C h ild r e n a s c r e a tiv e c u ltu r a l a g e n t s
O n se v e ra l o c c a s io n s I w a s a b le to lis te n to a n d s o m e tim e s re c o rd th e u n p r o m p te d a n d ‘n a tu r a lly o c c u rrin g ’ c o n v e r s a tio n s o f th e c h ild re n in w h ic h I p la y e d n o p a rt. M o st o ften th is w o u ld involve m y m a k in g h a s ty n o te s in m y n o te b o o k , a n a c tiv ity of ‘activ e lis te n in g ’ t h a t I m a d e a s o b v io u s a s p o ssib le so t h a t th e c h ild re n c o u ld k n o w t h a t I w a s d e ta ilin g w h a t th e y w ere sa y in g . W itn e s sin g th e c o n v e rs a tio n a l sty le o f a g ro u p of c h ild re n w a s, for m e, a n e d u c a tio n in itself. A c ritic is m levelled a t a g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n is t h a t th e c a te g o rie s a n d a p p r o a c h it d e p e n d s o n a re fu n d a m e n ta lly a d u lt- o r ie n ta te d , a d u ltis t (A lderson 1995) o r a d o c e n tric (F ra s e r e t a l 2 0 0 4 ), m e a n in g t h a t th e y fail to a c c o u n t for th e s u b tle y e t re a l d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n a d u lt a n d ch ild c u ltu r e s . F o r e x a m p le , b o th a d u lts a n d c h ild re n o rie n ta te th e ir c u ltu r e s in s p a tia l- te m p o r a l w ay s: a rra n g in g th e ir so c ial re la tio n s in te r m s of th e s p a c e s th e y o c c u p y , th e tim e s th e y a re c o m p elled to be p r e s e n t in s u c h s p a c e s , a n d th e a c tiv itie s u n d e r ta k e n th e re (w h e th e r th e y b e c o m p u ls o ry re q u ir e m e n ts of th e in s titu tio n , or th o s e c h o s e n a n d d riv e n b y th e a d u lts o r c h ild r e n ’s in te re s ts ). B u t a good e x a m p le o f h o w c h ild r e n ’s c u ltu r e s d o differ fro m th o s e of a d u lts is th e o rg a n is a tio n , in tr o d u c tio n a n d n e g o tia tio n of to p ic s w ith in c o n v e rs a tio n . T h is th e n , p ro v id es th e b a s is for th e follow ing d is c u s s io n .
N e g o t ia t i n g c o m p l e x i t y a n d p o w e r
T h e follow ing ( r a th e r d e n se ) p a s s a g e is ta k e n from m y field n o te s a t St. T ro u g h t o n ’s. I w a s s ittin g in th e a r t ro o m w ith a sm a ll g ro u p of c h ild re n , in c lu d in g S te v e n a n d V a n e s sa , a s th e y c o m p le te d a p ro je c t th e y h a d s t a r te d th e p re v io u s w eek. T h is t a s k involved m a k in g a n e a r to life-size p ic tu r e p o r tr a it of th e m s e lv e s o n a n u m b e r of A3 s h e e ts t h a t h a d b e e n c u t to v a rio u s s h a p e s a n d sizes. T h ey s k e tc h e d a n d c o lo u re d w ith a m ix tu re of p e n c ils a n d p a in ts . D u rin g th is le s s o n th e ir te a c h e r, M iss C ro ss , w a s in th e
m a in c la s s ro o m w ith th e r e s t of th e c la s s , w h o w ere m o stly c h ild re n fro m y e a r 5. As I s a t w ith th e g ro u p I m a d e n o te s follow ing th e ir c o n v e r s a tio n a s it d iverged a n d d ig re s s e d a c r o s s a w ide ra n g e o f to p ic s.
