Research data analysis 3
Stage 2 Case studies analysis 3.6
Robson notes that a case study in itself does not call for a particular approach (Robson, 2002). Therefore, following the above mentioned strategy of analysis, the next sections describe and justify the use of analysis methods in this stage. One of the tools that has been used throughout the case study analysis has been NVivo software. NVivo was considered at this stage of analysis as it was seen as an
effective organisational and storage system (Robson, 2002). However, other features, including its coding and retrieving capabilities were found useful throughout the analysis process (ibid.).
Interviews with head teachers 3.6.1.1
Audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews with five head teachers were imported one by one into the NVivo software (see Figure 3-2). The analysis process began with the first imported interview in order to avoid accumulation of data (Robson, 2002). The audio recording was transcribed and initial ideas about the data were recorded as memos (Goulding, 2002).
Figure 3-2: Transcribed Interviews in NVivo
Line-by-line analysis was performed to start searching for possible phrases, concepts, and meanings. The process was repeated with all five interviews, which led to the development of around 200 open codes. Axial coding was also
performed iteratively, which allowed for higher level abstraction (Goulding, 2002). This led to 11 core categories identified. At the end of coding interviews, axial/open codes were collected and each code was analysed for meaning and given
SchoolAim_MakingImmediateSchoolSust Aim is to look at the school, internally, to see how it can become more sustainable SchoolAim_TacklingSDIssuestoMakeDifference Aim is to work on projects and issues that
make difference and are also beyond curriculum
Approach to ESD From axial coding: the purposeful, goal oriented activities that agents perform in response to the phenomenon and intervening conditions
Name Description
Approach_CreatingGoals A strategic way for school to create change, the more extreme goal the more radical is the behavior change
Approach_CreatingSuccession Appointing individuals that share the values of the school
Approach_EmbeddingIdeas An apporach that makes an idea an integral part of the school
Approach_ExtendingCurrentPractice Ability to think outside the box and be proactive, shifting perspective on what school normally does or what is considered the norm
Figure 3-3: Collection of Axial/Open Codes With Description
This process allowed for noting patterns, themes and trends across all five cases. It also developed a preliminary structure which was used to display the initial data and to guide future research.
It was important to draw a conclusion, not only across, but also within each case. To do so, a preliminary interim summary (Robson, 2002) for each head teacher was developed. For this, queries were run to retrieve data by individual interviewer whilst keeping the coded structure. To guide the analysis, Code Manager (Goulding, 2002) was used to note the frequency of quotations per code (see Figure 3-4). Information was then compared and contrasted within each code to develop the analysis for each interviewer. Analysed text was grouped with relevant sections under a common theme. Each large theme was rewritten as a question and set the
structure for the display. To see an example of a section of the interim summary for individual head teachers see APPENDIX G.
Figure 3-4: Code Manager Displaying Query Run For One Interviewer Per One Code
Questionnaires 3.6.1.2
Data from online and postal questionnaires was re-entered into a separate
document and brought into NVivo for further analysis (see Figure 3-5). One of the aims of the analysis was to find support for existing categories developed through initial interviews and to further expand on them.
Figure 3-5: Further Developing Categories Through Questionnaire Analysis
This allowed the researcher to compare and weight the evidence between staff responses and the head teachers who were the first informants in the research. The process of analysis was, as with the interviews, based on open and axial coding of the information. Memos were developed to note themes and patterns both across the schools as well as within the schools (see Figure 3-6).
Figure 3-6: Memos
Once the coding was finished, to further build understanding of individual cases and to make sense of the data, the researcher used the same technique as with
interviews and developed interim summaries for each questionnaire. To do so, queries were run in NVivo that explored each category against questionnaire
responses. Text was grouped and presented as answers to the larger questions. This process was repeated five times for each individual questionnaire. An example of an interim summary section for an individual questionnaire may be found in APPENDIX H.
Follow up interviews and unobtrusive measures 3.6.1.3
Follow-up interviews with two staff members from two case studies were analysed using similar techniques used for head teacher interviews. Analysis was undertaken simultaneously as the analysis of staff questionnaires and partly informed above mentioned interim summary.
The aim of the analysis of the documents collected for each case was to support and augment evidence from other sources (Yin, 2003). Here, the focus was on organisational level rather than individual level. The documents were collected for each school, read through, annotated and memoed. In particular, memos focused on organisational categories, patterns and themes developed throughout the research. At this stage documents were not brought into NVivo, instead memos were written in .pdf documents in Adobe Professional software.
