Case analysis. Examples of best practices from the point of view of measures
taken to diversify the language teaching on offer
Because of the role of culture and the integrity of each educational system, examples of good practice may not be of general applicability or relevance: different contexts may demand different solutions for the same problem. Nevertheless, identifying examples of good practice does carry relevance for developing operational practices through a modified transferability. Most states confront similar problems because of the relatively rapid need to modify their educational systems and their language teaching and learning policies. Furthermore, broadly similar resolutions to these problems are likely to apply to similar educational systems. In exploring examples of ‘good practice’ we have chosen to focus attention on specific problems associated with extending language teaching and learning.
Legislation appears to be the simplest way of increasing the number and range of
languages taught in schools. In Estonia, the National Curriculum for Basic Schools and Gymnasia (2002) stipulates that all students have to study at least two foreign languages: FL A starting in primary school (in Year 3 at the latest), and FL B starting in lower- secondary school (in Year 6, at the age of 12, at the latest). Students can choose English, German, Russian or French as their two foreign languages. The proportion of primary schoolchildren learning more than one foreign language thus began increasing: 19% in 2002/2001, and 28% by 2004/2005. At lower and upper secondary levels, it increased from 72% and 74% respectively, in 1999/2000 to 87% and 86% in 2004/2005.
A second example is Greece, which in September 2005 lowered the age at which a foreign language (in this case, English) is compulsory in primary school, from grade 4 to grade 3, allowing the introduction (on an experimental basis) of a second foreign language (French or German) in the top two grades of primary education. In Spain the 2002 Quality in Education Act (LOCE) lowers to grade 1 the age when a foreign language must be offered, thereby allowing for the introduction of a second foreign language in the top two grades of primary education. Such developments make formal and in-service teacher training necessary. Note, however, that the focus is basically on two linguae francae, English and French.
It is futile to legislate unless all of the components and partnerships are in place to allow effective implementation of the legislation. A coherent organisational model for language teaching is required, incorporating all components of the educational system, a process that is akin to language planning (LP). Such a model should allow for flexibility and variation across the system and make operational solutions possible. That is, it should operate as a heuristic model. In developing such a model the principles associated with the relevant system have to be borne in mind, and those responsible for its development may need help to better understand specific issues and difficulties. We expect such models to increasingly be school-, parent- and community-based.
Some regional governments in Spain with two official languages have developed good examples of such an LP process. Thus Catalonia has a long standing tradition of immersion programmes in Catalan and a language-integrated curriculum for Catalan, Spanish and English or French, following the principle of mother tongue + two (or three) other languages. Some regional governments with one official language, such as Andalusia, have followed suit and developed language-integrated curricula for mother tongue + foreign language(s). This approach breaks away from the traditional separation between the teaching and learning of languages and seeks an integrated curriculum of all languages, both the mother tongue and foreign languages (a horizontal change) to be applied to all stages and types of education (a vertical change). They also strive to incorporate the most recent conceptions and objectives associated with learning in general and specifically, with language education. These initiatives espouse methodological innovation in the belief
that concepts and procedures of language learning can be transferred from one language to another, and that this transfer must be exploited educationally in an integrated curriculum, as has been the case in regions with two official languages. The methodology also places considerable emphasis on how language learning can promote reflexivity. This model may serve only as a heuristic device, but it is of value nonetheless.
Another way of formulating a language planning modelling process employs the Committee and consultancy process. This is the system used in the UK and the Dearing Report (2007) is a good example. Such a body develops recommendations which are presented to government who (may) mould them into a coherent policy. An understanding of what is possible within the system is implicit in the consultation process. The Dearing Report made several innovative suggestions including breaking up the primary school timetable to accommodate short periods of language learning, and teaching three languages simultaneously in areas such as business. In countries where English is not the state language this last suggestion could help counter the predominance of English. One limitation of the Dearing Report was that the consultation was not open, but designed to invite responses to a set of questions developed by the Committee, questions that were partly framed by the understanding of what is desirable and what is possible. Alternatively it is possible to devolve the modelling process to Universities, as has been the case in Slovakia where the University of Constantine is involved in Action Plan EK 2004/2006. It is worth distinguishing between the promotion of a policy of ‘mother tongue + two other languages’ and that of ‘mother tongue + two foreign languages’. The model adopted in the Val d’Aosta region of Italy brings together the regional language policy of promoting balanced bilingualism in Italian and French with Italy’s language policy, and EU and CoE recommendations. It covers the entire school population at all three levels of schooling. It designates tailor-made methods linked with the respective languages, and networks schools on both vertical and horizontal principles. This reconception of the classification should apply equally to autochthonous and other languages. This has several advantages: it ensures the learning of languages without labelling them hierarchically; it articulates regional and broader policies; and it addresses technical issues such as continuity of curricula and language across educational levels through the networking principle.
There is a contradiction between educational systems which make language learning mandatory and the goal of liberalising the system so that pupils can choose between the maximum number of options and thus develop the curriculum best suited to their perceived needs. We have already seen how liberalisation in the UK has led to quite unacceptable outcomes for language teaching and learning. To achieve the goal of increasing the number of pupils studying languages, some degree of compulsion seems essential.