T h e c h ild r e n ta lk a b o u t: w h ic h te a m s th e y s u p p o r t (football), g irls a n d b o y s sp o rt, th e y sin g th e t u n e s from a d v e r ts (p a r tic u la r ly M cD o n ald ’s), d is c u s s th e s o u n d s n a m e s m a k e , m id d le n a m e s , b o y s a n d g irls tr y to b a rg a in w ith e a c h o th e r to fin d o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d in th e r e s e a r c h in te rv ie w s , g irls p ic k o n S te v en s a y in g h e is a fra id of e v e ry th in g , “I’m n o t a fra id of g irls” h e s a y s , th e y a rg u e a b o u t frie n d s , c la im s to m a n y a n d a c c u s a tio n s of n o n e , girls m a k e fu n o f b o y s w h o a re "close” frie n d s (a llu sio n s to h o m o s e x u a lity ), m o n e y for th e sc h o o l trip , w h o c a n h it g irls?, "y o u c a n ’t h its g irls co s t h a t ’d m a k e y o u a p o o fd er” s a y s S te v e n , g irls d is c u s s b e a c h w e a r, th e y c o rre c t e a c h o th e r o n g r a m m a r a n d p ro n u n c ia tio n , “a re y o u sm o k in g w h e n y o u ’re o ld e r? ” s a y s R y an , ta lk a b o u t sm o k in g , th e n a b o u t h a v in g d r e a m s , w h o w a n ts b o y s o r g irls a s c h ild re n ? , “If y o u w a n t a b o y a n d a girl b u t y o u o n ly w a n ts o n e kid, w h y d o n ’t y o u j u s t h a v e a gay b a b y bo y o r like a to m b o y ” a s k s V a n e s s a , ta lk a b o u t s k in c o lo u r, e th n ic ity a n d c h o c o la te , a s k m e w h a t I’m w ritin g a n d w h o will see it, d is c u s s d o g s, c a t s a n d o th e r p e ts .
S h o r t in te r r u p ti o n fro m M iss C ro ss, a s s h e m a k e s s u r e th e c h ild r e n a re g e ttin g o n w ith th e ir w ork.
B a k e rs , f r e s h b r e a d a n d m u ffin s, N in te n d o G am e B oys, p e r s o n a l CD p la y e rs , lo ts of “y e a h w ell I’ve g o t...” a n d o th e r k in d s o f b ra g g in g , ta lk a b o u t a c c e n ts a n d voices, m y “p o s h ” voice is h ig h lig h te d , w e e k e n d p lay , te e n a g e p re g n a n c y a n d p e rio d s (early o c c u rre n c e s ), w h o ’s “a t r is k ” in th e c la s s (of b e c o m in g p r e g n a n t) , c o n jo in e d tw in s, g irls te a s e b o y s sa y in g th e y ’re “s k in n y ”, e th n ic ity a n d b a c k g ro u n d (esp ecially m ix e d -e th n ic ity ), ta lk a b o u t w h a t a “stiffy” (erect p en is) is, se x v id eo s, “d o in g it”, e a tin g glue, so lv e n t a d d ic tio n a n d p o iso n in g , T h e R in g (a h o r r o r film, r a te d 18), Big B ro th e r (telev isio n sh o w ), b a d b e h a v io u r a n d c la s s ro o m s a n c tio n s , im a g e s o f G o d a n d J e s u s s e e n in a ‘M agic E y e ’ p ic tu re , m a r r ia g e s b e tw e e n p a r e n t s a n d s te p p a r e n ts , r u n n in g aw ay fro m h o m e , b o d y p ie rc in g a t 13, n o se p ie rc in g a t h o m e , girls a s m o d e ls in th e f u tu r e , f u tu r e c a re e rs , w h a t d id I w a n t to be w h e n I w a s 11?, sa fe ty of a ir trav el, g r a n d p a r e n ts . F ield n o te s , S t. T ro u g h to n ’s