Analysis of both follow-up interviews and additional documents was widely used for the purposes of triangulation and development of ‘within-case analysis’.
Within-case analysis 3.6.1.4
‘Within-case analysis’ in this research is developed to draw conclusions about the phenomenon of ESD in a bounded context of a school (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The aim of analysis is to explain what is happening in the case. To do so, evidence from all sources has been converged for individual cases and transformed into a formalised descriptive set of variables that has been written into within-case analysis narratives (see APPENDIX I). Several methods were used to achieve the process of convergence and transformation.
The tool that was used most throughout this stage was conceptually clustered matrices (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Concepts and themes derived empirically from the previous analysis of the data (interviews, questionnaires and documents) and from the literature (need to explore organisational and individual
values/approaches to ESD) were used to develop these matrices. For example, Table 3-9 shows a matrix developed to explore definitions of sustainable
development and education for sustainable development within the school as an organisation as well as within individuals. This display of information allowed for comparative analysis between several variables (organisational vs individual definitions, sustainable development vs ESD definitions).
Table 3-9: Conceptually Clustered Matrix Sustainable Development/ESD Definition Case 4
Organisation Individuals Some agreement No agreement Sustainable development definition
Concern for the environment issues of global warming, natural resources, sustainable material,
etc.
Concern for the environment issues of global warming, natural resources, sustainable material, etc.
X
Minimising impact through change in
Minimising impact through change in behaviour
Utilise natural resources x ESD definition (hypothetical) ESD is a way to create impact on the children.
ESD is a way to create impact on the children.
X
Teach sustainability to children.
x
Change children's behaviour x Model sustainable
lifestyle in the school.
Model sustainable lifestyle in the school.
x
Another example of a conceptual matrix that was based on a particular variable, i.e. Projects. A matrix was developed to show a series of projects that a school was engaged in against properties of the projects that emerged from the analysis of data.
Table 3-10: Conceptually Clustered Matrix by Projects
Project Name
Endangered Species Community and Renewable Energy Project
Wind Turbine Project Description Aim: To create
awareness in all children on
endangered species
Aim: Students’ discovery about local environment, energy use in local community and learning about renewable energy
Aim: To investigate the school itself and its own environment with regards to energy Partner (s) Local Zoo/Endangered
Species Program
Rural Partnership (LRP); Parish Council, Local community
Business
Issue (s) Endangered species Community, environment, energy use
Energy use, school grounds
Embedded Embedded into the curriculum
Embedded into the curriculum Embedded into the curriculum
Participant s
All pupils participate at least once
Leader/Su- pporter
Staff LRP and council were idea source, financial expert, and resource (kits) support. Parents and local
community - provided information about their energy use and daily practices; Teachers
Business
Time Ongoing One-off One-off
Implica- tions
The Zoo provides an ongoing support for the school and a source of ideas to be embedded into the curriculum.
Wider community implications where changes proposed by the students to increase well-being of local environment were shared and taken on board by the council. Project supported the learning process for all, promoting the issues, and keeping the profile of energy use in local community high. It also strengthened relations with the council by providing council with opportunity for securing more funding for such projects.
‘Prototype projects’ nevertheless have value as they allow schools to investigate their school, gain knowledge on subject, and to cross out impractical solutions.
Another approach to analysis was based as a result of additional document sources that were collected for each case. Data sources collected were twofold: produced and internal to the school itself, and produced by an external stakeholder such as Ofsted. The former evidence allowed the researcher to analyse for internal
consistency of the evidence. The latter information was used to analyse perception of the school by others, which may be seen as rival evidence, to compare and to look for consistency or disagreements between the two.
Counting was used as one of the tactics that helped to see which themes/concepts were widely relevant to the case and which had more focused/specific application. This led to further comparative analysis within each case.
The report for each case was written up and illustrated, and presents the
throughout the research.
Within-case analysis sections were developed as a means to develop a rich understanding of ESD and as part of an ongoing sense-making process. However, each report is a long document and due to the limitation of thesis space is only presented in the Appendices rather than in the main body of text. For an example of a within case report please see Appendix I.
