentioned below, that refer to a new bhikkhu on a journey as not being in dependence. In such cases, the new bhikkhu is most likely the one who has left the preceptor, and his leaving is what has caused the dependence to lapse.
5. He gives a command. This is the one alternative where "he" clearly refers only to the preceptor. The Commentary to Mv.I.34 interprets command here as dismissal, as discussed above, but also as including cases where the preceptor sees that the pupil qualifies to be released from dependence (see below) and tells him so.
In each of these cases, a pupil who is not yet released from dependence must find someone else to take dependence under on that very day, except in the following instances (taken from the Commentary):
— The preceptor leaves, saying that he will be away only for a day or two, and that
— The preceptor leaves, saying that he will be away only for a day or two, and that