C learly , th e r e is a g r e a t d e a l going o n h e re . T h e m ic ro c o s m of th is c o n v e rs a tio n , w h ic h s p a n n e d n o m o re t h a n 3 5 m in u te s , c o n ta in s all th e m a jo r th e m e s o f th is th e s is : g e n d e r, se x u a lity , frie n d s h ip , p o p u la r c u ltu r e , a n d so c ia l c la ss ; a s w ell a s o th e r s , s u c h a s e th n ic ity , th e b o d y a n d d is /a b ility , fam ily, relig io n , r e s e a r c h e r p o s itio n in g , a n d e c o n o m ic m a rk e ts . By p u llin g to g e th e r th e f ra g m e n ts a n d f lu c tu a tio n s of th is e x te n d e d p e rio d of ta lk , th e c o m p lex a n d h e te r o g e n e o u s n a tu r e of th e c h ild r e n ’s r e la tio n s h ip c u ltu r e c a n b e g la n c e d . T h e c h ild re n ta lk e d over, a t o d d s, a n d a g a in s t e a c h o th e r; a n d th e c o n v e rs a tio n h in g e d o n d is a g r e e m e n ts , d ig r e s s io n s , m o c k e ry a n d d e fe n ce . It h ig h lig h ts th e r ic h n e s s o f th e ir c u lt u r e a n d th e w ay it is s h a p e d by p o w er re la tio n s , a s th e y la u g h , d isc ip lin e a n d a rg u e a b o u t v a rio u s c o n te s te d s u b je c t p o s itio n s , a n d ta n g le over fo rm s of c u ltu r a l c a p ita l.
T h is e x tr a c t h ig h lig h ts th e lim its of a r e s e a r c h te x t - c h ild r e n ’s c u ltu r e s c a n n o t b e r e p r e s e n te d in th e ir e n tir e ty o r co m p lex ity , r a t h e r th e m e s c a n b e s e le c te d a n d s u p p o r te d b y e x tr a c ts t h a t a re g la n c e s a t th e d e n s ity o f th e ir re la tio n s h ip s a n d e c o n o m ie s of v a lu e . As In g lis (2005) p o in ts o u t, “‘e v e r y d a y e v e n ts ' c a n n o t be
c o m p re h e n s iv e ly c a p tu r e d a n d s e t d o w n on p a p e r; b u t w h a t w e ca n d o is g e t s i d e w a y s g lim p s e s o f th e m , p a rtia l a n d lim ited p e r s p e c tiv e s o f th e ir o vera ll c o m p lex ity a n d a b u n d a n c e ” (e m p h a sis
a d d ed ). T h is v e ry i m p o r ta n t a r g u m e n t is c e n tr a l to m y a p p ro a c h , a n d in C h a p te r 4 I d is c u s s th e a n a ly tic a l w ay s t h a t c u ltu r e s c a n b e ta lk e d a b o u t a n d c e r ta in se le c te d th r e a d s follow ed th r o u g h th e d e n s e w eav e o f e v e ry d a y life.