An alternative involves focusing the learning of languages on learning institutions outside
of formal schooling. This occurs in Spain, where language diversification takes place
mainly through the network of over 200 extracurricular state-maintained language schools, or Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas (EOI). They offer the general public, including secondary school students, a variety of European and non-European languages: from the age of 14 pupils can learn a new foreign language, and from the age of 16 they can continue to learn a language started at school.
Most states find that when introducing language teaching at the primary level, few primary schoolteachers have the necessary language competence: this presents a particular problem. An interesting approach is found in Ireland, where for the Post-Primary Languages Initiative (2000), peripatetic Japanese teachers were employed, moving every day to different schools. Such systems have been common for some time, in other countries such as Wales, for minority language teaching. They have the advantage of being more cost-effective in terms of training needs. They can also be of particular value in rural areas with small schools.
This partly resembles the notion of networking a series of schools developed in Malta. Each network, or College, consists of two single-sex secondary schools and the local primary schools. Such networks can address other problems, especially how to ensure continuity of language curricula and language choice between primary and secondary education.
Another way of ensuring that primary schoolteachers have the requisite language competence is employed in Italy using ICT. The PICO project developed a process of in- service training that aims to strengthen oral communicative skills and methodological competences of teachers. Modules of up to 380 hours are supported by PuntoEdu, an on- line training platform that mixes on-line learning and on-site lessons and activities structured in virtual classrooms to help trainees communicate and interact between on- site meetings. The focus is on learning by doing and personalised learning programmes. It incorporates 16,000 teachers each year and has the goal of completing its task within three years. Though designed for improving competence in English, the system could be used for other foreign languages. The ILIAD83 project84, in the UK, used some of the principles guiding the PICO project. It included an interactive CD-ROM in five languages which contained various transcriptions and video clips. By now such developments can be extended considerably as the technological capacity has enlarged.
Within the broader context of teacher training, emphasis must clearly be placed on ensuring the supply of language graduates and teachers for an increasingly flexible educational system where varying number of teachers may be required for any particular language. Language might be linked to subject teaching (CLIL) as already happens in some countries. A useful outline of an in-service training course for such teaching, ROMEO85, derives from the bilingual JULIET Programme at the University of Jyvaskyla86.
The limited resources devoted to pan-European teacher mobility give particular room for concern (DROFOLTA) and most countries appear to rely on EC initiatives. Such initiatives are particularly appreciated by the teachers. Many examples of virtual mobility associated with the new media show what can be achieved with only a limited degree of geographical mobility. The PrimLangues87 project, designed specifically for primary school teachers, is a good example in France.
A relatively cost-effective solution to teacher mobility exploits cross-border resources. It dovetails with the recommendations of the Commission88. The CROMO89 project is an Italian, Slovene and Austrian cross-border project which aims to incorporate Friulian, German, Slovenian and Italian (all but the first have transfrontier minority communities). It fosters intercultural dialogue while also supplementing and implementing the ELP (European language portfolio) process in all cases. It develops a common tool as an ELP supplement so that pupils reflect upon their intercultural and interregional experiences while developing metacognitive language-learning strategies and competences. Such developments are ideally supported by teacher mobility and the twinning of schools.
In a different context the Netherlands government has developed a two-year course for
language assistants. Through this programme, set up by the European platform (the
Socrates National Agency) of the Ministry of Education and mentioned in the Action Plan Report, young graduates from France and Germany become assistants in secondary schools
83 “International Languages in-Service Training at a Distance” 84http://www.cilt.org.uk/iliad/
85 “Resourcing On-site Modules for Educational Orientations” 86http://www.lang.soton.ac.uk/ttfl/nationalreports/Finland.doc 87http://www.primlangues.education.fr
88 Policy recommendations (undated):
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/policy/recom_en.pdf
in the Netherlands while simultaneously attending a training course to become full-time teachers of French or German. Such developments can help overcome difficulties associated with the limited degree of language teacher mobility in Europe. Slovenia has a similar programme based on a bilateral programme of cooperation with Germany.
ICT is at the heart of many solutions. The new media offer a range of possible solutions to existing problems, and can also be designed for new approaches to learning. They improve possibilities for self-directed and freer forms of learning, they allow teachers and learners the opportunity to plan and organise courses together, they free learning from constraints associated with the orthodox classroom by reorganising the relationship between learning and both space and time, and they also lend themselves to new forms of interactions. Collaboration and partnerships are key to such developments. The web is particularly suited to language learning. It replaces the authority of the textbook, and allows a much broader use of resources. The need for changes within the teaching profession is clear: language teachers have to be more flexible and adopt the role of facilitators; they need to adopt new forms of teaching, to emphasise learning by doing and reflexive learning.
We encountered several examples of good practice that uses ICT but fewer which have been designed and constructed around the principles afforded by ICT. Evidently it is a technology whose exploitation is in its infancy.