Cross-case analysis 3.6.1.5
One of the aims of cross-case analysis is to increase generalisability of the research (Miles and Huberman, 1994). This relates to research Objective 2, to develop an understanding of ESD as change at an organisational level across schools rather than within one single case. In the process of cross-case analysis, a richer
understanding and explanation of conditions under which identified phenomenon happens is sought. This research focuses on a case-oriented rather than a variable- oriented (ibid.) approach to cross-case analysis. In particular, each case has been understood holistically, before cases were compared to each other. In this process, an analytical approach of synthesising interpretation across cases was used, developing a general interpretation that is grounded in the findings of individual case studies (Miles and Huberman, 1994). In order to develop quality cross-case analysis, a tactic of looking for alternative evidence (Robson, 2002) has been used. In particular, sampling of cases for this research was based on their involvement with ESD, with few cases expressing limited involvement with ESD and one case expressing their interest but not involvement with the phenomenon.
To accomplish cross-case analysis several relevant methods were used. One of the methods used widely in this stage has been stacking comparable cases. The comparisons were guided by the common themes and concepts that were derived from the within case analysis. Partial displays were developed where a concept or several concepts are displayed for all cases. Table 3-11 shows an example of a matrix displaying Motivation for all 5 Cases.
A variation on the stacking comparable cases approach was used with projects matrices developed for each case. Due to the size of each matrix (see APPNEDIX N), matrices were printed out and physically stacked and compared/contrasted to further explore ESD at organisational level for the Project category and sub- categories.
Table 3-11 Analysis of Sustainable Development Definition Across All Cases
Sustainable Development definition
Case1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
Organisati on and individual There is relationship between human and nature; now and future. There is relationship between now and future. Opposite of unsustainable Concern for the environment issues of global warming, natural resources, sustainable material, etc. Difficult to define as very complex. Moving away from current patterns of behaviour in economy, society, environment. Moving away from current patterns of unsustainable behaviour in environment: use of natural resources, global energy, creation of carbon footprint. Moving away from current patterns of behaviour in economy, society, environment. Minimising impact through change in behaviour individual and organisational . Current lifestyle has a negative impact on depletion of resources. Need to establish relationship where man Need to establish relationship of care between Concern for environment, natural resources,
Agreement x X x X
Some Agreement
x
Conceptual clustering was also used to synthesise a more general understanding of the concepts that occur across all schools but are not case specific. Table 3-12 shows a matrix with several concepts that was used to develop understanding of where activities happen and what are their potential scope of impact.
Table 3-12: Activity, Student Activation and Impact Matrix
DETERMINE PURPOSE MEANS OF ACTIVATION IMPACT
Development of the whole child All of the below Increased interest and satisfaction in learning To gain understanding of
Sustainable Development issues and concepts.
Issue (broad or narrow) where in the school (one subject/cross curricular).
Awareness of the issue
Complex issue/concepts (broad), relate to local context, students experience.
Awareness of the issue
Develop capacity to address issues/values/concepts through behaviours, practices and skills.
Individual, small behaviours (gardening, looking after the animals) through school projects, participating in operations.
Gaining skills/ gain benefit from the process (well- being)/experience value of care
Participation in a school development (individual). Group behaviour/ school
projects/operations (ex. investigate school behaviour/solution). Empowering students to be eco-warriors/citizens, Participation in a school development (social), critical thinking. Encourage students’ voice Scope (school-wide decision
making to narrow decision) classroom/student clubs/other projects.
Empower students. Encourage relationship between students and the school.
Once data has been reduced to a manageable degree, a variation of a matrix display known as meta-matrix or a ‘monster-dog’ (Miles and Huberman, 1994) was used to
display as much information across all cases as possible, to start noting overall approaches/patterns/general concepts across cases (APPENDIX J).
Although the data was iteratively reduced, displayed, and summarised through various methods, it was found that for the case-cross comparisons, sheer volume of textual information was still difficult to engage with. As a result, the researcher sought to develop graphical representations (see Figure 3-7), based on the idea of networks, where a network is a collection of nodes/points connected by lines (ibid.). Some graphical representations included graphs and text, whilst others focused only on the visual representation. These networks were created for a concept across all cases, and then stacked to develop cross-case analysis.
Figure 3-7: Example of a Network for Cross-Case Comparison, Showing ESD Information Sources
The analytical text synthesised from above mentioned methods has been written up and is presented in a cross-case analysis in Chapters 4 and 5. The text is displayed by major themes that have been iteratively developed from the start of the analytical process.
Stage 3 – Model development