It is a ls o in te r e s tin g to s p e c u la te w h a t k in d s of effects th e a ctiv ity of c re a tin g la rg e s e lf -p o r tr a its h a d o n th e e b b a n d flow o f th e c o n v e rs a tio n . C e rta in ly it s e e m s r e a s o n a b le to s u g g e s t t h a t th e
m a n y re fe re n c e s to b o d ie s m a d e th r o u g h o u t th e c o n v e rs a tio n m ay be d u e to th e a ctiv ity fo c u s e d o n self-im ag e a n d r e p r e s e n ta tio n . T h e m a te r ia l a r te f a c ts o f th e a ctiv ity - th e p e n c ils , p a p e r, etc. - a re p a r t of a so c ia l-te c h n o lo g ic a l a s s e m b la g e t h a t fo rm ed th e p a r tic u la r ty p e of c h ild h o o d p r e s e n t in th e a r t ro o m (P ro u t 2 0 05). T h e im p o r ta n c e of s u c h a rte f a c ts , c o n te x ts a n d in te r su b je c tiv ity a re d is c u s s e d fully in th e l a tte r p a r t of C h a p te r 4. G e n d e r e d /s e x u a l c u lt u r e s L ooking a g a in a t th e e x tr a c t in th e p re v io u s se c tio n , it b e c o m e s c le a r t h a t g e n d e re d s e x u a lity is a c o n s ta n tly r e c u r r in g th e m e in th e c h ild r e n ’s ta lk . T h is is a th r e a d , o r p e rs p e c tiv e , w h ic h I h av e c h o s e n to follow t h r o u g h o u t th is th e s is . As s u c h , it r e p r e s e n ts th e p r e d o m in a n t w a y s t h a t I h a v e c h o s e n to g lim p se a c r o s s th e c o m p lex ity of th e c h ild r e n ’s c u ltu r e s . T ak e, for e x am p le , th is s h o r te r s a m p le fro m th e a b o v e e x tra c t:
...te e n a g e p r e g n a n c y a n d p e rio d s (early o c c u rre n c e s ), w h o ’s " a t r is k ” in th e c la s s (of b eco m in g p re g n a n t), c o n jo in ed tw in s, g irls te a s e b o y s sa y in g th e y ’re “s k in n y ”, e th n ic ity a n d b a c k g r o u n d (esp e c ia lly m ix e d -e th n ic ity ), ta lk a b o u t w h a t a “stiffy” (e re c t p e n is) is, se x videos, “d o in g it”...
Field n o te s , St. T ro u g h t o n ’s
H ere, th e p r e d o m in a n c e of g e n d e re d se x u a lity is c le a r. C o n c e rn s a b o u t p r e g n a n c y b le n d w ith fa s c in a tio n s w ith ‘a b n o r m a l’ b o d ies, a s g irls ’ m a t u r in g c o rp o re a lity is fram e d in te r m s o f risk ; th e n b o y s a re d is c ip lin e d w ith re fe re n c e to im a g e s o f h e g e m o n ic m a s c u lin e p h y s iq u e s , th e ir id e n titie s p o sitio n e d in re la tio n to s e x u a l d riv e s, fo c u s e d o n th e u r g e s of th e ir g e n ita ls , a n d th e a c t of h e te r o - p e n e tr a tio n .
T h e s e n a r r a tiv e s o f g e n d e re d s e x u a lity a lso fold o u t in to e th n ic ity a n d ag e, illu s tr a tin g th e c o m p lex ity a n d r ic h n e s s of th e c h ild r e n ’s
e v ery d ay ta lk . P rim a ry h e re is a c o n c e rn w ith th e bo d y . In d e e d , it is v ita l to re c o g n ise th e e m b o d ie d e x p e rie n c e s o f th e c h ild re n a n d th e w a y s th e y u n d e r s to o d th e m . T he m a te ria lity of c h ild h o o d is n o t o n ly im p o r ta n t a s a p h y sio lo g ic al re a lity t h a t is in te r p r e te d th r o u g h d o m in a n t (ad u lt) c u ltu r e ; it is a ls o in te r p r e te d th r o u g h c h ild r e n ’s s u b - c u l tu r a l fra m e w o rk s of u n d e r s ta n d in g , m a k in g it a k ey a s p e c t of th e ir s u b je c tiv itie s . In th e s e e x a m p le s, a n d a t o th e r tim e s, th e c h ild r e n w e re n e g o tia tin g , p o licin g , re -c o n s tr u c tin g , c h a lle n g in g a n d h y b rid iz in g th e so c ially c o n s tr u c te d r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f p u b e r ty w ith in th e ir ow n c o n tin g e n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a re d is c u s s e d in C h a p te r 9, w h e re I lo o k a t t h e ir e d u c a tio n a l a n d c u ltu r a l tr a n s itio n s .
A w o r k in g t h e o r y o f p o w e r a n d a g e n c y
H av in g m a d e th e s t a te m e n t above t h a t c h ild re n a re c u ltu r a l a g e n ts a n d p ro v id in g so m e d is c u s s io n s u r r o u n d in g th is , I feel it is im p o r ta n t to c le a rly s ta te h o w I a m c o n c e p tu a lis in g c u ltu r a l ag en cy . T h e p ro b le m of a g e n c y is, of c o u rs e , c e n tr a l to d e b a te s in so c ial th e o ry (see, fo r e x a m p le , A rc h e r 2 0 0 0 ; G id d e n s 1979). It is a ls o a n i m p o r ta n t a n d c o m p le x p o litical c o n c e rn for a c a d e m ic fe m in ism (see C legg 2 0 0 6 ). T h e s e d e b a te s a re stro n g ly c o n te s te d a n d d e n s e , so r a t h e r t h a n a tte m p t a n y ill-in fo rm e d c lo s u re o n th e o n -g o in g d is c u s s io n s , I w a n t to briefly e x p la in th e w o rk in g p h ilo s o p h ic a l m o d e l t h a t in fo rm s m y o n to lo g y of ag en cy . In C h a p te r 2 I s a id t h a t I w a s lo o k in g to develop a c o n c e p t of ‘c o m p lex d e te r m in is m ’ (E ag leto n 1997). U n d e r th is r u b ric , I a m try in g to w o rk w ith a s e n s e of th e co m p lex a n d m u ltip le so c ial a n d c u ltu r a l c o n s tr u c tio n of su b je c tiv ity ; a n d it is th is c o m p lex ity t h a t p ro v id e s th e b a s is fo r a g en c y , a s th e re a re m a n y p o in ts for r e s is ta n c e a n d c re a tio n . P eople a re n o t ‘c u ltu r a l d u p e s ,’ a c tin g u n th in k in g ly in th e face o f o v e rw h elm in g d o m in a n c e (Inglis 2005). People c a n re c o g n ise , r e s is t, re fle c t o n , a n d n e g o tia te th e fo rces t h a t s h a p e th e ir lives, a lth o u g h th e e x te n t of th e ir re c o g n itio n a n d
th e s h a p e of th e ir r e - a c tio n s will b e d e te rm in e d to a g r e a t e x te n t b y th e w ay th e ir s u b je c tiv ity is c o n s titu te d b y a p a r tic u la r h a b itu s (A dam s 2 0 0 6 ; B o u rd ie u 1 977; M cN ay 1999; S k e g g s 2 0 0 4 - th is p o in t is d is c u s s e d in C h a p te r 8).
S im ilarly , in e x p a n d in g th e F o u c a u d ia n p o s itio n in h e r e a rlie r w o rk , B u tle r (1 9 9 7 :1 5 ) a r g u e s t h a t “a g en c y e x c e e d s th e p o w e r by w h ic h it is e n a b le d .” So s u b je c ts a re s o m e th in g m o re t h a n j u s t p o s itio n s in d is c o u r s e s , b u t a re still s u b s ta n t ia t e d b y th e m . D is c u s s in g a s im ila r id e a in te r m s of la n g u a g e , B a k h tin s ta te s t h a t, A n u t te r a n c e is n e v e r j u s t a reflectio n o r a n e x p re s s io n of s o m e th in g a lr e a d y e x is tin g a n d o u ts id e it t h a t is given a n d fin al. It a lw a y s c r e a te s so m e th in g t h a t n e v e r e x is te d before, s o m e th in g a b s o lu te ly n e w a n d u n r e p e a ta b le , a n d , m o reo v er, it a lw a y s h a s so m e re la tio n to v a lu e (the tr u e , th e good, th e b e a u tif u l, a n d so fo rth ). B u t so m e th in g c re a te d is a lw ay s c re a te d o u t o f s o m e th in g given (lan g u a g e, a n o b se rv e d p h e n o m e n o n of re a lity , a n e x p e rie n c e d feeling, th e s p e a k in g s u b je c t h im s e lf, s o m e th in g finalized in h is w o rld view, a n d so fo rth ). W h a t is given is co m p letely tr a n s fo r m e d in w h a t is c re a te d .
B a k h tin 1 9 8 6 :2 9 5
A lth o u g h B a k h tin is p ro b a b ly o v e rs ta tin g th e c a s e , I a m d ra w n to th is n o tio n o f c re a tio n . It e c h o e s B u tle r ’s (1993) id e a t h a t r e s is ta n c e to th e d o m in a n t h e te ro s e x u a l o rd e r is p o ssib le , b u t a n y r e s is ta n c e m u s t b e b u ilt o n s o u rc e s t h a t p re -e x is t th e a c t, a n d t h a t a re c o n s e q u e n tly , ‘im p u r e .’ B u t th e re is a p rio ritis in g of c o n te x t h e re , w h ic h a llo w s u s to see b o th th e d o m in a n c e of th e c u ltu r e th e s u b je c t is b o r n in to a n d also (a d m itte d ly , p e r h a p s ro m a n tic a lly ) th e a g e n c y o f th e ‘sp e a k in g s u b je c t’ a s b e in g a c h ie v e d th r o u g h th e r e - a r tic u la tio n of lin g u istic m a te r ia l w ith in a sh iftin g tim e /s p a c e c o n tin u u m . In s u m , th e te r m s in w h ic h I c o n s id e r a g e n c y a re a s follows: p e o p le a re s itu a te d in h isto ry ,
c u ltu r e , a n d w ith in th e ir o w n n e tw o rk o f so c ia l r e la tio n s h ip s a n d v a lu e s (th e ir h a b itu s ) . T h ey ta k e b io g ra p h ic a l p a th w a y s th r o u g h th e life c o u rs e t h a t a re s h a p e d b y p ow er, so c ia l s tr u c tu r e , a n d tr a d itio n ; b u t th e d e c is io n s a b o u t w h ic h w ay to t u r n a re alw ay s th e ir ow n. T h e re fo re , w h ile I c a n n o t p ro v id e a n s w e r s to th e p ro b le m of a g e n c y , I c a n h o p e fu lly p a rtic ip a te in a n e n g a g in g r e fra m in g of its q u e s tio n s .
C o n c lu s io n T h is c h a p te r in tr o d u c e d th e id e a of th e o r y /m e th o d , lo o k ed a t th e five r o m a n c e s o f t h is th e s is , a n d d is c u s s e d th e o r ie s o f c h ild h o o d a n d r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n . R o m an ce w a s d iv id ed in to th e c a te g o rie s o f p la y g r o u n d ro m a n c e , p o p u la r ro m a n c e , s u b je c ts of ro m a n c e , so c io lo g ical r o m a n c e a n d w r ite r ’s ro m a n c e , a n d I e x p lo re d th e v a r io u s c o n n e c tio n s b e tw ee n th e s e a n d in d ic a te d h o w th e y h a v e b e e n u s e d to g u id e th e a n a ly s is of th e d a ta a n d s t r u c tu r e o f th e th e s is . I th e n d is c u s s e d h o w c o n te m p o ra ry th e o rie s o f c h ild h o o d a ffe cte d a p p ro a c h e s to r e s e a r c h w ith c h ild re n a n d e x a m in e d w h a t th is m e a n s in te r m s of th e r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n a d u l t r e s e a r c h e r s a n d c h ild p a rtic ip a n ts , a n d how , in t h is c o n te x t, c h ild r e n ’s c u ltu r e s a n d a g e n c y m ig h t be c o n s id e re d . In th e n e x t c h a p te r I b u ild o n th e s e id e a s by e x p la in in g in d e ta il e a c h o f th e m e th o d s for g a th e rin g d a ta u s e d d u r in g th e field w o rk , a n d b y o u tlin in g m y m e th o d s for d a ta a n a ly s is .